African swine fever virus

Pictures

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Picture

Title

Caption

Copyright

Electron micrograph

A micrograph of an ASF virus particle.

©J.M. Sanchez-Vizcaino (CISA)

Histology

Swine macrophages infected with ASF virus showing hemadsorption.

©J.M. Sanchez-Vizcaino (CISA)

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

African swine fever virus (Murphy et al., 1995)

English acronym

ASFV

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Virus
Group: "ssDNA viruses"
Group: "DNA viruses"
Order: Caudovirales
Family: Asfarviridae
Genus: Asfivirus
Species: African swine fever virus

Diseases Table

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African swine fever

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 10 Jan 2020

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	Reference	Notes
Africa
Algeria	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Angola	Present		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Benin	Present		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Burkina Faso	Present		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Burundi	Present		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Cabo Verde	Present		OIE (2012)
Chad	Present		OIE (2012)
Congo, Democratic Republic of the	Present		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Djibouti	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Egypt	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Eswatini	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Ethiopia	Present		CABI (Undated)	Original citation: AU-IBAR (2011)
Gambia	Present		CABI (Undated)	Original citation: AU-IBAR (2011)
Ghana	Present		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Guinea-Bissau	Present		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Kenya	Present		OIE (2012)
Liberia	Present		CABI (Undated)	Original citation: AU-IBAR (2011)
Libya	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Madagascar	Present		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Malawi	Present		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Mauritius	Present		OIE (2012)
Mozambique	Present		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Namibia	Present	Native	OIE Handistatus (2005)
Nigeria	Present		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Réunion	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Rwanda	Present		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Senegal	Present		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Somalia	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Tanzania	Present		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Togo	Present		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Tunisia	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Uganda	Present		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Zambia	Present		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Asia
Afghanistan	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Bahrain	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Bangladesh	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Bhutan	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Brunei	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Cambodia	Present		Arabyan et al. (2019)
China	Present		Li XiangDong and Tian KeGong (2018)
Georgia	Present		OIE (2009)
India	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Indonesia	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Iran	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Iraq	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Israel	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Japan	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Jordan	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Kazakhstan	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Kuwait	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Laos	Present		FAO (2019)
Malaysia
-Peninsular Malaysia	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
-Sabah	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
-Sarawak	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Mongolia	Present		FAO (2019)
Myanmar	Present		OIE (2019)
Nepal	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
North Korea	Present		FAO (2019)
Oman	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Philippines	Present		OIE (2019a)
Qatar	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Singapore	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
South Korea	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Sri Lanka	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Syria	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Tajikistan	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Thailand	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Turkey	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Turkmenistan	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
United Arab Emirates	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Uzbekistan	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Vietnam	Present		Le et al. (2019)
Yemen	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Europe
Austria	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Belarus	Present		Gallardo et al. (2014)
Belgium	Present		Garigliany et al. (2019)
Bosnia and Herzegovina	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Croatia	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Cyprus	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Czechia	Present		CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Kucínský (2017)
Denmark	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Estonia	Present		Nurmoja et al. (2017)
Finland	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Germany	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Greece	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Hungary	Present		CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Štukelj and Plut (2018)
Iceland	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Ireland	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Isle of Man	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Italy	Present		OIE Handistatus (2005)
-Sardinia	Present		Mur et al. (2016)
Jersey	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Latvia	Present		CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Olševskis et al. (2016)
Lithuania	Present		Gallardo et al. (2014)
Luxembourg	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Moldova	Present		Jurado et al. (2018)
North Macedonia	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Norway	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Poland	Present		Pejsak et al. (2014)
Romania	Present		Olesen et al. (2018)
Slovenia	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Sweden	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Switzerland	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Ukraine	Present		Goller et al. (2015)
United Kingdom	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
-Northern Ireland	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
North America
Barbados	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Belize	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Bermuda	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
British Virgin Islands	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Canada	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Cayman Islands	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Costa Rica	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Curaçao	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Dominica	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
El Salvador	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Guadeloupe	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Guatemala	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Honduras	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Jamaica	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Martinique	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Mexico	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Nicaragua	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Panama	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Saint Kitts and Nevis	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Trinidad and Tobago	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
United States	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Oceania
Australia	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
French Polynesia	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
New Caledonia	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
New Zealand	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Samoa	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Vanuatu	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
South America
Argentina	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Bolivia	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Chile	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Colombia	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Ecuador	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Falkland Islands	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
French Guiana	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Guyana	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Paraguay	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Peru	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Uruguay	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)
Venezuela	Absent, No presence record(s)		OIE Handistatus (2005)

