Boerhavia diffusa (red spiderling)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
- Biology and Ecology
- Soil Tolerances
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Economic Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Links to Websites
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Boerhavia diffusa L.
Preferred Common Name
- red spiderling
Other Scientific Names
- Axia cochinchinensis Lour.
- Boerhavia adscendens Willd.
- Boerhavia caespitosa Ridl.
- Boerhavia ciliatobracteata Heimerl
- Boerhavia coccinea var. leiocarpa (Heimerl) Standl.
- Boerhavia coccinea var. paniculata Moscoso
- Boerhavia friesii Heimerl
- Boerhavia paniculata Rich.
- Boerhavia paniculata f. esetosa Heimerl
- Boerhavia paniculata var. guaranitica Heimerl
- Boerhavia paniculata var. leiocarpa (Heimerl) Heimerl
- Boerhavia procumbens Banks ex Roxb
- Boerhavia repanda Wall.
- Boerhavia repens var. diffusa (L.) Hook. f.
International Common Names
- English: hogweed; pigweed; spreading hogweed
- Spanish: escorian morado (Guatemala); hierba de cabro (Guatemala); hierba de puerco; mata pavo (Cuba); moradilla (Guatemala); pegajera (Bolivia); pega-pollo (Dominican Republic); raíz china (Bolivia); rodilla de pollo (Colombia); tripa de pollo (Colombia)
- French: boerhaavia à fleurs rouges
- Arabic: handakuki; sabaka
- Chinese: huang xi xin
- Portuguese: agarra-pinto; amarra-pinto; celidônia
Local Common Names
- Persian Gulf States: devasapat
- Brazil: erva-tostao; pega-pinto
- Caribbean: ipeca
- Dominican Republic: pega pollo cimarron; toston; yerba de puerco
- Haiti: liane manger cochon; manger cochon
- India: bashkhira; punarnava; sant
- Sri Lanka: chattaranai; kancharanai; mukurattai
EPPO code
- BOEDI (Boerhavia diffusa)
- BOERE (Boerhavia repanda)
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageB. diffusa is a fast-growing weed common in ruderal areas, agricultural land, and pastures. It has been listed as invasive in Argentina, Paraguay, Chile, Trinidad and Tobago, Hawaii, Japan and Cambodia where it is invading principally coastal and ruderal areas (Wagner et al., 1999; Mito and Uesugi, 2004; Zuloaga et al., 2008; PIER, 2015). The sticky fruits of the plant facilitate dispersal.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Caryophyllales
- Family: Nyctaginaceae
- Genus: Boerhavia
- Species: Boerhavia diffusa
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageBoerhavia diffusa belongs to the Tribe Nyctagineae of the Nyctagineaceae family (Stevens, 2015). Mukherjee (1984) has revised Indian Nyctaginaceae members. Bramadhayalaselvam (1991) made revisionary studies on the South Indian species of Nyctaginaceae. The spelling Boerhaavia has been widely used for this genus, but most recent texts use Boerhavia.
Taxonomy of the genus is complex and interpreted in various ways. Some authors treat B. repens L. and B. diffusa L. as synonyms. Singh (1988) and Stemmerik (1964) conclude that there is too much variation to distinguish these two (and B. procumbens) and all three are treated as conspecific in Indian floras. B. diffusa is certainly a highly variable plant and Theodore Cooke (1958) refers to it as a 'protean' plant, changing its appearance according to soil and climate. Others (e.g. Hutchinson and Dalziel, 1954) distinguish B. repens as a separate species with more prostrate stems, smaller flowers and smaller leaves than B. diffusa (= B. repens L. var. diffusa (L.) Hook. f.). Matters are also confused because the name B. diffusa has been misapplied by some authors to the closely related B. coccinea Mill. which is also a very widely distributed weed. In Holm et al. (1979)B. coccinea is treated as a synonym of B. diffusa. See Similarities to Other Species for means of separating these two species.
Description
Top of page
The genus Boerhavia can be recognised by its erect or diffused herbaceous habit, funnel-shaped, plicate limb of the perianth and paniculate inflorescence.
