Bougainvillea spectabilis (great bougainvillea)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Rainfall Regime
- Soil Tolerances
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Environmental Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- References
- Links to Websites
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Bougainvillea spectabilis Willd.
Preferred Common Name
- great bougainvillea
Other Scientific Names
- Bougainvillea bracteata Pers.
- Bougainvillea brasiliensis Raeusch
- Bougainvillea speciosa Schnizl.
- Bougainvillea virescens Choisy
International Common Names
- English: bougainvillea; purple bougainvillea
- Spanish: bougainvilla; bougainvillea; veranera
- French: bougainvillée; bougainvillier
- Chinese: ye zi hua
Local Common Names
- Brazil: primavera; roseira-do-mato; tapirica; três-marias
- Colombia: curazao
- Cuba: bunganvil
- Dominican Republic: flor de papel; villamil; zarza americana
- Ecuador: buganbilla; guambillo
- Germany: Bougainvillie
- India: boganvel ; boganvilla; kaagitha poo; kadalasupoovu-chedi ; kagaj-phul
- Netherlands: drielingenplant
- Peru: papelillo
- Puerto Rico: trinitaria
EPPO code
- BOUSP (Bougainvillea spectabilis)
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageBougainvillea spectabilis is an aggressive climbing vine or shrub growing >10 m high. Native to Brazil, this species has been extensively introduced into tropical, subtropical and warm temperate regions of the world. It is reported to be invasive on the Chilean island of Rapa Nui (Easter Island/Isla de Pasqua) and on Diego Garcia Island in the Indian Ocean. It is often planted as an ornamental and hedge plant in gardens, parks and along roadsides; it can support itself on other plants by means of thorns carried in the leaf axils. It reproduces sexually by seed and vegetatively by cuttings and stem fragments. Fruits are winged achenes, which can be easily dispersed by wind or water. Once established, B. spectabilis can climb trees or shrubs suffocating them and out-competing understorey plants.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Caryophyllales
- Family: Nyctaginaceae
- Genus: Bougainvillea
- Species: Bougainvillea spectabilis
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageThe family Nyctaginaceae comprises 30 genera and 300–400 species of trees, shrubs and herbs found in all warmer areas of the world, however the bulk of the diversity at the generic and specific levels occurs in two regions: (1) the Neotropics, and (2) arid western North America (Douglas and Spellenberg, 2010; Stevens, 2017). Based on morphology, the family was classified into six tribes (Bittrich and Kühn, 1993). However, molecular phylogenetic analyses have led to a new monophyly-based classification with seven circumscribed tribes: Nyctagineae, Pisonieae, Bougainvilleeae, Colignonieae, Boldoeae, Leucastereae and Caribeeae (Douglas and Manos, 2007; Douglas and Spellenberg, 2010).
The genus Bougainvillea comprises about 14–18 species distributed across Central and South America (Douglas and Spellenberg, 2010; The Plant List, 2013. This genus is very important within the horticultural trade where the species B. glabra, B. spectabilis and many hybrids and cultivated varieties are widely commercialized as ornamentals for their long-lasting, colourful flower bracts. Although flower bracts of purple, pink or red colour are commonly seen, cultivars are now available in apricot, white, blue, yellow and orange (Gilman, 1999).
Currently, both wild and cultivated forms of B. spectabilis are commercialized and have probably been introduced repeatedly across tropical and warm temperate regions of the world. Apparently, the main difference between these two forms is that in the wild form flowers have simple bracts and produce reproductive structures while cultivars have flowers with multi-whorl bracts but are sterile. In this species, the cultivated varieties have been selected to have multi-whorl flowers, a type of floral abnormality in which some or all of the stamens in a flower are replaced by petals, and the carpel is replaced by sepals or petals. These cultivars with multi-whorl bracts have great ornamental and commercial value, but are sexually sterile (do not develop sexual organs) and must be propagated through cuttings (Xu et al., 2009; Salam et al., 2017).
Description
Top of pageWoody perennial vine or shrub (or small tree), erect or clambering, attaining a height of up to 12 m and a width of 7 m. Branches pilose, with straight, axillary, pilose spines. Leaves alternate, 2.6-2.5 × 2.7- 5 cm, chartaceous, ovate, the apex acute, obtuse, or acuminate, the base obtuse, rounded, or attenuate, slightly asymmetrical, the margins sinuate; lower surface tomentulose, with prominent pilose venation; petioles slender, 1 to 2.3 cm long, pilose. Flowers in axillary clusters of threes, each flower with a purple, red, pink, or orange bract beneath, to ca. 3 to 4 cm long; calyx tubular with 5 lobes, to ca. 2 cm long, tube the same colour as the bracts, lobes white, ca. 3 mm long; corolla absent; stamens 5-10. Fruit an achene, 1-1.5 cm, elongate, 5-ribbed containing 1 seed (McMullen, 1999; Acevedo-Rodríguez, 2005; Flora of China, 2018).