Pathogen Characteristics

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African swine fever virus (ASFV) is a large enveloped virus containing a double stranded (ds) DNA of approximately 190 kilobase pairs. ASFV shares aspects of genome structure and replication strategy with other large dsDNA viruses, including the Poxviridae, Iridoviridae. Although initially classified as an iridovirus, based largely on virion morphology, increasing knowledge of ASFV molecular biology led to its reclassification as the sole member of a new DNA virus family, Asfarviridae (Dixon et al., 2005).

Virus particles have an average diameter of 200 nm (Breese and DeBoer, 1966) and are formed by several concentric coats with an external membrane which has a hexagonal outline. The DNA is double stranded; between 170 and 190 kbp, depending on the isolate. A conserved central region, of about 125 kbp is observed, but the ends of the stranded DNA are variable (Blasco et al., 1989) and the terminal areas show inverted repetitions (Sogo et al., 1984).

The complete DNA sequence of ASFV, isolate BA71v was reported by Yánez et al. (1995). This isolate was shown to be 170,101 nucleotides long, containing 151 open-reading frames and encoding five multigene families.

Twenty-eight structural proteins have been identified in intracellular virus particles (Tabares et al., 1980) and 110 infectious proteins have been described in pig-infected macrophages, of which at least 50 have been shown to react with sera from infected or recovered pigs (Alcaraz et al., 1992). Some of these proteins (VP 73, VP 54, VP 30, VP 12) are very antigenic and are used as antigens for diagnostic techniques, but unfortunately no protection appears to be induced by them (Sanchez-Vizcaino, 1999).

ASFV replicates predominantly in monocytes and macrophage cells (Malmquist and Hay 1960; Mínguez et al., 1988). Virus replication has also been observed in: endothelial cells (Wilkinson and Wardley, 1978), hepatocytes, renal tubular epithelial cells (Gomez-Villamandos et al., 1995) and neutrophils (Carrasco et al., 1996). No infection has been described in T or B porcine lymphocytes (Mínguez et al., 1988; Gomez-Villamandos et al., 1995). ASFV has also been adapted to grow in several stable cell lines such as VERO, MS and CV (Hess et al., 1965).

ASFV is very resistant to low temperatures but a temperature of 56ºC for 70 minutes or 60ºC for 20 minutes can inactivate it. It is inactivated at a pH of less than 3.9, or more than 11.5, in serum-free medium; when serum or organic matter is presented resistance is increased. The ASFV is also susceptible to inactivation by ether and choloroform and to several disinfectants such as sodium hydroxide, hypochlorites, chlorine, formalin, orthophenylphenol and iodine compounds.

ASFV remains viable for long periods in blood, faeces and tissues. It may persist for several weeks or months in frozen or uncooked meat. In products prepared by curing (such as Parma ham), infectivity was not demonstrated in ham after 300 days of processing and curing (McKercher et al., 1987). In Spanish dry-cured meat products such as Serrano hams and Iberian hams and shoulder, the virus survives for 140 days in hams and for 112 days in loin meat (Mebus et al., 1993).

ASFV can remain in an infectious state in the vector Ornithodoros ticks for months or occasionally years.

Disease(s) associated with this pathogen is/are on the list of diseases notifiable to the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE). Please see the AHPC library for further information from OIE, including the International Animal Health Code and the Manual of Standards for Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines. Also see the website: www.oie.int.

