Urochloa reptans (sprawling signalgrass)

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Urochloa reptans (L.) Stapf

Preferred Common Name

sprawling signalgrass

Other Scientific Names

Brachiaria balansae Henrard
Brachiaria prostrata (Lam.) Griseb.
Brachiaria reptans (L.) C.A.Gardner & C.E.Hubb.
Digitaria umbrosa (Retz.) Pers.
Echinochloa reptans (L.) Roberty
Echinochloa subcordata Roem. & Schult.
Panicum aurelianum Hale ex Alph.Wood
Panicum barbipedum Hayata
Panicum brachythyrsum Peter
Panicum caespitosum Sw.
Panicum calaccanzense Steud.
Panicum extensum Desv.
Panicum grossarium L.
Panicum insularum Steud.
Panicum luxurians Willd. ex Nees
Panicum nilagiricum Steud.
Panicum parvum Buse
Panicum prostratum Lam.
Panicum reptans L.
Panicum subcordatum (Roem. & Schult.) Roth
Panicum taitense Steud
Panicum umbrosum Retz.
Setaria subcordata (Roem. & Schult.) Kunth
Setaria umbrosa (Retz.) P.Beauv.

International Common Names

English: creeping-panic grass; running grass; sprawling panicum
Spanish: alpiste de la tierra; cohitrillo; zacate cuero de conejo
French: chiendent blanc
Chinese: wei fu cao
Portuguese: capim-rasteiro

Local Common Names

Egypt: nissiela
India: mamakihoho; para grass
Puerto Rico: yerbita de pichones

EPPO code

PANRP (Panicum reptans)

Summary of Invasiveness

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Urochloa reptans is an annual grass regarded as native to Asia, the Arabian Peninsula, Australia and the Pacific region, although its status is ambiguous in many countries. The species grows forming clumps of slender, creeping culms up to 50 cm tall that are capable of displacing other plants and grasses. It is considered an important weed in agricultural lands and pastures, but it can also invade disturbed sites, degraded forests, coastal areas, river and creek beds, and riparian forests. Currently, it is listed as invasive in Costa Rica, Puerto Rico, the United States Virgin Islands and some islands in Oceania, where it has been reported invading relatively undisturbed forests.

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Spermatophyta
Subphylum: Angiospermae
Class: Monocotyledonae
Order: Cyperales
Family: Poaceae
Genus: Urochloa
Species: Urochloa reptans

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

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Poaceae is one of the largest families of Angiosperms and includes about 707 genera and 11,337 species widely distributed in all regions of the world. The genus Urochloa is classified within the tribe Paniceae, subtribe Melinidinae, in the subfamily Panicoideae, and comprises about 110-135 species distributed in tropical and subtropical regions of the world (Salariato et al., 2010; Stevens, 2017). About 20% of the species are native to America, 11% from Oceania and the rest are widely distributed in Africa and Asia. Urochloa shares several morphological, anatomical and physiological characters with the genus Brachiaria and, as a consequence, the delimitation of these two genera has always been complicated. Phylogenetic studies of Urochloa have also been unsuccessful in delimiting this genus and its phylogenetic relationships with other genera (Simon and Jacobs, 2003; Torres González and Morton, 2005; Salariato et al., 2009; 2010). Consequently, the circumscription of Brachiaria and Urochloa will remain uncertain until broader studies are carried out. Should the two be regarded as the same, Urochloa has nomenclatural priority.

Description

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Annual grass. Culms slender, creeping, rooting at lower nodes, ascending to 10-50 cm tall. Leaf sheaths glabrous, one margin densely ciliate; leaf blades lanceolate, 2-6 × 0.3-1.2 cm, glabrous or loosely hispidulous, base subcordate, margins scabrous, pectinate-ciliate at base; ligule c. 1 mm, ciliate. Inflorescence pyramidal, axis 1-8 cm; racemes 3-6(-12), 0.5-4 cm, spreading; rachis triquetrous, scabrous; spikelets paired, crowded, pedicels setose. Spikelets ovate or ovate-elliptic, 2-2.5 mm, usually glabrous, acute; lower glume cufflike, 1/8-1/4 spikelet length, thinly membranous, veinless or obscurely 3-veined, truncate or rounded; upper glume (5-)7-9-veined; lower lemma 5-veined, palea well developed; upper lemma broadly elliptic, 1.8-2 mm, finely rugose, apiculate (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2018).

