glanders
Index
Don't need the entire report?
Generate a print friendly version containing only the sections you need.
Generate reportOverview
Top of pageGlanders is a highly infectious zoonotic disease of equids (horses, donkeys, mules), caused by the bacterium Burkholderia mallei (Cárdenas et al., 2019). It is on the list of diseases notifiable to the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE). Glanders is characterized by chronic suppurative lesions of skin and mucous membrane, pneumonia, and septicaemia. The disease has been eradicated in most European and North American countries, but outbreaks still occur in South America, parts of Africa, the Middle East and Southern Asia (OIE, 2020). The acute form of glanders is usually observed in donkeys and mules with high fever, respiratory symptoms, and death occurring within a few days. The disease is mainly chronic in horses and latently-infected animals pose a high risk of reintroduction of the infection into glanders-free countries (Khan et al., 2013). Quarantine testing before and after the international transport of horses is very important to prevent the spread of glanders (Kinoshita et al., 2019). As a highly infectious agent that can be transmitted by aerosol, causing fatal disease in humans, B. mallei is considered to be a biothreat agent (Scholz et al., 2014).
Hosts/Species Affected
Top of pageThe natural hosts for B. mallei are horses, donkeys and mules (Khan et al., 2013). Donkeys are most susceptible, mules somewhat less and horses demonstrate some resistance, developing chronic forms of the disease (OIE, 2020).
Susceptibility to glanders has been reported for bears, wolves, jackals, hyenas, dogs, cats and other felids (Spickler, 2018). Carnivores may become infected by eating infected meat (OIE, 2020). Small ruminants and dromedary camels may also be infected if kept in close contact with glanderous horses (Wittig et al., 2006; Wernery et al., 2011). Many other mammals can be infected experimentally, but pigs and cattle are reported to be resistant. Birds are highly resistant (OIE, 2020). Glanders is a zoonotic disease (Khan et al., 2013).
Distribution
Top of pageThe prevalence of glanders has been significantly reduced worldwide by national control programmes. The disease has been eradicated in North America, Australia and Europe through testing and then eliminating any positive animal, together with import control measures (OIE, 2020). However, glanders continues to be reported in South Asia (Ghori et al., 2017; Harisankar Singha et al., 2017), parts of Africa (Getachew et al., 2014), the Middle East (Elschner et al., 2016; Kianfar et al., 2019) and South America (Machado et al., 2013; Fonseca-Rodríguez et al., 2019). In April 2010, Bahrain notified the first occurrence of the disease (Scholz et al., 2014). In Brazil, the disease reappeared in 2009 and remains a serious problem (Fonseca-Rodríguez et al., 2019; OIE, 2020). Germany notified the occurrence of the disease in a limited area in 2014/2015 (OIE, 2020). Following the re-emergence of glanders in northern states of India during 2006, the disease has spread to several states of India (Praveen Malik et al., 2015).
For the most recent, detailed information on the occurrence of this disease worldwide, see the OIE World Animal Health Information Database (WAHIS) interface
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 04 Jan 2022Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Algeria | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Benin | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Botswana | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2018 | |||||
Burundi | Absent | Jul-Dec-2018 | |||||
Cabo Verde | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Central African Republic | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Congo, Democratic Republic of the | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Côte d'Ivoire | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Djibouti | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Egypt | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Eritrea | Present, Localized | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Eswatini | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Ethiopia | Absent | Jul-Dec-2018 | |||||
Ghana | Present | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Kenya | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Lesotho | Absent | Jan-Jun-2020 | |||||
Liberia | Absent | Jul-Dec-2018 | |||||
Libya | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Madagascar | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Malawi | Absent | Jul-Dec-2018 | |||||
Mauritania | Absent | Jul-Dec-2018 | |||||
Mauritius | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Mayotte | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Morocco | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Mozambique | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Namibia | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Niger | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Réunion | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Saint Helena | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
São Tomé and Príncipe | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Seychelles | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2018 | |||||
Sierra Leone | Absent | Jan-Jun-2018 | |||||
Somalia | Absent | Jul-Dec-2020 | |||||
South Africa | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Sudan | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Togo | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Tunisia | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Zambia | Absent | Jul-Dec-2018 | |||||
Zimbabwe | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Asia |
|||||||
Afghanistan | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Armenia | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Azerbaijan | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Bahrain | Absent | Jul-Dec-2020 | |||||
Bangladesh | Absent | Jan-Jun-2020 | |||||
Bhutan | Absent | Jan-Jun-2020 | |||||
Brunei | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
China | Present | Jul-Dec-2020 | |||||
Georgia | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Hong Kong | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
India | Present, Localized | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Indonesia | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Iran | Present | Jul-Dec-2020 | |||||
Iraq | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Israel | Absent | Jul-Dec-2020 | |||||
Japan | Absent | Jan-Jun-2020 | |||||
Jordan | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2018 | |||||
Kazakhstan | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Kuwait | Present | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Kyrgyzstan | Absent | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Laos | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Lebanon | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Malaysia | Absent | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
-Peninsular Malaysia | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
-Sabah | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
-Sarawak | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Maldives | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Mongolia | Absent | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Myanmar | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Nepal | Present | Jul-Dec-2020 | |||||
North Korea | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Oman | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Pakistan | Absent | Jan-Jun-2020 | |||||
Palestine | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Philippines | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Qatar | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Saudi Arabia | Absent | Jan-Jun-2020 | |||||