Prostrate or ascending herb, to 50 cm long, many-branched from a taproot; twigs cylindrical, glabrous. Leaves in unequal pairs; blades 1.2-5.5 × 1.3-4 cm, ovate to wide ovate, chartaceous, sparsely pilose, especially on veins, lower side glaucous, the apex rounded to acute, shortly apiculate, the base rounded, truncate to nearly cordate, the margins wavy, ciliate; petioles pilose, 0.5-3 cm long. Flowers nearly sessile, 2-4(-7) in terminal, subcapitate clusters on axillary racemes or terminal panicles, 10-30 cm long; the axes glabrous; bracts and bracteoles lanceolate. Calyx base 0.5-1.5 mm, puberulent, the limb funnel-shaped, red or violet, 0.6-1 mm long; stamens usually 2, slightly exserted. Anthocarp sessile, green, glandular pubescent, sticky, short club-shaped, 2-2.5 mm long, 5-ribbed.
Distribution
Top of pageB. diffusa is pantropical in distribution. It is recorded in floras of India, Malaysia and West Pakistan, and in many of the Indian regional floras such as Madras (Gamble, 1957), Tamil Nadu Carnatic (Matthew, 1983), Goa, Diu, Daman and Nagarhaveli (Rolla Seshagiri Rao, 1986), Tamil Nadu (Henry et al., 1987), Cannanore (Ramachandran and Nair, 1988) and Eastern Karnataka (Singh, 1988). B. diffusa has also been recorded in much of Africa, tropical and temperate Asia, southern North America, Central America, the West Indies, and South America (see distribution table for details; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2015; PIER, 2015; PROTA, 2015; USDA-ARS, 2015). Its native range is unclear, and it is widely naturalized (USDA-ARS, 2015).
Owing to the possible confusion with B. coccinea, it is possible that some of the records included here are more correctly attributed to the latter.
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 10 Feb 2022Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Benin | Present | ||||||
Botswana | Present | ||||||
Côte d'Ivoire | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Egypt | Present | ||||||
Ethiopia | Present | ||||||
Ghana | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Kenya | Present | ||||||
Liberia | Present | ||||||
Malawi | Present | Native | |||||
Mauritius | Present | ||||||
Mozambique | Present | ||||||
Namibia | Present | Native | |||||
Nigeria | Present | ||||||
Rwanda | Present | Native | |||||
Senegal | Present | ||||||
Sierra Leone | Present | ||||||
Somalia | Present | Native | |||||
South Africa | Present | ||||||
Sudan | Present | ||||||
Tanzania | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Togo | Present | ||||||
Uganda | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Zambia | Present | ||||||
Zimbabwe | Present | Introduced | 1906 | ||||
Asia |
|||||||
Afghanistan | Present | ||||||
Cambodia | Present | Invasive | Probably native | ||||
China | Present | ||||||
-Fujian | Present | ||||||
-Guangdong | Present | ||||||
-Guangxi | Present | ||||||
-Guizhou | Present | ||||||
-Hainan | Present | ||||||
-Sichuan | Present | ||||||
-Yunnan | Present | ||||||
India | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Andhra Pradesh | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Assam | Present | ||||||
-Goa | Present | ||||||
-Gujarat | Present | ||||||
-Himachal Pradesh | Present | ||||||
-Karnataka | Present | ||||||
-Madhya Pradesh | Present | ||||||
-Maharashtra | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Punjab | Present | ||||||
-Rajasthan | Present | ||||||
-Tamil Nadu | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Uttar Pradesh | Present | ||||||
Indonesia | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Japan | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Ryukyu Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Kuwait | Present | ||||||
Malaysia | Present | ||||||
Myanmar | Present | ||||||
Nepal | Present | ||||||
Oman | Present | Native | |||||
Pakistan | Present | ||||||
Philippines | Present | ||||||
Saudi Arabia | Present | Native | |||||
Singapore | Present | ||||||
Sri Lanka | Present | ||||||
Taiwan | Present | Native | |||||
Thailand | Present | ||||||
Vietnam | Present | ||||||
Yemen | Present | Native | |||||
Europe |
|||||||
Germany | Present | ||||||
North America |
|||||||
Anguilla | Present | Native | |||||
Bahamas | Present | Native | |||||
Belize | Present | Native | |||||
Bonaire, Saint Eustatius and Saba | |||||||
-Bonaire | Present | Native | |||||
-Saba | Present | Native | |||||
British Virgin Islands | Present | Native | Tortola, Virgin Gorda | ||||
Cayman Islands | Present | Native | |||||
Costa Rica | Present | Native | |||||
Cuba | Present | Native | |||||
Curaçao | Present | Native | |||||
Dominica | Present | Native | |||||
Dominican Republic | Present | Native | |||||
El Salvador | Present | ||||||
Grenada | Present | Native | |||||