Plant Type

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Annual
Grass / sedge
Seed propagated

Distribution

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U. reptans is considered native to the Old World, but its exact native range is still unclear. Currently, the species is regarded as native to tropical and temperate Asia, the Arabian Peninsula, Australia and the Pacific region (Clayton et al., 2018; USDA-ARS, 2018). The status of U. reptans on many islands across the Pacific Ocean and some African countries is still ambiguous and thus listed as both native and introduced. This species can be found naturalized in North, Central and South America and in the Caribbean (Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2012; Clayton et al., 2018; GRIIS, 2018; PIER, 2018). It is recorded as invasive in Costa Rica, Puerto Rico, the United States Virgin Islands, Fiji, French Polynesia, Guam and New Caledonia (Chacón and Saborío, 2012; Florence et al., 2013; Rojas-Sandoval and Acevedo-Rodríguez, 2015; PIER, 2018).

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 10 Jan 2020

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	Invasive	Reference	Notes
Africa
Benin	Present	Introduced		Clayton et al. (2018)
Cameroon	Present	Introduced		Clayton et al. (2018)
Comoros	Present	Introduced		Clayton et al. (2018)
Egypt	Present	Native and Introduced		USDA-ARS (2018) Clayton et al. (2018)	Considered both native and introduced in the country
Kenya	Present	Introduced	Naturalized	USDA-ARS (2018)	Naturalized
Madagascar	Present	Introduced	Naturalized	USDA-ARS (2018)	Naturalized
Mauritius	Present	Introduced	Naturalized	USDA-ARS (2018)	Naturalized
Mozambique	Present	Introduced		Clayton et al. (2018)
Réunion	Present	Introduced		Clayton et al. (2018)
Somalia	Present	Introduced		Clayton et al. (2018)
Sudan	Present	Introduced	Naturalized	USDA-ARS (2018)	Naturalized
Tanzania	Present	Introduced	Naturalized	USDA-ARS (2018)	Naturalized
Togo	Present	Introduced		Clayton et al. (2018)
Asia
Afghanistan	Present	Native		Clayton et al. (2018)
Bangladesh	Present	Native		Clayton et al. (2018)
Cambodia	Present	Native		Clayton et al. (2018)
China	Present	Native		Clayton et al. (2018)
-Guangdong	Present	Native		Flora of China Editorial Committee (2018)
-Guangxi	Present	Native		Flora of China Editorial Committee (2018)
-Guizhou	Present	Native		Flora of China Editorial Committee (2018)
-Hunan	Present	Native		Flora of China Editorial Committee (2018)
-Sichuan	Present	Native		Flora of China Editorial Committee (2018)
-Yunnan	Present	Native		Flora of China Editorial Committee (2018)
India	Present	Native		Clayton et al. (2018)
-Andaman and Nicobar Islands	Present	Native		Clayton et al. (2018)
-Assam	Present	Native		India Biodiversity Portal (2018)
-Gujarat	Present	Native		India Biodiversity Portal (2018)
-Himachal Pradesh	Present	Native		Clayton et al. (2018)
-Kerala	Present	Native		India Biodiversity Portal (2018)
-Madhya Pradesh	Present	Native		India Biodiversity Portal (2018)
-Maharashtra	Present	Native		India Biodiversity Portal (2018)
-Punjab	Present	Native		India Biodiversity Portal (2018)
Indonesia	Present	Native		Waterhouse (1993)	Based on regional distribution
-Java	Present	Native		Clayton et al. (2018)
-Lesser Sunda Islands	Present	Native		Clayton et al. (2018)
-Maluku Islands	Present	Native		Clayton et al. (2018)
-Sumatra	Present	Native		Clayton et al. (2018)
Japan	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2018)
-Ryukyu Islands	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2018)
Malaysia	Present	Native		Clayton et al. (2018) Waterhouse (1993)
Myanmar	Present	Native		Clayton et al. (2018) Waterhouse (1993)
Nepal	Present	Native		Clayton et al. (2018)
Pakistan	Present	Native		Clayton et al. (2018)
Philippines	Present	Native		Clayton et al. (2018) Waterhouse (1993)
Saudi Arabia	Present	Native		Clayton et al. (2018)
Sri Lanka	Present	Native		Clayton et al. (2018)
Taiwan	Present	Native		Clayton et al. (2018)
Thailand	Present	Native		Clayton et al. (2018) Waterhouse (1993)
Vietnam	Present	Native		Clayton et al. (2018) Waterhouse (1993)
Yemen	Present	Native		Clayton et al. (2018)
North America
Anguilla	Present	Introduced		Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Antigua and Barbuda	Present	Introduced		Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Barbados	Present	Introduced		Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Belize	Present	Introduced	Naturalized	USDA-ARS (2018)	Naturalized