Singapore | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
South Korea | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Sri Lanka | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2018 | |||||
Syria | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Taiwan | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Tajikistan | Absent | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Thailand | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2020 | |||||
Turkey | Present | Jan-Jun-2020 | |||||
Turkmenistan | Absent | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
United Arab Emirates | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2020 | |||||
Uzbekistan | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Vietnam | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Europe |
|||||||
Andorra | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Austria | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Belarus | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Belgium | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Bosnia and Herzegovina | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Bulgaria | Absent | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Croatia | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Cyprus | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Czechia | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Denmark | Absent | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Estonia | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Faroe Islands | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2018 | |||||
Finland | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
France | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Germany | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Greece | Absent | Jan-Jun-2018 | |||||
Hungary | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Iceland | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Ireland | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Isle of Man | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Italy | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2020 | |||||
Latvia | Absent | Jul-Dec-2020 | |||||
Liechtenstein | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Lithuania | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Luxembourg | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Malta | Absent | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Moldova | Absent | Jan-Jun-2020 | |||||
Montenegro | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Netherlands | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
North Macedonia | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Norway | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Poland | Absent | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Portugal | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Romania | Absent | Jul-Dec-2018 | |||||
Russia | Absent | Jan-Jun-2020 | |||||
San Marino | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Serbia | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Serbia and Montenegro | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Slovakia | Absent | Jul-Dec-2020 | |||||
Slovenia | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2018 | |||||
Spain | Absent | Jul-Dec-2020 | |||||
Sweden | Absent | Jul-Dec-2020 | |||||
Switzerland | Absent | Jul-Dec-2020 | |||||
Ukraine | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2020 | |||||
United Kingdom | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
North America |
|||||||
Bahamas | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2018 | |||||
Barbados | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2020 | |||||
Belize | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Bermuda | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
British Virgin Islands | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Canada | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Cayman Islands | Absent | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Costa Rica | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Cuba | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Curaçao | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Dominica | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Dominican Republic | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
El Salvador | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Greenland | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2018 | |||||
Guatemala | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Haiti | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Honduras | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2018 | |||||
Jamaica | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2018 | |||||
Martinique | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Mexico | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Nicaragua | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Panama | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Saint Kitts and Nevis | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Saint Lucia | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2018 | |||||
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Trinidad and Tobago | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2018 | |||||
United States | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Oceania |
|||||||
Australia | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Cook Islands | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Federated States of Micronesia | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Fiji | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
French Polynesia | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Kiribati | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2018 | |||||
Marshall Islands | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
New Caledonia | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
New Zealand | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Palau | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2020 | |||||
Samoa | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Timor-Leste | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2018 | |||||
Tonga | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Vanuatu | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
South America |
|||||||
Argentina | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Bolivia | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Brazil | Present | Jul-Dec-2020 | |||||
Chile | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Colombia | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Ecuador | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Falkland Islands | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
French Guiana | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Guyana | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2018 | |||||
Paraguay | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Peru | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Suriname | Absent | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Uruguay | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Venezuela | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 |
Pathology
Top of pageIn equids, findings include nodules, granulomas and/or ulcers in various tissues. The upper respiratory tract is often affected, with ulcers, nodules and/or stellate scars in the nasal passages, larynx and other tissues. Internally, nodules are most likely to be found in the lungs. Nodules and other lesions may be detected in other visceral organs, particularly the liver and spleen. Swollen lymphatics, with chains of nodules and ulcerated nodules, may be found in the skin, while the lymph nodes may be enlarged, congested and/or fibrotic, and can contain abscesses (Spickler, 2018).