Guadeloupe | Present | Native | |||||
Guatemala | Present | ||||||
Haiti | Present | Native | |||||
Honduras | Present | ||||||
Jamaica | Present | Native | |||||
Mexico | Present | Native | |||||
Montserrat | Present | Native | |||||
Nicaragua | Present | Native | |||||
Panama | Present | Native | |||||
Puerto Rico | Present | Native | |||||
Saint Lucia | Present | Native | |||||
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | Present | Native | |||||
Trinidad and Tobago | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
U.S. Virgin Islands | Present | Native | St Thomas, St Croix, St John | ||||
United States | Present | ||||||
-Alabama | Present | Native | |||||
-California | Present | Native | |||||
-Florida | Present | Native | |||||
-Georgia | Present | Native | |||||
-Hawaii | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Louisiana | Present | Native | |||||
-North Carolina | Present | Native | |||||
-South Carolina | Present | Native | |||||
-Texas | Present | Native | |||||
Oceania |
|||||||
Australia | Present | ||||||
Federated States of Micronesia | Present | ||||||
Fiji | Present | Native | |||||
Guam | Present | Introduced | |||||
Marshall Islands | Present | ||||||
New Caledonia | Present | Native | |||||
Papua New Guinea | Present | Native | |||||
South America |
|||||||
Argentina | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Bolivia | Present | ||||||
Brazil | Present | ||||||
-Amazonas | Present | ||||||
-Bahia | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Ceara | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Espirito Santo | Present | ||||||
-Goias | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Maranhao | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Mato Grosso | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Minas Gerais | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Para | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Paraiba | Present | ||||||
-Parana | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Pernambuco | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Piaui | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Rio Grande do Norte | Present | ||||||
-Santa Catarina | Present | ||||||
-Sao Paulo | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Sergipe | Present | ||||||
Chile | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Colombia | Present | ||||||
Ecuador | Present, Widespread | ||||||
French Guiana | Present | Native | |||||
Guyana | Present | Native | |||||
Paraguay | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Peru | Present | Native | |||||
Suriname | Present | Native | |||||
Venezuela | Present | Native |
Habitat
Top of pageB. diffusa is a tropical species growing in various soil types in waste places, along roadsides, near habitations, in and along cultivated fields and in open cleared patches in forests. The weed is also noted in dry waste lands, cultivated land and pasture. In China it is found in open places near sea, and in dry and warm river valleys, at 100-1900 m (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2015).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Natural |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
Top of pagePlant name | Family | Context | References |
---|---|---|---|
Allium cepa (onion) | Liliaceae | Unknown | |
Arachis hypogaea (groundnut) | Fabaceae | Main | |
Brassica juncea var. juncea (Indian mustard) | Brassicaceae | Main | |
Brassica nigra (black mustard) | Brassicaceae | Main | |
Manihot esculenta (cassava) | Euphorbiaceae | Main | |
Morus alba (mora) | Moraceae | Unknown | |
Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco) | Solanaceae | Main | |
Oryza sativa (rice) | Poaceae | Main | |
Pennisetum glaucum (pearl millet) | Poaceae | Main | |
Phoenix dactylifera (date-palm) | Arecaceae | Main | |
Saccharum officinarum (sugarcane) | Poaceae | Main | |
Solanum lycopersicum (tomato) | Solanaceae | Unknown | |
Triticum aestivum (wheat) | Poaceae | Unknown | |
Vigna unguiculata (cowpea) | Fabaceae | Main | |
Zea mays (maize) | Poaceae | Unknown |
Biology and Ecology
Top of page
Chromosome number n = 26 and 2n = 52 (Virendra Kumar and Subramaniam, 1986).
According to Nadkarni (1976), there are two types of B. diffusa, one with white flowers and the other with pink flowers; the former is used in medicine. The sizes of the leaf, petiole and fruit show a high degree of variation from region to region, probably due to ecological factors (Nadkarni, 1976).
B. diffusa propagates by root stocks and by seed, although seeds only account for 21% of reproduction. It flowers and fruits throughout the year (Mathur and Bandari, 1983). The first flowers may appear 4 weeks after germination of the seeds (Muzila, 2006).
