Bocconia frutescens
(plume poppy)

Preferred Scientific Name

• Bocconia frutescens L.

Preferred Common Name

• plume poppy

Other Scientific Names

• Bocconia glauca Salisb.
• Bocconia pearcei Hutch.
• Bocconia quercifolia Moench
• Bocconia sinuatifolia Stokes
• Bocconia subtomentosa L'Hér. ex Stahl

International Common Names

• English: bocconia; parrotweed; parrot-weed; plume poppy; sea oxeye daisy; tree celandine; tree poppy
• Spanish: chilacolote blanco; jocote de fraile; palo de toro; pan cimarrón
• French: bocconie frutescente; bois codine; grande chelidoine

Local Common Names

• French: grande chelidoine
• Argentina: sancho amargo
• Colombia: curarador; mata-chande; sarcillejo; sarno; trompeto
• Costa Rica: guacamaya; sangrillo; tabaquillo
• Cuba: palo amargo; palo amarillo
• Dominican Republic: yagrumo macho
• Germany: Federmohn, Strauchiger
• Guatemala: sangre de toro
• Jamaica: John Crow bush
• Mexico: calderón; cuatlataya; gordolobo; llora-sangre
• Panama: sangrillo; tabaquillo
• Puerto Rico: pan cimarrón; panapén cimarrón; panilla
• Uruguay: sancho amargo

EPPO code

• BOCFR (Bocconia frutescens)

• Domain: Eukaryota
•     Kingdom: Plantae
•         Phylum: Spermatophyta
•             Subphylum: Angiospermae
•                 Class: Dicotyledonae
•                     Order: Papaverales
•                         Family: Papaveraceae
•                             Genus: Bocconia
•                                 Species: Bocconia frutescens

The Papaveraceae, or Poppy family, comprises about 25 genera and 200 species, which occur predominantly in temperate and tropical regions of the Northern Hemisphere (Wagner et al., 1999). In 1737, Linnaeus named the genus Bocconia for Paola Boccone, an Italian botanist and the grand duke of Tuscany (Wagner et al., 1999), with B. frutescens being the type species (Hutchinson, 1920). Macleaya, an Old World genus from China and Japan, was formerly included in the New World Bocconia genus, but the two are now recognized as distinct genera (Grey-Wilson, 2000). Bocconia, a genus of approximately 9 species of Central and South America and the West Indies (Kubitzki et al., 1993) may be distinguished from other members of the family by its woody, shrub to small tree-like, versus herbaceous, habit (Wagner et al., 1999) and may be considered atypical due to the apetalous flowers and a 1-seeded fruit (Allen, 1948).

Several varieties are recognized including Bocconia frutescens var. cernua, B. frutescens var. glaucescens and B. frutescens var. subtomentosa (e.g. The Plant List, 2015).   

The following is adapted from Wagner et al. (1999).

Branched shrubs; stems 2-6 m long, pith white. Leaves often somewhat congested toward the tips of the branches, oblong-obovate to oblong-lanceolate, 10-45 cm long, 4-20 cm wide, pinnately cleft ca. 1/2 to midrib, upper surface sparsely strigillose, lower surface glaucous and puberulent, especially along veins. Panicles densely branched, 20-60 cm long, bracts lanceolate, 2-5 mm long, pedicels 3-10 mm long; sepals erect, elliptic, 8-10 mm long; stamens 8-10; filaments filiform; anthers linear, pendent by the filaments at anthesis. Capsules grayish at maturity, pulp pale yellow, ca. 12 mm long, stipe ca. 5 mm long. Seed 1, black, 6-7 mm long, the surface smooth and glossy, the lower 1/2-1/3 covered with a red, pulpy aril.

The internationally preferred common name, plume poppy, is indicative of the terminal inflorescences up to 60 cm long, with over 2000 small, petal-less, greenish-purple flowers per panicle (Graf, 1992). Another common name from Mexico, ’tears of blood’, refers to the bright red, pulpy aril attached to the shiny black seeds, 6-7 mm long (Gunn and Seldin, 1976). 