Bermuda	Present	Introduced		Clayton et al. (2018)
Costa Rica	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Chacón and Saborío (2012)
Cuba	Present	Introduced		Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Curaçao	Present	Introduced		Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Dominica	Present	Introduced		Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Dominican Republic	Present	Introduced		Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
El Salvador	Present	Introduced	Naturalized	USDA-ARS (2018)	Naturalized
Grenada	Present	Introduced		Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Guadeloupe	Present	Introduced		Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Guatemala	Present	Introduced	Naturalized	USDA-ARS (2018)	Naturalized
Haiti	Present	Introduced		Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Honduras	Present	Introduced	Naturalized	USDA-ARS (2018)	Naturalized
Jamaica	Present	Introduced		Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Martinique	Present	Introduced		Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Montserrat	Present	Introduced		Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Nicaragua	Present	Introduced	Naturalized	USDA-ARS (2018)	Naturalized
Puerto Rico	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Rojas-Sandoval and Acevedo-Rodríguez (2015)
Saint Kitts and Nevis	Present	Introduced		Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Saint Lucia	Present	Introduced		Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Trinidad and Tobago	Present	Introduced		Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
U.S. Virgin Islands	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Rojas-Sandoval and Acevedo-Rodríguez (2015)
United States	Present	Introduced		CABI (Undated)	Based on regional distribution
-Alabama	Present	Introduced		USDA-NRCS (2018)
-Florida	Present	Introduced		USDA-NRCS (2018)
-Georgia	Present	Introduced	Naturalized	USDA-ARS (2018)	Naturalized
-Hawaii	Present	Introduced	Naturalized	USDA-ARS (2018)	Naturalized
-Louisiana	Present	Introduced		USDA-NRCS (2018)
-Maryland	Present	Introduced		USDA-NRCS (2018)
-Texas	Present	Introduced		USDA-NRCS (2018)	Listed as potentially invasive
Oceania
Australia	Present	Native		Clayton et al. (2018)
-Northern Territory	Present	Native		AusGrass2 (2018)
-Queensland	Present	Native		AusGrass2 (2018)
-Western Australia	Present	Native		AusGrass2 (2018)
Christmas Island	Present	Introduced		Clayton et al. (2018)
Cook Islands	Present	Native		Clayton et al. (2018)
Federated States of Micronesia	Present	Native		Clayton et al. (2018)
Fiji	Present	Native and Introduced		Clayton et al. (2018) PIER (2018)	Considered both native and introduced in the country
French Polynesia	Present	Native and Introduced		Clayton et al. (2018) Florence et al. (2013)	Considered both native and introduced in the country
Guam	Present	Introduced	Invasive	PIER (2018)
Marshall Islands	Present	Native		Clayton et al. (2018)
New Caledonia	Present	Native and Introduced		Clayton et al. (2018) PIER (2018)	Considered both native and introduced in the country
Northern Mariana Islands	Present	Native		Clayton et al. (2018)
Palau	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2018)
Papua New Guinea	Present	Native and Introduced		Clayton et al. (2018) PIER (2018)	Considered both native and introduced in the country
Samoa	Present	Native		Clayton et al. (2018)
Solomon Islands	Present	Native and Introduced		Clayton et al. (2018) USDA-ARS (2018)	Considered both native and introduced in the country
Tonga	Present	Native		Clayton et al. (2018)
Wallis and Futuna	Present	Native and Introduced		Clayton et al. (2018) USDA-ARS (2018)	Considered both native and introduced in the country
South America
Brazil	Present	Introduced	Naturalized	USDA-ARS (2018)	Naturalized
-Mato Grosso do Sul	Present	Introduced	Naturalized	Shirasuna (2015)	Naturalized
Colombia	Present	Introduced	Naturalized	USDA-ARS (2018)	Naturalized
French Guiana	Present	Introduced	Naturalized	USDA-ARS (2018)	Naturalized
Guyana	Present	Introduced	Naturalized	USDA-ARS (2018)	Naturalized
Venezuela	Present	Introduced	Naturalized	USDA-ARS (2018)	Naturalized