Distribution
Top of pageBougainvillea spectabilis is native to Brazil (Sá, 2015; USDA-ARS, 2018). It has been extensively introduced as an ornamental and hedge plant across tropical and warm temperate regions of the world. It can be found cultivated and naturalized across Asia, Africa, tropical America, the West Indies, the Mediterranean region, and on many islands in the Pacific and Indian Oceans (Randall, 2017; Flora of China, 2018; India Biodiversity, 2018; GRIIS, 2018; Missouri Botanical Garden, 2018; PIER, 2018; PROTA, 2018).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 21 Jul 2022Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Algeria | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
Burundi | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
Cabo Verde | Present | Introduced | |||||
Chad | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
Comoros | Present | Introduced | |||||
Kenya | Present | ||||||
Morocco | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
São Tomé and Príncipe | Present | Introduced | |||||
Seychelles | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
South Africa | Present | Introduced | |||||
Tanzania | Present | Introduced | |||||
Asia |
|||||||
Bhutan | Present | Introduced | 1984 | ||||
British Indian Ocean Territory | |||||||
-Chagos Archipelago | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
China | Present | Introduced | Cultivated in southern China | ||||
-Guangdong | Present | ||||||
India | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
-Assam | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
-Bihar | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
-Gujarat | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
-Jammu and Kashmir | Present | ||||||
-Karnataka | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
-Kerala | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
-Maharashtra | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
-Tamil Nadu | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
-Uttar Pradesh | Present | ||||||
Indonesia | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Lesser Sunda Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
Iran | Present | ||||||
Japan | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Maldives | Present | Introduced | |||||
Pakistan | Present | Introduced | |||||
Philippines | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Yemen | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Socotra | Present | Introduced | 2004 | ||||
Europe |
|||||||
Croatia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Italy | Present | ||||||
-Sardinia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Spain | Present | Introduced | |||||
North America |
|||||||
Antigua and Barbuda | Present, Widespread | Introduced | |||||
Bahamas | Present | Introduced | |||||
Belize | Present | Introduced | |||||
British Virgin Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
Cayman Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
Costa Rica | Present | Introduced | |||||
Cuba | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Dominican Republic | Present | Introduced | |||||
El Salvador | Present | Introduced | |||||
Guadeloupe | Present, Widespread | Introduced | |||||
Guatemala | Present | Introduced | |||||
Haiti | Present | Introduced | |||||
Honduras | Present | Introduced | |||||
Mexico | Present | Introduced | |||||
Panama | Present | Introduced | |||||
Puerto Rico | Present | Introduced | |||||
Saint Barthélemy | Present, Widespread | Introduced | |||||
U.S. Virgin Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
United States | Present | ||||||
-Florida | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
Oceania |
|||||||
Australia | Present | Introduced | 1843 | ||||
-Victoria | Present | ||||||
Christmas Island | Present | Introduced | |||||
Cook Islands | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Federated States of Micronesia | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
-Chuuk | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
-Pohnpei | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Fiji | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
French Polynesia | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Guam | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Kiribati | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Marshall Islands | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Nauru | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
New Caledonia | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Niue | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Northern Mariana Islands | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Palau | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Papua New Guinea | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Tonga | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
U.S. Minor Outlying Islands | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
South America |
|||||||
Argentina | Present | ||||||
Bolivia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Brazil | Present | Native | |||||
-Amazonas | Present | Native | |||||
-Bahia | Present | Native | |||||
-Ceara | Present | Native | |||||
-Distrito Federal | Present | Native | |||||
-Espirito Santo | Present | Native | |||||
-Mato Grosso do Sul | Present | Native | |||||
-Minas Gerais | Present | Native | |||||
-Para | Present | Native | |||||
-Parana | Present | Native | |||||
-Rio de Janeiro | Present | Native | |||||
-Rio Grande do Sul | Present | Native | |||||
-Santa Catarina | Present | Native | |||||
-Sao Paulo | Present | Native | |||||
Chile | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | Invasive on Rapa Nui (Easter) Island (Isla de Pasqua) | |||
-Easter Island | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Colombia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Ecuador | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Galapagos Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
French Guiana | Present | Introduced | |||||
Peru | Present | Introduced | |||||
Suriname | Present | Introduced | |||||
Venezuela | Present | Introduced |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageIn 1789 European explorers in the French Navy recorded and collected Bougainvillea spectabilis for the first time in Brazil. In the early 19th century, it was introduced into Europe, and soon, nurseries in France and England did a thriving trade providing specimens to other faraway countries. Since then, it has been introduced extensively across tropical and warm temperate regions of the world (Salam et al., 2017; Stevens, 2017).