B. frutescens was first noted by the botanist Charles N. Forbes in the Kanaio area on the southern slopes of Haleakala on the island of Maui in 1920 (Wagner et al., 1999). During an extensive collecting trip throughout leeward East Maui, Forbes reported seeing only a single 8 ft. tall Bocconia plant growing on the roadside of the old government trail in Kanaio (Medeiros et al., 1993). Fosberg (1969) reported that B. frutescens was “at least precariously naturalized along the road south of Ulupalakua Ranch headquarters". On April 14, 1974, Fosberg and Sachet (1975) reported that many well-developed shrubs had spread some distance south along the road. A single seedling several decimeters tall was reported in Auwahi, in a fenced nature preserve above Ulupalakua Ranch, while a mature shrub was also reported in Kula, at about 1200 m elevation near the junction with Upper Kula Road and Haleakala Highway. Fosberg and Sachet (1975) still believed that it was possible to eradicate the weed at the time.

In the ensuing 90+ years following the collection of Forbes, Bocconia has spread on the island of Maui as far to the northwest as Kula at elevations of up to 1200 m and as far east as Manawainui Gulch in Kahikinui on Department of Hawaiian Homelands land up to as high as 1767 m. The heaviest concentration of plants, with the broadest elevational distribution and the largest numbers of reproductive sized individuals as well as recently germinated seedlings, occurs in the dry forests of Kanaio and Auwahi on the south slope of Haleakala, in the vicinity of the original 1920 observation. Medeiros et al. (1986) reported that B. frutescens was one of the characteristic introduced species of the upper dryland forest, from 915-1464 m, suggesting a certain ubiquity of this plant at the time but otherwise did not comment on its current or potential invasiveness. In 1992, however, Medeiros et al. (1993) found that the tree made up the sixth most common alien plant cover for non-native species in the Kanaio Natural Area Reserve, and recommended that it be opportunistically eliminated from areas of relatively intact native vegetation. It now occupies an area that extends from 488-1220 m to at least 1220 m.

The only other Hawaiian island on which Bocconia is naturalized is Hawaii, where it occurs in mesic forest at elevations of 550-920 m at disturbed sites, such as roadsides (Wagner et al., 1999), although the date of introduction is not known. The first collection on the island was documented in 1982 (Bishop Museum, 2013). In 2001, two specific Bocconia infestations were observed; one near Manuka Natural Area Reserve (scattered plants) and the other in Wood Valley (scattered individuals or small patches of plants over nearly 1200-1400 hectares) (Duane Nelson, US Forest Service, USA, personal communication, 2013). Benitez and Saulibio (2007) conducted an island wide survey in 2003, reporting that Bocconia was distributed over 1522 hectares in Wood Valley, 82 hectares in Honomolino, and 34 hectares in Manuka regions of Hawaii island.

Although not recorded as naturalized B. frutescens is also reported to be present on the Hawaiian Island of Oahu, where landowners are encouraged to control it on their property (HISC, 2013).

Elsewhere in the world, Tassin et al. (2006) list B. frutescens among the woody non-indigenous plants to Réunion Island, and mark its status as "known as a coloniser in Réunion Island", but provide no information on date of introduction. USDA-ARS (2013a) lists B. frutescens as naturalized on the island of Mauritius, but includes Tassin et al. (2006) among the supporting references, suggesting that its naturalized status has been erroneously attributed to Mauritius. Grey-Wilson (2000) also reports that it has become naturalized in Java, with no other details on date of introduction or current distribution.

Soil drainage

• free

Soil texture

• heavy
• light
• medium

Natural Dispersal

Although Smith (1985) suggests that seeds are wind-dispersed, they possess no morphological adaptations for wind dispersal (Wagner et al; 1999). Those seeds that fall directly from the parent tree without consumption or transport by frugivorous birds would more accurately be described as dispersed by gravity (Chimera and Drake, 2010).

As B. frutescens is frequently found along streams and rivers (Hutchinson, 1920; Francis, 2004) the potential exists for movement of seeds by water. Within the invaded range on Hawaii, Benitez and Saulibio (2007) reported that Bocconia is common in streambeds and surmised that plants found in gulches below a heavy infestation likely established from seeds that were washed down during heavy rains.