Environmental Requirements
B. diffusa grows as a weed in ruderal areas, preferring sunny sites, sandy soils and a slightly seasonal climate, from sea-level up to 1900 m altitude. It is also a weed in cultivated land and grazing pasture. It prefers soils with pH ranging from 6.6 to 7.8 (Muzila, 2006).
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Punarnavomyia boerhaaviaefoliae | Parasite | Plants|Growing point; Plants|Leaves |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageSeveral host-specific diseases have been identified in India on B. diffusa: (1) Passalora diffusa causing chlorotic leaf spots, and (2) Colletotrichum boerhaviae causing brown necrotic spots. Also in India, B. diffusa is recorded as a host for the virus causing aubergine mosaic disease (EMV), and in Costa Rica as a host of zucchini yellow mosaic potyvirus (ZYMV). In Cameroon B. diffusa is an alternative host for the cotton aphid (Aphis gossypii), and in Nigeria caterpillars of Aegocera rectilinea [Aegoceropsis rectilinea] and Hippotion celerio were found feeding on B. diffusa (Muzila, 2006). B. diffusa is also reported as an alternate host for rice nematode (Kumar, 1990). Mani (1973) reported a cecidomyiid insect natural enemy but could not specify the species.
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageThe small fruit of B. diffusa are very sticky and grow close to the ground. They can therefore attach to human clothing or to animals and birds, enabling wide dispersal. Because this species grows as a weed, its seeds can also be dispersed accidentally as a contaminant (Wagner et al., 1999; Muzila, 2006; PIER, 2015).
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Crop production | Weed on agricultural land | Yes | Yes | Muzila (2006) |
Disturbance | Yes | Yes | Muzila (2006) | |
Medicinal use | Plant parts used medicinally in Asia | Yes | Yes | Flora of China Editorial Committee (2015) |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Clothing, footwear and possessions | Sticky fruits adhere to clothing | Yes | PIER (2015) | |
Debris and waste associated with human activities | Weed in pastures and agricultural land | Yes | Yes | Muzila (2006) |
Livestock | Sticky fruits adhere to animal fur | Yes | PIER (2015) |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Economic/livelihood | Positive and negative |
Environment (generally) | Positive and negative |
Economic Impact
Top of pageB. diffusa is reported as one of the predominant weeds of cassava in Venezuela (Quiñones and Moreno, 1995). It is also recorded associated with Xylella fastidiosa in grape in Venezuela (Hernández-Garboza and Ochoa-Corona, 1994). It is the most common principal weed of date palm orchards in India (Josan et al., 1993) and is one of the most problematic weeds in mustard in India (Rajput et al., 1993), where it is also recorded as a weed in tobacco, pearl millet and groundnut (Singh and Prasad, 1987; Murthy et al., 1991; Singh and Prasad, 1991; Kennedy et al., 1992). In Nigeria it is also recorded as a main weed in upland rice (Kehinde and Fagade, 1986). In Hawaii this species is a common weed spreading rapidly principally in coastal areas, disturbed places, and disturbed forests (Wagner et al., 1999).
B. diffusa indirectly limits crop production by serving as an alternative host to crop pests; the weed provides food, shelter and reproductive sites for insects, nematodes and pathogens (Kumar, 1990). B. diffusa is recorded as an alternative host for Aproaerema modicella (groundnut leaf miner) (Kennedy et al., 1992). Yield losses attributed to these factors are difficult to determine.
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Abundant in its native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Is a habitat generalist
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Highly mobile locally
- Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
- Long lived
- Fast growing
- Damaged ecosystem services
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Modification of successional patterns
- Monoculture formation
- Negatively impacts agriculture
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Competition - smothering
- Pest and disease transmission
- Rapid growth
- Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
- Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
Uses
Top of pageThe whole plant or its specific parts (leaves, stem, and roots) have a long history of use by indigenous and tribal people in India. The leaves of B. diffusa are eaten as a pot-herb and the root is employed in medicine to cure diarrhoea, dysentery and cholera (Kirtikar and Basu, 1975). Aqueous extracts of B. diffusa possess strong antiviral activity (Nagarajan et al., 1990). The roots contain a quinolone alkaloid which is the main medicinally active compound. The whole plant of B. diffusa is a very useful source of the drug punarnava, which is documented in Indian Pharmacopoeia as a diuretic.