Host Animals

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Animal name	Context	Life stage	System
Hylochoerus meinertzhageni	Wild host
Phacochoerus aethiopicus	Wild host
Phacochoerus africanus	Wild host
Potamochoerus larvatus	Wild host
Potamochoerus porcus	Wild host
Sus scrofa (pigs)

Vectors and Intermediate Hosts

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Vector	Source	Group	Distribution
Ornithodoros coriaceus	MINED DATA; 16/11/01 14:00:0	Tick
Ornithodoros erraticus		Tick	Gibraltar; Portugal; Spain
Ornithodoros erraticus erraticus	MINED DATA; 16/11/01 14:00:0	Tick
Ornithodoros moubata		Tick	Central Africa; Southern Africa; West Africa
Ornithodoros moubata moubata	MINED DATA; 16/11/01 14:00:0	Tick
Ornithodoros moubata porcinus	MINED DATA; 16/11/01 14:00:0	Tick
Ornithodoros parkeri	MINED DATA; 16/11/01 14:00:0	Tick
Ornithodoros puertoricensis	MINED DATA; 16/11/01 14:00:0	Tick
Ornithodoros savignyi		Tick	Africa
Simulium damnosum	MINED DATA; 16/11/01 14:00:0	Insect
Simulium exiguum	MINED DATA; 16/11/01 14:00:0	Insect
Stomoxys calcitrans	MINED DATA; 16/11/01 14:00:0	Insect
Triatoma gerstaeckeri	MINED DATA; 16/11/01 14:00:0
Triatoma infestans	MINED DATA; 16/11/01 14:00:0

References

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African Union-Interafrican Bureau for Animal Resources, 2011. Pan African Animal Health Yearbook, Nairobi, Kenya: African Union Inter-African Bureau for Animal Resources (AU-IBAR) 2011, xiii + 90 pp. http://www.au-ibar.org/index.php?option=com_flexicontent&view=items&cid=71&id=109&Itemid=56&lang=en

Alcaraz C, Alvarez A, Escribano JM, 1992. Flow cytometric analysis of African swine fever virus-induced plasma membrane proteins and their humoral immune response in infected pigs. Virology (New York), 189(1):266-273; 42 ref

Arabyan, E., Kotsynyan, A., Hakobyan, A., Zakaryan, H., 2019. Antiviral agents against African swine fever virus. Virus Research, 270, 197669. doi: 10.1016/j.virusres.2019.197669

Blasco R, Agüero M, Almendral JM, Vinuela E, 1989. Variable and constant regions in African swine fever virus DNA. Virology (New York), 168(2):330-338; 40 ref

Breese S, De Boer CJ, 1966. Electron microscope observation of Africa swine fever virus in tissue culture cells. Virology, 28:420-428

Carrasco L, Chacón-M de Lara F, Martín de las Mulas J, Gómez-Villamanods JC, Hervás J, Wilkinson PJ, Sierra MA, 1996. Virus association with lymphocytes in acute African swine fever. Veterinary Research, 27(3):305-312; 26 ref

Dixon L. K., Escribano J. M., Martins C., Rock D. L., Salas M. L., Wilkinson P. J., 2005. Asfarviridae. In: Virus taxonomy. VIIIth Report of the ICTV, [ed. by Fauquet, C. M. , Mayo, M. A. , Maniloff, J. , Desselberger, U., Ball, L. A.]. London, UK: Elsevier/Academic Press. 135-143.

FAO, 2019. GIEWS Update. East and Southeast Asia - African Swine Fever is rapidly spreading in East and Southeast Asia threatening food security and livelihoods of households relying on pig farming, 2 July 2019. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.http://www.fao.org/3/ca5273en/ca5273en.pdf

Gallardo, C., Fernández-Pinero, J., Pelayo, V., Gazaev, I., Markowska-Daniel, I., Pridotkas, G., Nieto, R., Fernández-Pacheco, P., Bokhan, S., Nevolko, O., Drozhzhe, Z., Pérez, C., Soler, A., Kolvasov, D., Arias, M., 2014. Genetic variation among African swine fever genotype II viruses, eastern and Central Europe. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 20(9), 1544-1547. http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/20/9/pdfs/14-0554.pdf