Vector Transmission

The pulpy aril material of B. frutescens is attractive to birds and aids in the dispersal of the seeds (Gargiullo et al., 2008). Within its native range, bird species which have been documented to consume and disperse Bocconia seeds include Elaenia frantzii (the mountain elaenia) (Marini and Cavalcanti, 1998), Chiroxiphia linearis (long-tailed manakin) and Vireo flavoviridis (yellow-green vireo) (Wheelwright et al., 1984).

Within its introduced range on the Hawaiian island of Maui, numerous non-native birds have been documented to consume and disperse the seeds. In describing its spread on Maui, Fosberg and Sachet (1975) reported that the fleshy aril or caruncle probably assures its wide distribution by mynahs and other introduced frugivorous birds.

In a preliminary survey of frugivory and dispersal of B. frutescens by non-native birds, Chimera (CG Chimera, University of Hawaii, Hawaii, USA, 1998, unpublished data) observed large numbers of Japanese white-eyes (Zosterops japonicus) feeding on the mature fruits at 580 m elevation on the south slope of Haleakala just after sunrise. Northern mockingbirds (Mimus polyglottus) were also observed eating the ripe arils, and a northern cardinal (Cardinalis cardinalis) perched on a panicle but did not consume any seeds. Other birds recorded as present at the time but not observed to be feeding on the fruits included the common mynah (Acridotheres tristis), house finches (Carpodacus mexicanus) and several gamebirds, such as the black francolin (Francolinus francolinus), the gray francolin (F. pondicerianus), and the ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus). On 7/9/98, mist-nets were set up in a fruiting stand of Bocconia in the Auwahi dry forest of Maui at an elevation of 790 m. Four Japanese white-eyes (Z. japonicus) were caught and faecal samples collected after a 20-minute holding period. Two white-eyes had one seed present in each of their fecal samples, another had two seeds present, and the fourth had remains of the aril present without the seed. On 8/12/98, several Japanese white-eyes were also observed consuming seeds of Bocconia growing along the road in Kula, Maui, at an elevation of approximately 1220 m. In addition, seeds have been collected in the droppings of a larger bird, possibly a turkey or a peacock, in the dry forest of Kanaio.

In an analysis of seed dispersal within the tropical dry forest of Kanaio Natural Area Reserve, Maui, Chimera and Drake (2010) reported that B.frutescens seeds were the most abundant in the bird-dispersed seed rain, and observed the non-native Japanese white-eyes, northern cardinals and northern mockingbirds swallowing and presumably dispersing the seeds. Johnson and Nishida (2008) found that seeds were dispersed by Japanese white eyes and Red-billed leiothrix (Leiothrix lutea) for distances of apparently >1km. Chimera and Drake (2011) also reported that cleaned and intact (i.e. with arils attached) seeds were removed from ground sites under parent trees, and suggested that these seeds were depredated by non-native rodents due to the presence of husks and seed fragments. Because intact seeds were removed at high rates, Chimera and Drake (2011) speculated that rodents or game birds may also be providing some secondary dispersal of Bocconia seeds that fall directly under parent trees.

Accidental Introduction

As the seeds of B. frutescens are relatively large (6-7 mm length; Wagner et al., 1999), they are unlikely to be inadvertently dispersed into a new region as a seed contaminant of produce or other agricultural products. Once established within an area, however, the persistence of the seeds in the soil could allow for inadvertent dispersal through movement of contaminated soil from within the invaded area (Veldman et al., 2007). Benitez and Saulibio (2007) express concerns about the possibility of unintentional movement of seeds on Hawaii and provide recommendations such as decontamination of heavy machinery and prevention of soil movement from within invaded areas.

Intentional Introduction

B. frutescens was first collected on Maui, Hawaii in 1920 (Wagner et al., 1999), but the reasons for introduction, whether intentional or inadvertent, are unknown.

Intentional introduction and cultivation of B. frutescens for ornamental or medicinal purposes is the most likely vector for movement of Bocconia outside its native range, and it continues to be promoted as an ornamental plant in horticultural books and websites (Riffle, 1998; Dave's Garden, 2013). 