Uses List
Top of pageAnimal feed, fodder, forage
- Fodder/animal feed
- Forage
Environmental
- Host of pest
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Traditional/folklore
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageB. diffusa has a habit similar to Boerehavia repens, but B. repens differs by its flowers less than 1 mm across and leaves mostly less than 2.5 cm long. B. erecta is similar in habit but lacks the sticky fruits of B. diffusa. Confusion is most likely with B. coccinea which also has sticky fruits, but its flowers are in denser clusters, 4-12 per umbel (versus 2-4 in B. diffusa), paler (pink or mauve versus rich magenta or crimson in B. diffusa) and the inflorescence is more shortly branched, more leafy and less diffuse (Hutchinson and Dalziel, 1954).
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Introduction
The choice of control method depends upon the value of the crop and the severity of the weed.
Methods that are commonly used to control perennial herbs and that can be used for B. diffusa include preparation of a clean seed bed, crop rotation, tillage methods and physical methods (hand weeding and spade digging).
Chemical Control
Seedlings are relatively susceptible to 2,4-D and some control of established plants can also be expected (Ivens, 1967). There is little other direct information on susceptibility of B. diffusa to herbicides, but those which have been noted to give good control of mixed weed populations, including B. diffusa, include fluchloralin and oxyfluorfen in tobacco (Murthy et al., 1991) and atrazine in fodder maize (Singh and Prasad, 1988).
Hand Weeding
Hand weeding of B. diffusa resulted in a yield increase compared to the control in mustard (Rajput et al., 1993).
In chewing tobacco, yield without weed control yield was 1.39 t/ha and after controlling the weeds, including B. diffusa, by hand weeding and spade digging or by herbicides the yield was 2.83-2.99 t/ha (Murthy et al., 1991).
Yields were considerably improved by hand weeding 30 days after sowing in fodder maize (Singh and Prasad, 1988).
References
Top of pageAcevedo-Rodríguez P; Strong MT, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, 98:1192 pp. Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm
Bramadhayalaselvam A, 1991. Revision of South Indian Nyctaginaceae, M.Phil. dissertation submitted to University of Madras, Tamilnadu, India.
Broome R; Sabir K; Carrington S, 2007. Plants of the Eastern Caribbean. Online database. Barbados: University of the West Indies. http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/index.html
Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2015. Flora of China. St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2
Gamble JS, 1957. Flora of the Presidency of Madras. Vol. II. Calcutta, India: Botanical Survey of India.
Henry AN; Kumari GR; Chitra V, 1987. Flora of Tamil Nadu, India. Vol. II. Coimbatore, India: Botanical Survey of India.
Hooker JD, 1885. Flora of British India. Ist edn. Vol. IV. Kent, UK: L. Reeve & Company Limited.
Hutchinson J; Dalziel JM, 1954. Flora of West Tropical Africa, Volume 1, Part 1 (revised by Keay RWJ). London, UK: Crown Agents.
IABIN, 2015. List of Alien Invasive Species occurring in Jamaica. The United States Node of the Inter-American Biodiversity Information Net (IABIN). ttp://i3n.iabin.net/
Ivens GW, 1967. East Africa Weeds and their Control. Nairobi, Kenya: Oxford University Press.
Kamble SY; Pradhan SG, 1988. Flora of Akola District, Maharastra. Ser. 3. Calcutta, India: Botanical Survey of India.
Kirtikar KR; Basu BD, 1975. Indian Medicinal Plants, Vol. III. Dehradun, India: International Book Distributors.
Mathur A; Bandari MM, 1983. New Biosystematics varience in Boerhavia diffusa L. growing in different soil. GEOBIOS, NEW REP., 2(1):35-38.
Matthew KM, 1983. Flora of the Tamilnadu Carnatic. Vol.III. Tiruchirapalli, India: The Rapinat Herbarium.
Mito T; Uesugi T, 2004. Invasive alien species in Japan: the status quo and the new regulation for prevention of their adverse effects. Global Environmental Research, 8(2):171-191.
Mukherjee AK, 1984. Revision of Nyctaginaceae, India. Journal Economic and Taxonomic Botany, 5:(3)581-582.
Muzila M, 2006. Boerhavia diffusa L. [Internet] Record from PROTA4U. PROTA (Plant Resources of Tropical Africa / Ressources végétales de l'Afrique tropicale), [ed. by Schmelzer, G. H. \Gurib-Fakim, A.]. Wageningen, Netherlands: PROTA. http://www.prota4u.org/search.asp
Nadkarni KM, 1976. The Indian Materia Medica. Bombay, India: Popular Prakashan Private Limited.