Diagnosis
Top of pageIdentification
Bacterial isolation and identification of B. mallei from cutaneous lesions and nasal exudates are considered to be the gold standard for diagnosis of glanders. Bacteria grow aerobically and prefer media that contain glycerol (OIE, 2020). B. mallei usually grows slowly on most culture media, and this property makes it difficult to isolate from clinical specimens. B. mallei is easily overgrown by other bacteria, especially in animal specimens collected from non-sterile sites. Kinoshita et al. (2019) developed a new selective medium (Burkholderia mallei agar: BM agar) for laboratory diagnosis of glanders. The authors say that BM agar can be used to efficiently isolate B. mallei from mixed samples such as those typically collected from horses and other contaminated environments.
Once isolated, B. mallei is usually identified with biochemical tests. B. mallei is not motile and this distinguishes it from other Burkholderia spp., including B. pseudomallei. Due to the risks of human infection, isolates suspected to be B. mallei are typically sent to a reference laboratory for identification. Genetic techniques available in specialized laboratories (e.g., PCR–restriction fragment length polymorphism, pulse-field gel electrophoresis, 16S rRNA sequencing) can distinguish B. mallei from its close relative B. pseudomallei (Spickler, 2018).
Serological tests
Serological tests include complement fixation, ELISA, immunoblot assays and Rose Bengal plate agglutination test (RBT) (OIE, 2020).
Serodiagnosis can be challenging because of false-positive and false-negative test results. The World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) recommends the complement fixation test (CFT) for international trade, but this test has been shown to have varying sensitivities and specificities depending on the antigen and methodology used. False positives are problematic for the horse-owner and veterinary authority, whereas false negatives may allow the reintroduction of B. mallei into B. mallei-free areas (Kettle and Werney, 2016). The accuracy of the CFT, five ELISAs and a Western blot (WB) were compared by Elschner et al. (2019). Four of the ELISA tests are based on recombinant antigens (TssA, TssB, BimA and Hcp1), the IDVet ELISA is based on a semi-purified fraction of B. mallei and WB makes use of a purified LPS-containing B. mallei-antigen. Given their comparable sensitivities and specificities, the authors concluded that the CFT (98.0%, 96.4%), the WB (96.8%, 99.4%), the Hcp1-ELISA (95.3%, 99.6%) and the IDVet-ELISA (92.5%, 99.5%) should be further developed to meet OIE requirements.
Mallein test
A hypersensitivity reaction called the mallein test was used in glanders eradication programmes, and is still used to detect infected equids in some remote endemic areas, where sample transport or proper cooling is not possible (Spickler, 2018; OIE 2020). However, the test is not generally recommended because of animal welfare concerns (OIE, 2020). Mallein, a water-soluble protein fraction of the organism, is injected intradermo-palpebrally (into the eyelid). In infected animals, the eyelid swells markedly within 1-2 days (Spickler, 2018).
Disease Course
Top of pageThe incubation period in equids is reported to range from a few days to many months, but many cases become apparent in 2-6 weeks (Spickler, 2018). There are three clinical forms of the disease in equids: nasal, pulmonary and cutaneous (farcy) glanders. Clinical cases are often a combination of the three forms, and may be acute (or subacute), chronic or latent. Nasal and pulmonary forms tend to be more acute in nature, while the cutaneous form of the disease is a chronic process (OIE, 2020).
Acute cases are typically fatal in a few days. Animals show signs of respiratory disease, cough and fever and the release of an infectious nasal discharge, followed by septicaemia and death within days. In the chronic form, nasal and subcutaneous nodules develop, eventually ulcerating (Marsella, 2019). A latent form of glanders has also been described but may provoke few signs, e.g. nasal discharge and dyspnoea. Donkeys and mules often develop acute glanders after exposure, although mules appear to be somewhat more resistant and the course of the illness may be slower. Horses usually develop chronic glanders (OIE, 2020).
Epidemiology
Top of pageThe transmission of B. mallei occurs by direct contact (Cárdenas et al., 2019). Glanders can spread widely when large numbers of animals are in close contact. A common source of infection appears to be ingestion of food or water contaminated via discharges from the respiratory tract or ulcerated skin lesions from carrier animals. Subclinical carriers are often more important in transmission of disease than clinical cases: Chronically or subclinically infected equids can shed B. mallei intermittently or constantly into food and water troughs. There are reports of venereal transmission from stallions to mares, and vertical transmission from the mare. B. mallei is readily spread with fomites (OIE, 2020). This disease is reported to be more common in animals that are undernourished or otherwise in poor condition (Spickler, 2018).
Impact: Economic
Top of pageThroughout the western world, glanders has been eradicated through large scale culling of infected animals. In developing countries, however, economic and cultural circumstances may hinder culling of asymptomatic animals and enable the persistence of glanders (Scholz et al., 2014). The disease is considered endemic in many developing countries of Asia, Africa and South America (Ghori et al., 2018).
