Diplazium esculentum (vegetable fern)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Introductions
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Rainfall Regime
- Soil Tolerances
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Economic Impact
- Environmental Impact
- Social Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
- References
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw.
Preferred Common Name
- vegetable fern
Other Scientific Names
- Anisogonium esculentum (Retz.) C.Presl
- Anisogonium serampurens C.Presl
- Asplenium ambiguum Sw.
- Asplenium esculentum (Retz.) C.Presl
- Asplenium malabaricum Mett.
- Asplenium moritzii Mett.
- Asplenium pubescens Mett.
- Asplenium vitiense Barker
- Athyrium ambigua (Sw.) Milde
- Athyrium esculentum (Retz.) Copel.
- Callipteris ambigua (Sw.) T.Moore
- Callipteris esculenta (Retz.) J.Sm. ex T.Moore & Houlston
- Callipteris malabarica J.Sm.
- Callipteris serampurens Fée
- Digrammaria ambigua (Sw.) C.Presl.
- Digrammaria esculenta J.Sm.
- Diplazium malabaricum Spreng.
- Diplazium pubescens Link
- Diplazium serampurens Spreng.
- Diplazium vitiense Carruth.
- Gymnogramma edulis Ces.
- Hemionitis esculenta Retz.
- Microstegia ambigua (Sw.) C.Presl.
International Common Names
- English: edible fern; fiddle head fern
- French: fougère végétale
Local Common Names
- Bangladesh: dheki shak; paloi shak; teria shak
- China: cai jue
- India: denkir shaak; dhekia; dhekishak; howkapada-ow; lindra; lingri; luglugi; maikhando; ningru; okang; paloi; paloi saag; sikiomamoidu
- Indonesia: paku-sayur
- Japan: kuware-shida
- Malaysia: paku tanjung; pucuk paku
- Nigeria: akwukwo nni
- Philippines: pacó; pako
- Thailand: phak khut
- USA: hoi’o
- Vietnam: rau don
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageDiplazium esculentum is a herbaceous fern native to Asia. It has been introduced into a number of countries in Africa, Oceania and North America as an ornamental and as a food source. As it produces a large number of spores it can easily escape cultivation and rapidly spread into new areas. The species is reported as having escaped cultivation and become invasive in Hawaii, USA, New Zealand and Australia.
In Hawaii, D. esculentum grows abundantly in wet valleys and in sheltered moist areas at dry sites. It is also a frequent volunteer in gardens. In New Zealand it has escaped from cultivation, spreading rapidly and aggressively in riverbanks at an average rate of spread of 1 m per year. In Australia the species is widely cultivated for food and as an ornamental, naturalising in swampy areas of Queensland. Its impacts on other habitats or species are unknown.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Pteridophyta
- Class: Filicopsida
- Order: Polypodiales
- Family: Athyriaceae
- Genus: Diplazium
- Species: Diplazium esculentum
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageDiplazium is a pantropical fern genus of about 350 to 400 species. The delimitation of the genus has been the subject of some debate, with some authors segregating Diplazium into various genera. Wei et al. (2013) proposed keeping all the species in Diplazium and recognising four subgenera (Pseudallantodia, Diplazium, Sibirica and Callipteris) based on DNA, morphological and geographic evidence.
Diplazium esculentum is regarded as the most important edible fern worldwide (Useful Tropical Plants, 2020). The epithet ‘esculentum’ is from the Latin for ‘edible’, in reference to its use as a food source (Flora of New Zealand, 2020).
Description
Top of pageThe following description is from Flora of China Editorial Committee (2020):
Rhizome erect, up to 15 cm tall, densely scaly; scales brown, narrowly lanceolate, ca. 10 × 1 mm, thin, toothed at margin; fronds caespitose. Fertile fronds 60-120 cm; stipe brown-stramineous, 50-60 cm, 3-5 mm in diam. at base, sparsely scaly, upward glabrous or hairy; lamina 1-pinnate or 2-pinnate, deltoid or broadly lanceolate, 60-80 cm or longer, 30-60 cm wide, apex acuminate; pinnae 12-16 pairs, alternate, ascending, lower pinnae stipitate, broadly lanceolate, 16-20 × 6-9 cm, pinnatilobate or 1-pinnate; upper pinnae subsessile, linear-lanceolate, 6-10 × 1-2 cm, base truncate, margin serrate or pinnatilobate (lobes minutely serrate), apex acuminate; veins per lobes pinnate, veinlets 8-10 pairs, ascending, lower 2 or 3 pairs usually conjoined. Lamina stiffly herbaceous, glabrous or hairy, rachis glabrous or hairy; costae shallowly grooved, glabrous or occasionally with light brown short hairs. Sori mostly linear, slightly curved, from near midribs to laminar margin; indusia yellow-brown, linear, membranous, entire. Spore surface with large granular or tuberculate projections.