PIER, 2015. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
PROTA, 2015. PROTA4U web database. Grubben GJH, Denton OA, eds. Wageningen, Netherlands: Plant Resources of Tropical Africa. http://www.prota4u.info
Ramachandran VS; Nair VJ, 1988. Flora of Cannanore. Ser. 3. India: Botanical Survey of India.
Rolla Seshagiri Rao, 1986. Flora of Goa, Diu, Daman, Dadra and Nagarhaveli. Ser. 2. Calcutta, India: Botanical Survey of India.
Sá CFC, 2015. Nyctaginaceae in Lista de Espécies da Flora do Brasil (Nyctaginaceae in the list of species of the flora of Brazil). Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro. http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/jabot/floradobrasil/FB10904
Singh NP, 1988. Flora of Eastern Karnataka. Vol. II. Delhi, India: Mittal Publications.
Stemmerik JF, 1964. Flora of Malesiana. Vol. 6. Groningen, The Netherlands: Wolters-Noordhoff Publishing.
Stevens PF, 2015. Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Version 13. St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/.
Theodore Cooke, 1958. Flora of the Presidency of Bombay. Vol. II. Calcutta, India: Botanical Survey of India.
USDA-ARS, 2015. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx
USDA-NRCS, 2015. The PLANTS Database. Baton Rouge, USA: National Plant Data Center. http://plants.usda.gov/
Virendra Kumar; Subramaniam B, 1986. Chromosome Atlas of flowering plants of Indian subcontinent. Vol.I. Dicotyledons. Calcutta, India: Botanical Survey of India.
Zuloaga FO; Morrone O; Belgrano MJ, 2008. Catálogo de las Plantas Vasculares del Cono Sur: (Argentina, Sur de Brasil, Chile, Paraguay y Uruguay) ([English title not available])., USA: Missouri Botanical Garden Press, 3348 pp.
Distribution References
Bramadhayalaselvam A, 1991. Revision of South Indian Nyctaginaceae., Tamilnadu, India: University of Madras.
Broome R, Sabir K, Carrington S, 2007. Plants of the Eastern Caribbean., Barbados: University of the West Indies. http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/index.html
CABI, Undated. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2015. Flora of China., St. Louis, Missouri; Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2
Hooker J D, 1885. Flora of British India, Vol. IV. Ashford, Kent, UK: L. Reeve & Company Limited.
IABIN, 2015. List of Alien Invasive Species occurring in Jamaica., The United States Node of the Inter-American Biodiversity Information Net (IABIN). http://i3n.iabin.net/
Kamble SY, Pradhan SG, 1988. Flora of Akola District, Maharastra., Calcutta, India: Botanical Survey of India.
Martin R, Pol C, 2009. Weeds of upland crops in Cambodia. Australia: ACIAR. 81 pp.
Mito T, Uesugi T, 2004. Invasive alien species in Japan: the status quo and new regulations for prevention of their adverse effects. In: Global Environmental Research, 8 (2) 171-191.
PIER, 2015. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk., Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Rao RS, 1986. Flora of Goa, Diu, Daman, Dadra and Nagarhaveli., Calcutta, India: Botanical Survey of India.
Sá CFC, 2015. Nyctaginaceae in the list of species of the flora of Brazil. (Nyctaginaceae in Lista de Espécies da Flora do Brasil)., Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro. http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/jabot/floradobrasil/FB10904
Singh NP, 1988. Flora of Eastern Karnataka., II Delhi, India: Mittal Publications.
Stemmerik JF, 1964. Flora of Malesiana., 6 Groningen, The Netherlands: Wolters-Noordhoff Publishing.
Theodore C, 1958. Flora of the Presidency of Bombay., II Calcutta, India: Botanical Survey of India.
USDA-ARS, 2015. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx
USDA-NRCS, 2015. The PLANTS Database. Greensboro, North Carolina, USA: National Plant Data Team. https://plants.sc.egov.usda.gov
Zuloaga FO, Morrone O, Belgrano MJ, 2008. [English title not available]. (Catálogo de las Plantas Vasculares del Cono Sur: (Argentina, Sur de Brasil, Chile, Paraguay y Uruguay))., USA: Missouri Botanical Garden Press. 3348 pp.
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Contributors
Top of page06/03/15 Updated by:
Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
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