Although there are no cost estimates, Medeiros et al. (In press) report that weed control in a dry forest restoration area on Maui is predominantly focused on B. frutescens, incurring costs in both labour and herbicide usage.

Impact on Habitats

Tropical dry forests are one of the most endangered natural communities in the Hawaiian Islands and have been reduced to approximately 10% of their former cover (Bruegman, 1996). As it is capable of forming dense stands in dry habitats, Smith (1985) listed B. frutescens as one of the 86 worst weeds that have become serious pests of dry forests and other native ecosystems. The most significant infestations of Bocconia on Maui now occur from 485-1225 m in the dry forests of Auwahi and Kanaio, and during the 1992 survey of the now Kanaio Natural Area Reserve, Bocconia was found to comprise the sixth highest percentage cover of alien species along five monitoring transects (Medeiros et al., 1993). However, of the ten most common weeds by cover, it was the only woody species that could achieve the stature and dimensions of a dry forest tree. With its multiple-trunked, bushy growth habit, a single tree can occupy a fairly substantial amount of area close to the ground, which appears to prevent the establishment of other plants beneath it. For these reasons, it was identified as one of the seven most aggressive alien plant species that are a primary threat to native ecosystems of the Kanaio Natural Area Reserve (Medeiros et al., 1993).

In the mid to late 1990s, B. frutescens expanded its density and range throughout the Auwahi and Kanaio regions of Maui, with heavier concentrations of seedlings appearing with increasing frequency, especially in bare areas recently exposed by kikuyu grass (Pennisetumclandestinum) dieback. This appeared to be related to the effects of the yellow sugarcane aphid (Sipha flava) and drought (CG Chimera, University of Hawaii, Hawaii, USA, 1998, unpublished data). Combined with the ever-maturing population of reproductive sized individuals, the current B. frutescens infestation has continued to increase. In addition, the timing of the peak fruiting period provides a conspicuous food resource for birds in the area, especially during the beginning of the hot and dry summer months when other food resources become increasingly scarce (Chimera, 2004; Chimera and Drake, 2010). This phenomenon is contributing to the expansion of B. frutescens, with seedlings germinating away from the parent plant and beneath both native and nonnative trees. Under these trees, seedlings can form dense carpets and exclude the rarely reproducing native dry forest species (Chimera, 2004).

On Hawaii, Benitez and Saulibio (2007) surveyed multiple B. frutescens populations, recording densities ranging from under 10 individuals/ha to a heavily invaded 29ha parcel containing 5224 individuals/ha within a young Eucalyptus plantation, and less than 100 individuals/ha within former cane fields. Although size classes were not recorded, all populations within this area included fertile individuals. Therefore, B. frutescens is reported as a severe pest on Hawaii, forming dense stands, primarily within Eucalyptus plantations and former sugar cane lands, but is generally not found under native, closed-canopy Metrosideros polymorpha and Acacia koa forests in the adjacent Ka`u Forest Reserve. However, B. frutescens has begun to invade native forests in the Honomolino region of Hawaii and infestations near Hawaii Volcanoes National Park are reported as one of the greatest threats to native plant communities because of their vicinity and dispersal mechanisms (Benitez and Saulibio, 2007).   

Within the remnant dry forest of Auwahi, Maui, upslope of the Kanaio NAR, Medeiros et al. (2003) reported that large Bocconia trees were completely removed from a 4ha restoration site in the late 1990s but that Bocconia seedlings continued to emerge and were present in 100% (n=10) of monitoring plots evaluated in a 2002 survey. A 15 year analysis of vegetation changes in the same restoration site found that despite control efforts on reproductively mature trees within and in the vicinity of the exclosure, Bocconia seedlings were recruiting at significantly greater numbers than at the start of the restoration project, and were one of the six most common seedlings recorded in the site (Medeiros et al., In press).