Garigliany, M., Desmecht, D., Tignon, M., Cassart, D., Lesenfant, C., Paternostre, J., Volpe, R., Cay, A. B., Berg, T. van den, Linden, A., 2019. Phylogeographic analysis of African swine fever virus, Western Europe, 2018. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 25(1), 184-186. https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/content/25/1/pdfs/v25-n1.pdf doi: 10.3201/eid2501.181535

Goller, K. V., Malogolovkin, A. S., Katorkin, S., Kolbasov, D., Titov, I., Höper, D., Beer, M., Keil, G. M., Portugal, R., Blome, S., 2015. Tandem repeat insertion in African swine fever virus, Russia, 2012. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 21(4), 731-732. http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/21/4/pdfs/14-1792.pdf doi: 10.3201/eid2104.141792

Gomez-Villamandos J, Hervas J, Mendez A, Carrasco L, Villeda C, Wilkinson P, Sierra M, 1995. Experimental African swine fever: apoptosis of lymphocytes and virus replication in other cells. J. Gen. Virol., 76:2399-2405

Hess WL, Cox BF, Heuschele WP, Stone SS, 1965. Propagation and modification of African swine fever virus in cell cultures. Am. J. Vet. Res., 26:141-146

Jurado, C., Martínez-Avilés, M., Torre, A. de la, Štukelj, M., Ferreira, H. C. de C., Cerioli, M., Sánchez-Vizcaíno, J. M., Bellini, S., 2018. Relevant measures to prevent the spread of African swine fever in the European Union domestic pig sector. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 5(April), 77. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fvets.2018.00077/full doi: 10.3389/fvets.2018.00077

Kucínský, P., 2017. Occurrence of African swine fever in wild pigs in the Czech Republic. (Výskyt Afrického moru prasat v Ceské Republice). Veterinárství, 67(10), 815-820. http://www.vetweb.cz

Le, V. P. , Jeong, D. G., Yoon, S. W., Kwon, H. M. , Trinh, T. B. N., Nguyen, T. L. , Bui, T. T. N. , Oh, J., Kim, J. B. , Cheong, K. M. , Van Tuyen, N., Bae, E., Vu, T. T. H. , Yeom, M., Na, W., Song, D., 2019. Outbreak of African Swine Fever, Vietnam, 2019. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 27(7), 1433-1435. doi: 10.3201/eid2507.190303

Li XiangDong, Tian KeGong, 2018. African swine fever in China. Veterinary Record, 183(9), 300-301. http://veterinaryrecord.bvapublications.com/archive/

Malmquist WA, Hay D, 1960. Hemadsorption and cytophathic effect produced by African swine fever virus in swine bone marrow and buffy coat cultures. Am. J. Vet. Res., 21:104-108

McKercher PD, Yedloutschnig RJ, Callis JJ, Murphy R, Panina GF, Civardi A, Bugnetti M, Foni E, Laddomada A, Scarano C, Scatozza F, 1987. Survival of viruses in Prosciutto di Parma (Parma ham). Canadian Institute of Food Science and Technology Journal, 20(4):267-272; 13 ref

Medbus CA, House C, Gonzalvo FR, Pineda JM, Tapiador J, Pire JJ, Bergada J, Yedloutschnig RJ, Sahu S, Becerra V, Sanchez-Vizcaino JM, 1993. Survival of foot-and-mouth disease, African swine fever, and hog cholera viruses in Spanish Serrano cured hams and Iberian cured hams, shoulders and loins. Food Microbiology, 10(2):133-143; 6 ref

Mínguez I, Rueda A, Domínguez J, Sánchez-Vizcaíno JM, 1988. Double labeling immunohistological study of African swine fever virus-infected spleen and lymph nodes. Veterinary Pathology, 25(3):193-198; 25 ref

Mur, L., Atzeni, M., Martínez-López, B., Feliziani, F., Rolesu, S., Sanchez-Vizcaino, J. M., 2016. Thirty-five-year presence of African swine fever in Sardinia: history, evolution and risk factors for disease maintenance. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases, 63(2), e165-e177. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/tbed.12264/abstract doi: 10.1111/tbed.12264