Distribution
Top of pageDiplazium esculentum is native to tropical and subtropical areas of Asia (HEAR, 2020; USDA-ARS, 2020). It is now present in Africa, Asia, Oceania and North America (See Distribution Table for details: Rana and Samant, 2009; Irudayaraj, 2011; Dash et al., 2017; Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2020; PIER, 2020). It is cultivated in parts of its distribution (PIER, 2020; USDA-ARS, 2020).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 10 Feb 2022Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Nigeria | Present | Introduced | |||||
South Africa | Present | Introduced | 2010 | ||||
Zimbabwe | Present | Introduced | 2010 | ||||
Asia |
|||||||
Bangladesh | Present | Native | |||||
Cambodia | Present | Native | |||||
China | Present | Native | |||||
-Anhui | Present | Native | |||||
-Fujian | Present | Native | |||||
-Guangdong | Present | Native | |||||
-Guangxi | Present | Native | |||||
-Guizhou | Present | Native | |||||
-Hainan | Present | Native | |||||
-Hunan | Present | Native | |||||
-Jiangxi | Present | Native | |||||
-Sichuan | Present | Native | |||||
-Tibet | Present | Native | |||||
-Yunnan | Present | Native | |||||
-Zhejiang | Present | Native | |||||
Hong Kong | Present | Native | |||||
India | Present | Native | |||||
-Arunachal Pradesh | Present | Native | |||||
-Assam | Present | Native | |||||
-Himachal Pradesh | Present | Native | Listed as a species to be protected | ||||
-Kerala | Present | Native | |||||
-Sikkim | Present | Native | |||||
-Uttarakhand | Present | Native | |||||
-West Bengal | Present | Native | |||||
Indonesia | Present | Native | |||||
Japan | Present | Native | |||||
-Kyushu | Present | Native | |||||
Laos | Present | Native | |||||
Malaysia | Present | Native | |||||
Myanmar | Present | ||||||
Nepal | Present | ||||||
Philippines | Present | Native | |||||
Singapore | Present | Native | |||||
Sri Lanka | Present | Native | |||||
Taiwan | Present | Native | |||||
Thailand | Present | Native | |||||
Vietnam | Present | Native | |||||
Europe |
|||||||
Portugal | |||||||
-Azores | Present | Introduced | 1903 | ||||
North America |
|||||||
United States | Present | Introduced | 2010 | ||||
-California | Present | Introduced | 1955 | Griffith Park, Los Angeles | |||
-Florida | Present | Introduced | 1937 | As possibly escaping from cultivation from a nursery | |||
-Hawaii | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Introduced in the 1900s. Also in cultivation. Hawai’i, Kaua’i, Lana’i, Maui, Moloka’i and O’ahu | |||
-Louisiana | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Mississippi | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Texas | Present | Introduced | |||||
Oceania |
|||||||
American Samoa | Present | Growing in damp places in forests | |||||
Australia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Naturalized in swampy areas of south-eastern Queensland. Widely cultivated as an ornamental and for food | |||
-Queensland | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Naturalized in swampy areas of south-eastern Queensland | |||
Fiji | Present | ||||||
New Zealand | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Papua New Guinea | Present | Native | |||||
Samoa | Present | ||||||
Solomon Islands | Present | ||||||
Vanuatu | Present | ||||||
South America |
|||||||
Peru | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | 1953 | At Lima Botanical Garden |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageDiplazium esculentum is widely used in Asia and Oceania as a food source (HEAR, 2020). It is reported from Hawaii since the early 1900’s (Wilson, 2002), and is currently present on the islands of Kaua'i, O’ahu, Moloka'i, Lāna'i, Maui and Hawai'i (Vernon and Ranker, 2013). It is available from nurseries and local markets (Badola, 2010). The species is also used as an ornamental, which is likely the means of introduction into the continental USA around the 1930’s (Diddell, 1948). D. esculentum has escaped from cultivation in Florida, Louisiana and Hawaii (Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2020; HEAR, 2020), facilitated by its air-borne spores (HEAR, 2020).
Introductions
Top of pageIntroduced to | Introduced from | Year | Reason | Introduced by | Established in wild through | References | Notes | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Natural reproduction | Continuous restocking | |||||||
USA | Early 1900’s | Horticulture (pathway cause) | Yes | No | Diddell (1948) | Early 1900’s in Hawaii | ||
Peru | 1953 | Horticulture (pathway cause) | No | No | Smithsonian Museum of Natural History (2020) |
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageDiplazium esculentum is widely used in Asia and the Pacific as a vegetable and for traditional medicinal purposes (Chawla et al., 2015; HEAR, 2020). It has a high risk of introduction in the tropics and the subtropics, especially in areas with communities from countries that traditionally use the species as a food source. It produces a large number of spores which are easily dispersed by wind and water, increasing its risk of introduction, especially into moist or marshy soils. D.esculentum is frost-sensitive, which limits its establishment in temperate areas (HEAR, 2020).