Impact on Biodiversity

The US Fish and Wildlife Service lists B. frutescens as one of the major threats to the survival of Melicope adscendens (Fish and Wildlife Service, 2000). This sprawling shrub is endemic to the dry forests of Kanaio and Auwahi, East Maui, areas in which Bocconia is proliferating. Other endangered plants occurring in the area that could also be negatively affected by competition with B. frutescens include Alectryon macrococcus (Sapindaceae), Bonamia menziesii (Convolvulaceae), the only known Maui population of Cenchrus agrimonioides (Poaceae), Fluggea neowawraea (Euphorbiaceae), Melicope knudsenii (Rutaceae), and Santalum freycinetianum var. lanaiense [S. haleakalae var. lanaiense] (Santalaceae) (Medeiros et al.,1993; Fish and Wildlife Service, 2000). The Fish and Wildlife Service also states that Bocconia threatens Nothocestrum latifolium (Solanaceae), the host plant of the endangered Blackburn’s sphinx moth (Manduca blackburni), through displacement and shading of immature plants (Fish and Wildlife Service, 1997).

PIER (2015) list it as high risk with a risk assessment scoring of 18 and on Hawaii it is listed as a noxious weed. On the island of Maui, Hawaii, Medeiros et al. (In press) report that B. frutescens is the most common non-native plant recruiting within dry forest restoration exclosures of Auwahi, and that weed control efforts are primarily focused on its control. Medeiros and von Allmen (2006) documented five endangered plant species within the area, including Zanthoxylum hawaiiense, Melicope knudsenii, M. adscendens, Alectryon macrococcus var. auwahiensis, and Santalum haleakalae var. lanaiense, as well as Nothocestrum latifolium, the primary native host plant for the endangered Blackburn’s sphinx moth (Manduca blackburni). Medeiros et al. (In press) suggest that, without control efforts, B. frutescens would likely increase and dominate portions of the restoration area and threaten the habitat of these endangered species.

Johnnson and Nishida (2008) found B. frutescens to be spreading and progressively dominating fern-filled gulches of Acacia koa forests of the Kahikinui district of leeward East Maui. This area has been identified as a key site targeted for A. koa restoration and as the prime release site of the endangered Maui parrotbill (Pseudonestor xanthophrys).

The Auwahi dry forest on Maui, USA, is threatened by the invasion of B. frutescens. This forest is valued by native Hawaiians as a rich source of ethnobotanical materials, particularly durable hardwoods used for tools and weapons, and species with utilitarian, medicinal or religious significance (Medeiros et al., 1998). 

• Proved invasive outside its native range
• Has a broad native range
• Abundant in its native range
• Highly adaptable to different environments
• Is a habitat generalist
• Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
• Pioneering in disturbed areas
• Tolerant of shade
• Fast growing
• Has high reproductive potential
• Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year

• Altered trophic level
• Damaged ecosystem services
• Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
• Host damage
• Modification of successional patterns
• Monoculture formation
• Negatively impacts agriculture
• Reduced amenity values
• Reduced native biodiversity
• Threat to/ loss of endangered species
• Threat to/ loss of native species

• Competition - monopolizing resources
• Competition - shading
• Competition (unspecified)
• Interaction with other invasive species
• Rapid growth

• Difficult/costly to control

Economic Value

B. frutescens may provide economic benefits to those who are cultivating it for commercial sale and it has been widely planted as an ornamental (Rzedowski, 1979). It is valued for its bold, tropical looking foliage, especially in warmer parts of the USA (Everett, 1992). In Guacamayo, Costa Rica, the native B.frutescens is considered to be an economically important ornamental plant (Montiel, 1991).

In its native range it is used as a dye and the sap, roots and leaves are used in home medicines (Little et al., 1974; Duke, 2008). Martinez (1969) mentions that injections of an extract of the tree can produce a local anesthetic effect but with an irritant side effect. In Veracruz, Mexico, the orange sap has been used in the treatment of ulcers and skin eruptions, to alleviate bronchitis and as a local anesthetic, whereas the leaves have been heated and applied to wounds (Ojeda, 1982).    

Environmental Services  

Within its native range, B. frutescens reportedly contributes to biodiversity, helps protect the soil and furnishes food and cover for wildlife (Francis, 2004). It is also being evaluated as a species for restoration of disturbed sites.