Murphy F, Fauquet C, Bishop D, Ghabrial S, Harvis A, Martinelli G, Mayo M, Summer M, 1995. Virus taxonomy. Sixth report of the International Committee on taxonomy of viruses. Archives of Virology, Suplement 10

Nurmoja, I., Petrov, A., Breidenstein, C., Zani, L., Forth, J. H., Beer, M., Kristian, M., Viltrop, A., Blome, S., 2017. Biological characterization of African swine fever virus genotype II strains from north-eastern Estonia in European wild boar. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases, 64(6), 2034-2041. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/wol1/doi/10.1111/tbed.12614/abstract doi: 10.1111/tbed.12614

OIE Handistatus, 2005. World Animal Health Publication and Handistatus II (data set for 2004). Paris, France: Office International des Epizooties

OIE, 2005. African swine fever in Namibia. Follow-up report No. 1. Disease Information, 18(1)

OIE, 2009. World Animal Health Information Database - Version: 1.4. World Animal Health Information Database. Paris, France: World Organisation for Animal Health.http://www.oie.int

OIE, 2012. World Animal Health Information Database. Version 2. World Animal Health Information Database. Paris, France: World Organisation for Animal Health.http://www.oie.int/wahis_2/public/wahid.php/Wahidhome/Home

OIE, 2019. African swine fever, Myanmar, (Immediate notification). In: OIE World Animal Health Information System. Weekly Disease Information, 32(33) . Paris, France: World Organisation for Animal Health.https://www.oie.int/wahis_2/public/wahid.php/Reviewreport/Review?page_refer=MapFullEventReport&reportid=31365

OIE, 2019. African swine fever, Philippines, (Immediate notification). In: OIE World Animal Health Information System. Weekly Disease Information, 32(37) . Paris, France: World Organisation for Animal Health .https://www.oie.int/wahis_2/public/wahid.php/Reviewreport/Review?page_refer=MapFullEventReport&reportid=31677

Olesen, A. S., Lohse, L., Boklund, A., Halasa, T., Belsham, G. J., Rasmussen, T. B., Bøtner, A., 2018. Short time window for transmissibility of African swine fever virus from a contaminated environment. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases, 65(4), 1024-1032. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/tbed.12837

Olševskis, E., Guberti, V., Seržants, M., Westergaard, J., Gallardo, C., Rodze, I., Depner, K., 2016. African swine fever virus introduction into the EU in 2014: experience of Latvia. Research in Veterinary Science, 105, 28-30. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/00345288 doi: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2016.01.006

Pejsak, Z., Truszczynski, M., Niemczuk, K., Kozak, E., Markowska-Daniel, I., 2014. Epidemiology of African Swine Fever in Poland since the detection of the first case. Polish Journal of Veterinary Sciences, 17(4), 665-672. http://www.uwm.edu.pl/pjvsci/content.html

Sanchez-Vizcaino JM, 1999. African swine fever. In: Leman AD, Straw BE, Mengeling WL, Dallaire S, Taylor DJ, eds. Diseases of swine. 8th edition. Iowa State University

Sogo JM, Almendral JM, Talavera A, Vinuela E, 1984. Terminal and internal inverted repetitions in African swine fever virus DNA. Virology, 133(2):271-275; 14 ref

Štukelj, M., Plut, J., 2018. A review of African swine fever - disease that is now a big concern in Europe. Contemporary Agriculture, (No.2), 110-118. https://content.sciendo.com/view/journals/contagri/contagri-overview.xml

Tabares E, Marcotegui MA, Fernandez M, Sanchez Botija C, 1980. Proteins specified by African swine fever virus I. Analysis of viral structural proteins and antigenic properties. Arch. Virol., 66:107-117

Wilkinson PJ, Wardley RC, 1978. The replication of ASFV in pig endothelial cells. Br. Vet. J., 134:280-282

Yánez RJ, Rodríguez JM, Nogal ML, Yuste L, Enríquez C, Rodriguez JF, Vinuela E, 1995. Analysis of the complete nucleotide sequence of African swine fever virus. Virology (New York), 208(1):249-278; many ref

Distribution References

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