History of Introduction and Spread

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In Puerto Rico, U. reptans was introduced as “experimental forage” and was first collected in the wild in 1880 (Más and García-Molinari, 2006; Rojas-Sandoval and Acevedo-Rodríguez, 2015).

Risk of Introduction

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The risk of new introductions of U. reptans is moderate, as this species is not a preferred grass for forage. However, it often grows as a weed in agricultural lands and pastures, and thus can be unintentionally dispersed as a contaminant in agricultural produce.

Habitat

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U. reptans grows as a weed in cultivated lands, pastures, waste grounds, lawns, gardens, old clearings, and along roadsides, ditches and irrigation channels. It can also be found in moist grassy places, coastal thickets, degraded forests, grasslands, hills, savannahs, river and creek beds, at elevations ranging from sea level up to 1500 m (Hammel et al., 2003; Sánchez-Ken, 2011; Gupta, 2013; Ibrahim et al., 2016; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2018).

Habitat List

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Category	Sub-Category	Habitat	Presence	Status
Terrestrial

Hosts/Species Affected

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U. reptans is considered a weed of soybean, cotton, maize, rice, sugarcane fields and active pastures (including heavily-grazed pastures). It also grows as a weed of gardens and lawns (Tiwari and Kurchania, 1990; Auld and Kim, 1996; Gupta, 2013; PIER, 2018).

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

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Plant name	Family	Context
Glycine max (soyabean)	Fabaceae	Main
Gossypium (cotton)	Malvaceae	Main
Oryza sativa (rice)	Poaceae	Main
Saccharum	Poaceae	Main
Zea mays (maize)	Poaceae	Main

Growth Stages

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Flowering stage, Fruiting stage, Vegetative growing stage

Biology and Ecology

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Genetics

The chromosome number reported for U. reptans is 2n = 14, 18 (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2018).

Reproductive Biology

Urochloa species have hermaphrodite florets. Plants produce seeds asexually by facultative apomixis and sexually by outcrossing (Watson et al., 1992; Veldkamp, 1996).

Physiology and Phenology

U. reptans is an annual grass (Hammel et al., 2003). In China, it has been reported producing flowers and fruits during the summer–autumn, while in India it flowers and fruits from July to November (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2018; India Biodiversity Portal, 2018). In Costa Rica and Pakistan it produces flowers and fruits from June to October (Hammel et al., 2003; Flora of Pakistan, 2018).

Environmental Requirements

U. reptans prefers to grow in moist sites in tropical and subtropical habitats, at elevations ranging from sea level to about 1500 m. It grows best in well-drained sandy and loamy soils (Hammel et al., 2003; Más and García-Molinari, 2006; India Biodiversity Portal, 2018).