Habitat
Top of pageDiplazium esculentum is found growing in wet valleys, sheltered spots in dry areas, open places on wet ground, marshy areas, secondary forests, rainforests and by riverbanks and canals at elevations from sea level to 2300 m (Hyndman and Menzies, 1990; Irudayaraj, 2011; India Biodiversity Portal, 2020; PIER, 2020; Useful Tropical Plants, 2020).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Wetlands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Wetlands | Present, no further details | Natural |
Hosts/Species Affected
Top of pageDiplazium esculentum is listed as a weed of rubber plantations, but details on its precise impact or the rubber species are not given (HEAR, 2020).
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
The chromosome numbers reported for D. esculentum are 2n= 82 (HEAR, 2020). Germplasm collections are available at the National Botanical Research Institute (NBRI) of India (Sharma and Goel, 1994).
Reproductive Biology
Diplazium esculentum is propagated both by spores and vegetatively by dividing the rhizomes (HEAR, 2020). The spores will germinate and develop quickly (Useful Tropical Plants, 2020).
Physiology and Phenology
The leaves of D. esculentum are rich in iron, phosphorus, potassium and proteins (Badola, 2010).
Longevity
Diplazium esculentum is a perennial herbaceous fern (HEAR, 2020).
Activity Patterns
Diplazium esculentum grows to form dense thickets of clonal colonies (HEAR, 2020; India Biodiversity Portal, 2020).
Environmental Requirements
Diplazium esculentum is adapted for tropical and subtropical conditions. It is killed by frosts (HEAR, 2020). It prefers moist to swampy soils with a pH of 5.5 to 7.5 (HEAR, 2020). D. esculentum grows bests in soils that are rich in organic matter but it is also reported growing on ultrabasic soils and occasionally over limestone rocks (Takeuchi, 2003; Dash et al., 2017; HEAR, 2020).
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
Af - Tropical rainforest climate | Preferred | > 60mm precipitation per month | |
Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Preferred | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Preferred | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | |
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Preferred | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
33 | -39 |
Air Temperature
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit |
---|---|---|
Absolute minimum temperature (ºC) | -9 | |
Mean annual temperature (ºC) | -9 | 30 |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Mean annual rainfall | 725 | 2500 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
- impeded
Soil reaction
- acid
- alkaline
- neutral
Soil texture
- medium
Special soil tolerances
- infertile
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageNatural Dispersal
Diplazium esculentum spores are dispersed by air. Water is also a possible vector, as it grows near waterways in moist or wet soils (HEAR, 2020).
Vector Transmission (Biotic)
Although there is no specific evidence, it is possible the spores of D. esculentum are dispersed in mud adhered to animals (HEAR, 2020).
Accidental Introduction
Diplazium esculentum spreads from where it is cultivated into nearby areas (PIER, 2020). Although the leaves are sold in local markets there is no evidence of contamination of other products (HEAR, 2020).
Intentional Introduction
Diplazium esculentum is used as an ornamental and is sold online and in and nurseries worldwide (Huttleston, 1962; Badola, 2010; PIER, 2020).