It was first introduced to India in 1860 from Europe; there is a record of plants from the Kew Royal Botanic Gardens being introduced into Kolkata in 1923 (Salam et al., 2017). It was first recorded in the Kruger National Park (South Africa) in 1952 (Foxcroft et al., 2008).
It seems highly probable that repeated introductions of both wild and cultivated varieties of B. spectabilis have occurred across its alien distribution range. Currently, this species is sold primarily in the form of various cultivated varieties, but the wild form is also commercialized (Xu et al., 2009; Douglas and Spellenberg, 2010; Salam et al., 2017).
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageThe risk of new introductions of Bougainvillea spectabilis is very high. This species is actively commercialized as an ornamental and hedge plant worldwide. As the rate of introduction for this species increases, and the plants being cultivated continue to spread, it is increasingly likely that further naturalizations and invasions will occur.
Habitat
Top of pageIn Brazil, Bougainvillea spectabilis grows in deciduous and seasonal semi-deciduous forests and in coastal forests (e.g. Restinga and Atlantic forests) (Sá, 2015). Outside its natural distribution range, it can be found growing in forest edges, coastal thickets, dry forests, disturbed sites near villages, gardens, parks, and along roadsides at elevations ranging from near sea level to ~1000 m (Salam et al., 2017; Flora of China, 2018; PIER, 2018; PROTA, 2018). On the Galápagos Islands, it can be found naturalized in arid lowlands and moist uplands (McMullen, 1999).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Natural | |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
The chromosome number reported for Bougainvillea spectabilis is 2n=34 (Chatha and Bir, 1987). All the colourful bracted bougainvilleas available in the horticultural trade have been developed through bud sports, mutations, and inter- and intra-specific hybridization (Salam et al., 2017). Natural hybridization also appears to be common within the genus Bougainvillea (Douglas and Spellenberg, 2010; Salam et al., 2017).
Reproductive Biology
Flowers of Bougainvillea spectabilis are hermaphroditic. In Brazil, B. spectabilis is reported to be pollinated by night moths, but across tropical areas bees, flies and butterflies are also common visitors (Aranda et al., 2011; Nores et al., 2013). Cultivated varieties with multi-whorl bracts are sterile and do not develop any reproductive organs, i.e., perianth, pistil and stamens (Xu et al., 2009).
Physiology and Phenology
In Brazil and across tropical regions, Bougainvillea spectabilis produces flowers periodically throughout the year (Gilman, 1999; Acevedo-Rodríguez, 2005; Grandtner and Chevrette, 2013; Davidse et al., 2018). In China, flowers have been observed at the end of winter and throughout the spring (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2018).
Longevity
Bougainvillea spectabilis is a long-lived perennial plant. In cultivation plants apparently start flowering 1 to 3 years after planting (Acevedo-Rodríguez, 2005; Fern, 2014; PROTA, 2018).
Environmental Requirements
Although Bougainvillea spectabilis is a plant of the tropics, it can also grow in warm temperate and subtropical areas. It grows best in open areas with full sunlight. It prefers well-drained soils with a pH range from 5.5 to 7.0. It is also capable of growing on sandy, loamy and clay soils. B. spectabilis has a high salt tolerance, likely due in part to the oceanic influence of its native habitat. It shows moderate drought tolerance and can tolerate hot, dry locations fairly well (Gilman, 1999; Fern, 2014; PROTA, 2018).
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
Af - Tropical rainforest climate | Preferred | > 60mm precipitation per month | |
Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Preferred | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Tolerated | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) | |
Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year | Tolerated | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
40 | 35 |
Air Temperature
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit |
---|---|---|
Absolute minimum temperature (ºC) | -3.9 | |
Mean annual temperature (ºC) | 13 | 27 |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Mean annual rainfall | 800 | >2500 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
Soil reaction
- acid
- neutral
Soil texture
- heavy
- light
- medium
Special soil tolerances
- saline
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageAlthough Bougainvillea species are relatively pest-free they may be susceptible to fungal pathogens, snails and insect pests. The larvae of some species of Lepidoptera such as the giant leopard moth Hypercompe scribonia feed on B. spectabilis (Gilman, 1999).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageNatural Dispersal
Bougainvillea spectabilis spreads by seed. The fruits are dispersed by means of the wing-like bracts to which they are attached (McMullen, 1999). In cultivation, it is often propagated from stem fragments and root cuttings (Gilman, 1999).