Climate

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Climate	Status	Description
Am - Tropical monsoon climate	Preferred	Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25]))
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer	Preferred	< 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25])
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate	Preferred	< 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25])
BS - Steppe climate	Preferred	> 430mm and < 860mm annual precipitation
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer	Preferred	Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter	Preferred	Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters)
Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year	Preferred	Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year

Latitude/Altitude Ranges

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Latitude North (°N)	Latitude South (°S)	Altitude Lower (m)	Altitude Upper (m)
35	35	0	1500

Air Temperature

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Parameter	Lower limit	Upper limit
Mean annual temperature (ºC)	12	30

Rainfall

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Parameter	Lower limit	Upper limit	Description
Mean annual rainfall	500	1500	mm; lower/upper limits

Rainfall Regime

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Bimodal
Summer
Uniform
Winter

Soil Tolerances

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Soil drainage

free

Soil reaction

neutral

Soil texture

light
medium

Natural enemies

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Natural enemy	Type	Life stages	Specificity	References	Biological control in	Biological control on
Meloidogyne incognita	Parasite	Other\|All Stages	not specific

Notes on Natural Enemies

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U. reptans is a host of the nematode species Meloidogyne incognita (Mahmood, 1988).

Means of Movement and Dispersal

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U. reptans spreads by seed. Seeds can be dispersed by wind, water and animals, and as contaminants in machinery and agricultural products (Más and García-Molinari, 2006; India Biodiversity Portal, 2018; PIER, 2018; USDA-ARS, 2018).

Pathway Causes

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Cause	Notes	Long Distance	Local	References
Crop production	Agricultural weed	Yes	Yes	USDA-ARS (2018)
Disturbance	Naturalized in disturbed sites, roadsides, open grounds	Yes	Yes	Hammel et al. (2003)
Forage	Cultivated as forage	Yes	Yes	Gupta (2013)
Medicinal use	Roots used in traditional medicine	Yes	Yes	Gupta (2013)
People foraging	Seeds consumed as famine food	Yes	Yes	Gupta (2013)

Pathway Vectors

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Vector	Notes	Long Distance	Local	References
Machinery and equipment	Seeds as contaminants	Yes	Yes	India Biodiversity Portal (2018)
Water	Seeds	Yes	Yes	India Biodiversity Portal (2018)
Wind	Seeds	Yes	Yes	India Biodiversity Portal (2018)

Environmental Impact

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U. reptans is a weed of cultivated lands and pastures. It also hosts the nematode Meloidogyne incognita, which has negative impacts on crops (Mahmood, 1988). U. reptans is also an environmental weed in degraded grasslands and thickets, forest margins and secondary forests, but also in relatively undisturbed forests and riparian areas (Hammel et al., 2003; Sánchez-Ken, 2011; Gupta, 2013; Ibrahim et al., 2016; AusGrass2, 2018; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2018).

Risk and Impact Factors

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Invasiveness

Invasive in its native range
Proved invasive outside its native range
Has a broad native range
Abundant in its native range
Highly adaptable to different environments
Is a habitat generalist
Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
Pioneering in disturbed areas
Tolerant of shade
Highly mobile locally
Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
Fast growing
Gregarious

Impact outcomes

Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
Monoculture formation
Negatively impacts agriculture
Reduced native biodiversity
Threat to/ loss of native species

Impact mechanisms

Competition - monopolizing resources
Pest and disease transmission
Rapid growth

Likelihood of entry/control

Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
Difficult to identify/detect in the field

Uses

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Social Benefit

U. reptans is sometimes used as fodder and its grain has been used as food in times of famine (Flora of Pakistan, 2018). Its rhizomes are diuretic and used to treat kidney problems (Gupta, 2013).

Uses List

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Animal feed, fodder, forage

Forage

Human food and beverage

Emergency (famine) food

Medicinal, pharmaceutical

Traditional/folklore

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

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U. reptans is described as a borderline species in the genus because its small, plump spikelets are reminiscent of Brachiaria, a genus in which it is placed by some authors (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2018).

Prevention and Control

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Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Control

Physical/mechanical control

Small infestations of U. reptans can be removed manually or with mulch machinery.