In Brazil, glanders remains a serious problem, with the obligatory sacrifice of disease-positive animals without compensation. Each year, glanders cases are reported in several regions of the country, causing severe economic losses and trade restrictions (Fonseca-Rodríguez et al., 2019).
Due to weaknesses in the diagnosis of glanders, coupled with the increased movement of horses, infection with B. mallei remains a major risk in the context of international movement of equids (Kettle and Wernery, 2016).
Zoonoses and Food Safety
Top of pageHumans may acquire the infection through direct contact with the organism and prolonged contact with diseased animals. Veterinarians, horse caretakers and laboratory workers handling this organism are considered as the professional risk groups. The most common manifestations are life-threatening pneumonia and bacteraemia. Although, early and aggressive treatment with combinations of systemic antibiotics can be curative (Srinivasan et al., 2001), an extremely high rate of mortality can occur in untreated humans (Praveen Malik et al., 2015). There is no vaccine to protect against B. mallei and there is concern regarding its potential use as a biothreat agent (Jelesijevic et al., 2015).
Disease Treatment
Top of pageAntibiotic treatments have been used in endemic zones, but this may lead to subclinical carrier animals that can infect humans and other animals (OIE, 2020). It is believed that partially treated equines with chronic or subclinical infection may be responsible for frequent and continuous outbreaks of glanders in India (Praveen Malik et al., 2015).
Designing effective treatments for glanders is complicated by differences in antibiotic susceptibility patterns between B. mallei isolates, and the inability of some drugs to penetrate into the host cells where this organism replicates (Spickler, 2018).
Muhammad Saqib et al. (2012) note that certain situations e.g. wild life conservation, highly valuable breeding stock, could benefit from effective treatment schemes and post-exposure prophylaxis. They describe a treatment protocol of 12 weeks duration based on the parenteral administration of enrofloxacin and trimethoprim + sulfadiazine, followed by the oral administration of doxycycline during a confined glanders outbreak in horses in Lahore, Pakistan. Although the treatment was successful, they conclude that more studies are needed to test the effectiveness of this treatment regime on B. mallei strains from different endemic regions. Furthermore, due to its cost and duration, this treatment can only be an option in certain situations and should not replace the current “testing and culling” policy, in conjunction with adequate compensation to prevent spreading of disease.
Prevention and Control
Top of pagePrevention and control of glanders requires a programme for early detection, testing of suspect clinical cases, screening of apparently healthy equids, and humane culling of reactors (OIE, 2020). Latently-infected animals pose a high risk of reintroduction of the infection into glanders-free countries (Kettle and Wernery, 2016). Therefore, trade restrictions with animals and products from endemic regions or outbreak areas are mandatory. There is no vaccine.
References
Top of pageOIE Handistatus, 2002. World Animal Health Publication and Handistatus II (dataset for 2001). Paris, France: Office International des Epizooties
OIE Handistatus, 2003. World Animal Health Publication and Handistatus II (dataset for 2002). Paris, France: Office International des Epizooties
OIE Handistatus, 2004. World Animal Health Publication and Handistatus II (data set for 2003). Paris, France: Office International des Epizooties
OIE Handistatus, 2005. World Animal Health Publication and Handistatus II (data set for 2004). Paris, France: Office International des Epizooties
OIE, 2009. World Animal Health Information Database - Version: 1.4. World Animal Health Information Database. Paris, France: World Organisation for Animal Health. http://www.oie.int
OIE, 2020. Glanders (updated January 2020). In: OIE Technical disease cards Paris, France: World Organisation for Animal Health .https://www.oie.int/fileadmin/Home/eng/Animal_Health_in_the_World/docs/pdf/Disease_cards/GLANDERS.pdf
Spickler, A. R., 2018. Glanders. Iowa, USA: Center for Food Security and Public Health (CFSPH), Iowa State University.http://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/DiseaseInfo/factsheets.php
Distribution References
OIE Handistatus, 2005. World Animal Health Publication and Handistatus II (dataset for 2004)., Paris, France: Office International des Epizooties.
OIE, 2009. World Animal Health Information Database - Version: 1.4., Paris, France: World Organisation for Animal Health. https://www.oie.int/
Distribution Maps
Top of pageSelect a dataset
Map Legends
-
CABI Summary Records
Map Filters
Unsupported Web Browser:
One or more of the features that are needed to show you the maps functionality are not available in the web browser that you are using.
Please consider upgrading your browser to the latest version or installing a new browser.
More information about modern web browsers can be found at http://browsehappy.com/