Intentional Introduction
Bougainvillea spectabilis is a popular ornamental and hedge plant that has been extensively introduced across tropical, subtropical and warm temperate regions of the world (Gilman, 1999; Salam et al., 2017).
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Botanical gardens and zoos | Popular ornamental often planted in botanical gardens | Yes | Yes | Salam et al. (2017) |
Disturbance | Naturalized in disturbed sites, along roadsides, forest margins | Yes | Yes | Fern (2014) |
Escape from confinement or garden escape | Naturalized | Yes | Yes | Davidse et al. (2018) |
Garden waste disposal | Seeds and stem fragments | Yes | Yes | Gilman (1999) |
Hedges and windbreaks | Often planted as hedge plant | Yes | Yes | Salam et al. (2017) |
Horticulture | Popular ornamental. Widely commercialized | Yes | Yes | Salam et al. (2017) |
Internet sales | Plants and seeds available online | Yes | Yes | |
Medicinal use | Potential pharmaceutical applications | Yes | Yes | Xu et al. (2009) |
Nursery trade | Popular ornamental. Widely commercialized | Yes | Yes | |
Ornamental purposes | Popular ornamental. Widely commercialized | Yes | Yes | Salam et al. (2017) |
Seed trade | Seeds available online | Yes | Yes |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Debris and waste associated with human activities | Garden ornamental. Seeds and stem fragments | Yes | Yes | Gilman (1999) |
Machinery and equipment | Fruits with wing-like structure | Yes | Yes | McMullen (1999) |
Water | Fruits with wing-like structure | Yes | Yes | McMullen (1999) |
Wind | Fruits with wing-like structure | Yes | Yes | McMullen (1999) |
Plants and seeds available online | Yes | Yes |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Cultural/amenity | Positive |
Economic/livelihood | Positive |
Environment (generally) | Positive and negative |
Human health | Positive |
Environmental Impact
Top of pageBougainvillea spectabilis is an aggressive climbing plant. It climbs over trees or shrubs suffocating them and out-competing native plant species in the understorey (Smith, 1991; McMullen, 1999; Fern, 2014; Oviedo Prieto and Gonzalez-Oliva, 2015; Randall, 2017; GRIIS, 2018; PIER, 2018).
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Is a habitat generalist
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
- Long lived
- Fast growing
- Gregarious
- Reproduces asexually
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Modification of successional patterns
- Monoculture formation
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Threat to/ loss of endangered species
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Competition - shading
- Competition - strangling
- Rapid growth
- Rooting
- Produces spines, thorns or burrs
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Uses
Top of pageEconomic Value
Bougainvillea spectabilis is extensively commercialized as an ornamental and hedge plant. It is often planted near porches and in gardens and in parks for the shade it provides and for its attractive and colourful bracts. The flower bracts are used for making a drink known as Agua de Buganvilia across America and the Caribbean region. The thorny nature of the plant has led to it being planted around houses or fences to discourage intruders (Gilman, 1999; Fern, 2014; Salam et al., 2017; USDA-ARS, 2018).
Bougainvillea spectabilis contains pinitol, which is considered to be helpful in the treatment of diabetes. This compound exhibits an insulin-like effect and can thus serve as a hypoglycaemic agent. A study of aqueous and methanolic extracts of the leaves showed good glucose tolerance and significantly reduced intestinal glucosidase activity, with regeneration of insulin-producing cells and increase in plasma insulin. The results suggest a potential for the development of new treatments for diabetes (Xu et al., 2009; Chauhan et al., 2016).
Environmental Services
According to Sharma et al. (2005), bougainvilleas are pollution-tolerant plants which can help in the mitigation of air pollution. They are therefore recommended for planting in cities and along roadsides to mitigate environment pollution.
Uses List
Top of pageEnvironmental
- Amenity
- Boundary, barrier or support
Human food and beverage
- Beverage base
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
Ornamental
- Potted plant
References
Top of pageBittrich V, Kühn U, 1993. Nyctaginaceae. In: Flowering Plants· Dicotyledons. The Families and Genera of Vascular Plants. Volume 2, [ed. by Kubitzki K, Rohwer JG, Bittrich V]. Heidelberg, Germany: Springer.
Chatha GS, Bir SS, 1987. Cytological evaluation of woody taxa of Gamopetalae and Monochlamydeae from south India. Aspects of Plant Science , 9, 199–244.