Chemical control

Herbicides such as nicosulfuron, rimsulfuron 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, dicamba and atrazine have been used to control U. reptans in cultivation (Aguilar Carpio et al., 2004).

References

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Acevedo-Rodríguez P, Strong MT, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, 98. Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution.1-1192.

Aguilar Carpio, C., Aguilar Mariscal, I., Michel Aceves, A. C., 2004. Postemergence control of weeds in maize and its cost effectiveness in Guerrero. (Control post emergente de malezas en maíz y su rentabilidad economica en Guerrero). In: Memoria XVI Congreso Latinoamericano de Malezas y XXIV Congreso Nacional de la Asociación Mexicana de la Ciencia de la Maleza, Manzanillo, Colima, México, del 10 al 12 de Noviembre de 2003, [ed. by Pedrero, G. M., Valenzuela, J. A. D., Díaz, G. M., Ruiz, R. A. O.]. Wimauma, USA: Asociación Latinoamericana de Malezas. 72-82.

Auld, B. A., Kim, K. U., 1996. Weed management in rice, 285 pp.

AusGrass2, 2018. Grasses of Australia. Online Resources. http://ausgrass2.myspecies.info/

Chacón E, Saborío G, 2012. Red Interamericana de Información de Especies Invasoras de Costa Rica. San José, Costa Rica: Asociación para la Conservación y el Estudio de la Biodiversidad. http://invasoras.acebio.org

Clayton WD, Govaerts R, Harman KT, Williamson H, Vorontsova M, 2018. World Checklist of Poaceae. Richmond, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/

Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2018. Flora of China. St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://flora.huh.harvard.edu/china/

Flora of Pakistan, 2018. Flora of Pakistan/Pakistan Plant Database (PPD). Tropicos website. St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.tropicos.org/Project/Pakistan

Florence J, Chevillotte H, Ollier C, Meyer JY, 2013. Botanical database of the Nadeaud Herbarium of French Polynesia. (Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française). http://www.herbier-tahiti.pf

GRIIS, 2018. Global Register of Introduced and Invasive Species. Global Invasive Alien Species Information Partnership and the IUCN SSC Invasive Species Specialist Group. http://www.griis.org/

Gupta AK, 2013. Brachiaria reptans. In: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2013, http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T169043A1267310.en

Hammel, B. E., Grayum, M. H., Herrera, C., Zamora, N. , 2003. Manual de Plantas de Costa Rica, Volumen III: Monocotiledóneas (Orchidaceae-Zingiberaceae), [ed. by Hammel, B. E., Grayum, M. H., Herrera, C., Zamora, N. ]. St. Louis, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden Press.xvi + 884 pp.

Ibrahim KM, Hosni HA, Peterson PM, 2016. Grasses of Egypt, Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press.

India Biodiversity Portal, 2018. Online Portal of India Biodiversity. https://indiabiodiversity.org/

Mahmood, I., 1988. Two possible new hosts of Meloidogyne incognita. International Nematology Network Newsletter, 5(1), 20.

Más EG, García-Molinari O, 2006. [English title not available]. (Guía ilustrada de yerbas comunes en Puerto Rico). Puerto Rico, USA: University of Puerto Rico and USDA-NRCS.

PIER, 2018. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html

Rojas-Sandoval, J., Acevedo-Rodríguez, P., 2015. Naturalization and invasion of alien plants in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Biological Invasions, 17(1), 149-163. http://rd.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10530-014-0712-3/fulltext.html doi: 10.1007/s10530-014-0712-3

Salariato, D. L., Giussani, L. M., Morrone, O., Zuloaga, F. O., 2009. Rupichloa, a new genus segregated from Urochloa (Poaceae) based on morphological and molecular data. Taxon, 58(2), 381-391. http://www.taxon-manuscripts.org

Salariato, D. L., Zuloaga, F. O., Giussani, L. M., Morrone, O., 2010. Molecular phylogeny of the subtribe Melinidinae (Poaceae: Panicoideae: Paniceae) and evolutionary trends in the homogenization of inflorescences. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 56(1), 355-369. doi: 10.1016/j.ympev.2010.02.009

Sánchez-Ken, J. G., 2011. Two new species of Urochloa (Paniceae; Panicoideae; Poaceae) from western Mexico and the updated checklist with a key to species of the genus in Mexico. Systematic Botany, 36(3), 621-630. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1600/036364411X583619 doi: 10.1600/036364411X583619

Shirasuna RT, 2015. Urochloa. In: Lista de Espécies da Flora do Brasil, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro. http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/jabot/floradobrasil/FB105508

Simon, B. K., Jacobs, S. W. L., 2003. Megathyrsus, a new generic name for Panicum subgenus Megathyrsus. Austrobaileya, 6(3), 571-574.

Stevens PF, 2017. Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/

Tiwari, J. P., Kurchania, S. P., 1990. Survey and management of weeds in soybean (Glycine max) ecosystem in Madhya Pradesh. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 60(10), 672-676.

Torres González, A. M., Morton, C. M., 2005. Molecular and morphological phylogenetic analysis of Brachiaria and Urochloa (Poaceae). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 37(1), 36-44. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/10557903 doi: 10.1016/j.ympev.2005.06.003

USDA-ARS, 2018. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl

USDA-NRCS, 2018. The PLANTS Database. Baton Rouge, USA: National Plant Data Center. http://plants.usda.gov/

Veldkamp, J. F., 1996. Brachiaria, Urochloa (Gramineae-Paniceae) in Malesia. Blumea, 41(2), 413-437.

Waterhouse DF, 1993. The Major Arthropod Pests and Weeds of Agriculture in Southeast Asia. ACIAR Monograph No. 21. Canberra, Australia: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, 141 pp

Watson L, Macfarlane TD, Dallwitz MJ, 1992. Urochloa. In: The grass genera of the world: descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval, including synonyms, morphology, anatomy, physiology, phytochemistry, cytology, classification, pathogens, world and local distribution, and references. Version: 20th August 2018, http://www.delta-intkey.com/grass/www/urochloa.htm

Distribution References

Acevedo-Rodríguez P, Strong M T, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Washington, DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. 1192 pp. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm

AusGrass2, 2018. Grasses of Australia. Online Resources., http://ausgrass2.myspecies.info/

CABI, Undated. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI

Chacón E, Saborío G, 2012. (Red Interamericana de Información de Especies Invasoras de Costa Rica)., San José, Costa Rica: Asociación para la Conservación y el Estudio de la Biodiversidad. http://invasoras.acebio.org

Clayton WD, Govaerts R, Harman KT, Williamson H, Vorontsova M, 2018. World Checklist of Poaceae., Richmond, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/

Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2018. Flora of China. In: Flora of China. St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2

Florence J, Chevillotte H, Ollier C, Meyer JY, 2013. Botanical database of the Nadeaud Herbarium of French Polynesia. (Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP))., http://www.herbier-tahiti.pf

India Biodiversity Portal, 2018. Online Portal of India Biodiversity. In: Online Portal of India Biodiversity. http://indiabiodiversity.org/species/list

PIER, 2018. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. In: Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html

Rojas-Sandoval J, Acevedo-Rodríguez P, 2015. Naturalization and invasion of alien plants in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Biological Invasions. 17 (1), 149-163. http://rd.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10530-014-0712-3/fulltext.html DOI:10.1007/s10530-014-0712-3

Shirasuna RT, 2015. Urochloa. In: Lista de Espécies da Flora do Brasil, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro. http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/jabot/floradobrasil/FB105508

USDA-ARS, 2018. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. In: Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx

USDA-NRCS, 2018. The PLANTS Database. In: The PLANTS Database. Greensboro, North Carolina, USA: National Plant Data Team. https://plants.sc.egov.usda.gov

Waterhouse D F, 1993. The major arthropod pests and weeds of agriculture in Southeast Asia. Canberra, Australia: ACIAR. v + 141 pp.

Contributors

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12/08/18 Original text by:

Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC, USA

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Urochloa reptans (sprawling signalgrass)

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