Chauhan P, Mahajan S, Kulshrestha A, Shrivastava S, Sharma B, Goswamy HM, Prasad GBKS, 2016. Bougainvillea spectabilis exhibits antihyperglycemic and antioxidant activities in experimental diabetes. Journal of Evidence-Based Integrative Medicine, 21(3), 177-185.
Davidse, G, Sousa Sánchez, M, Knapp, S, Chiang Cabrera, F, 2018. Nyctaginaceae. In: Flora Mesoamericana . St Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden.
Douglas N, Spellenberg R, 2010. A new tribal classification of Nyctaginaceae. Taxon, 59(3), 905-910.
Fern K, 2014. Useful Tropical Plants Database. http://tropical.theferns.info/
Gilman EF, 1999. Bougainvillea spp. (Fact Sheet FPS-70) . Gainesville, Florida, USA: Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida.http://hort.ufl.edu/database/documents/pdf/shrub_fact_sheets/bousppa.pdf
Grandtner, MM, Chevrette, J, 2013. Dictionary of Trees: South America. Nomenclature, taxonomy and ecology. 2: Academic Press.1176 pp.
GRIIS, 2018. Global Register of Introduced and Invasive Species. http://www.griis.org/
Jørgensen, P. M., León-Yánez, S., 1999. Catalogue of the vascular plants of Ecuador, 1182 pp.
McMullen CK, 1999. Flowering plants of the Galápagos, Ithaca, USA: Cornell University Press.
Sá CFC, 2015. Nyctaginaceae in the list of species of the flora of Brazil. (Nyctaginaceae in Lista de Espécies da Flora do Brasil). Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro.http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/jabot/floradobrasil/FB10904
Sharma SC, Srivastava RI, Roy RK, 2005. Role of bougainvilleas in mitigation of environmental pollution. 47(2), 131-134.
Distribution References
Bacchetta G, Mayoral O, Podda L, 2009. (Catálogo de la flora exotica de la isla de Cerdeña (Italia)). Flora Montiberica. 35-61.
Balick MJ, Nee M, Atha DE, 2000. Checklist of the vascular plants of Belize. In: Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden, 85 1-246.
CABI, 2020. CABI Distribution Database: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Davidse G, Sousa Sánchez M, Knapp S, Chiang Cabrera F, 2018. Nyctaginaceae. In: Flora Mesoamericana, St Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden.
De Barros Fernandes CM, 2008. (Flora exótica de Cabo Verde: avaliação e impactos nos ecossistemas naturais, utilizando sistemas de informação geográfica). Lisbon, Portugal: Universidade de Lisboa, Faculdade de Ciências. 118 pp.
Florence J, Chevillotte H, Ollier C, Meyer J-Y, 2013. Nadeaud botanical database of the Herbarium of French Polynesia. (Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP))., https://nadeaud.ilm.pf/
Grandtner MM, Chevrette J, 2013. Dictionary of Trees: South America. Nomenclature, taxonomy and ecology., 2 Academic Press. 1176 pp.
GRIIS, 2018. Global Register of Introduced and Invasive Species., http://www.griis.org/
Jørgensen P M, León-Yánez S, 1999. Catalogue of the vascular plants of Ecuador. 1182 pp.
McCormack G, 2013. Cook Islands Biodiversity Database, Version 2007.2., Rarotonga, Cook Islands: Cook Islands Natural Heritage Trust. http://cookislands.bishopmuseum.org/search.asp
Meyer J-Y, 2008. Strategic action plan to control invasive alien plants on Rapa Nui (Easter Island). In: Rapport de mission d'expertise a Rapa Nui du 02 au 11 Juin 2008: Plan d'action strategique pour lutter contre les plantes introduites envahissantes sur Rapa Nui (Ile de paques), Papeete, Tahiti, Government of French Polynesia. 62 pp.
Rivers J, 2004. Botanical survey update of Diego Garcia, Chagos Archipeligo, British Indian Ocean Territory. Naval Facilities Engineering Command, Pacific., 16.
Sá CFC, 2015. Nyctaginaceae in the list of species of the flora of Brazil. (Nyctaginaceae in Lista de Espécies da Flora do Brasil)., Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro. http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/jabot/floradobrasil/FB10904
Sanz Elorza M, Guillot Ortiz D, Deltoro V, 2011. The alien flora of Comunidad Valenciana (Spain). (La flora alóctona de la Comunidad Valenciana (España)). Botanica Complutensis. 97-130.
Wunderlin RP, Hansen BF, Franck AR, Essig FB, 2018. Atlas of Florida Plants., Tampa, Florida, USA: University of South Florida.
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
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GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Contributors
Top of page15/05/2018 Original text by:
Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
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