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Breeding and propagation | Available for sale at nurseries and over the internet as an ornamental | Yes | Yes | Huttleston (1962); PIER (2020) |
Crop production | Cultivated in Australia for food | Yes | Yes | PIER (2020) |
Disturbance | At disturbed sites | Yes | HEAR (2020) | |
Escape from confinement or garden escape | Escaped from cultivation | Yes | PIER (2020) | |
Flooding and other natural disasters | Possibly dispersed by water as it grows near waterways | Yes | HEAR (2020) | |
Food | Marketed locally for food and as an ornamental | Yes | Badola (2010); HEAR (2020) | |
Forage | It is usually foraged from the wild for food and for use as green manure | Yes | Gaur and Bhatt (1994); Badola (2010); HEAR (2020) | |
Garden waste disposal | Although no information available, it is possible as it is used as an ornamental | Yes | ||
Hitchhiker | Possible in mud attached to animals | Yes | HEAR (2020) | |
Horticulture | Used as an ornamental | Yes | Yes | PIER (2020) |
Interconnected waterways | Its dispersal by water is possible as it grows near waterways | Yes | HEAR (2020) | |
Internet sales | Available for sale online | Yes | Yes | |
Live food or feed trade | Available at local markets | Yes | Badola (2010) | |
Medicinal use | Used in traditional medicine | Yes | Useful Tropical Plants (2020) | |
Nursery trade | Used as an ornamental and available in nurseries | Yes | Yes | Huttleston (1962) |
Off-site preservation | Germplasm collections available in India | Yes | Yes | Sharma and Goel (1994) |
Ornamental purposes | Used as an ornamental | Yes | Yes | PIER (2020) |
People foraging | It is usually foraged from the wild for food | Yes | Badola (2010); HEAR (2020) | |
Seed trade | Spores available for sale | Yes | Yes |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Clothing, footwear and possessions | Although no information available, it is possible as it is used as an ornamental | Yes | ||
Debris and waste associated with human activities | Although no information available, it is possible as it is used as an ornamental and food | Yes | ||
Floating vegetation and debris | Possible as it occurs near waterways | Yes | HEAR (2020) | |
Germplasm | Germplasm collections available in India | Yes | Yes | Sharma and Goel (1994) |
Plants and spores are available over the internet | Yes | Yes | ||
Soil, sand and gravel | Although no information available, it is possible as it is used as an ornamental | Yes | ||
Water | Possible as it occurs near waterways. | Yes | HEAR (2020) | |
Wind | Spores are dispersed by wind. | Yes | HEAR (2020) |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Cultural/amenity | Positive |
Economic/livelihood | Positive |
Environment (generally) | Positive and negative |
Human health | Positive and negative |
Economic Impact
Top of pageDiplazium esculentum is listed as a weed of rubber plantations, but no further details are given on the impact it has on this crop (HEAR, 2020).
Environmental Impact
Top of pageDiplazium esculentum is an invasive weed of open areas, capable of colonising riverbanks and spreading at a rate of 1 m per year (Flora of New Zealand, 2020). Although no details are available on the precise impact D. esculentum has on biodiversity, it can forms dense thickets and compete with native species for resources (HEAR, 2020).
Social Impact
Top of pageSarkar et al. (2018) report that the species might induce male infertility.
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Tolerant of shade
- Long lived
- Fast growing
- Has high reproductive potential
- Gregarious
- Reproduces asexually
- Monoculture formation
- Negatively impacts human health
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Rapid growth
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Uses
Top of pageEconomic Value
The leaves of D. esculentum are sold at local markets throughout Asia and the Pacific (Badola, 2010; Ghorbani et al., 2012; HEAR, 2020; Useful Tropical Plants, 2020). It is particularly significant as an income source for some local communities in the Himalayas (Badola, 2010; Sarkar et al., 2018). Most of its use as a vegetable is from plants harvested from the wild (Badola, 2010; Useful Tropical Plants, 2020).
Diplazium esculentum is also used as an ornamental with plants and spores sold online and in local nurseries (Huttleston, 1962; Badola, 2010).
Social Benefit
Diplazium esculentum is considered the most important edible fern worldwide, being rich in iron, phosphorus, potassium and proteins (Useful Tropical Plants, 2020). Its use as a vegetable is especially popular in Asia and Oceania, and it is widely used in the Himalayas (Badola, 2010; Chawla et al., 2015).
Some traditional medicinal uses reported for D. esculentum are to treat fever, dermatitis, measles, headaches, pains, coughs, wounds, dysentery, glandular swellings, toothaches and diarrhoea (Nwosu, 2002; Badola, 2010; Chawla et al., 2015; Dash et al., 2017). The species is reported to have laxative, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anthelmintic, analgesic, antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities (Badola, 2010; Dash et al., 2017). Norhayati et al. (2013) found D. esculentum extracts exhibited in vitro anti-trypanosomal activity. A tonic from the leaves is used for difficult childbirths and the leaves are given to the elderly to maintain their health (Nwosu, 2002; Dash et al., 2017; Useful Tropical Plants, 2020).
The dried rhizomes are used as an insecticide and the leaves as green manure and as cattle bedding (Gaur and Bhatt, 1994; Badola, 2010).
Uses List
Top of pageAnimal feed, fodder, forage
- Fodder/animal feed
Environmental
- Amenity
General
- Botanical garden/zoo
- Ritual uses
- Sociocultural value
Human food and beverage
- Vegetable
Materials
- Green manure
- Miscellaneous materials
- Pesticide
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Traditional/folklore
Ornamental
- garden plant
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageDiplazium esculentum is similar to D. zanzibaricum and D. nemorale. It can be distinguished from both by the triangular, 2- to 3-pinnate lamina with anastomosing veins below the sinus lobes (Hyde et al., 2019).
Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
Top of pageAccording to Badola (2010) research on the population biology, habitat dynamics, the propagation and cultivation prospects of D. esculentum is needed, especially in the context of the emerging threats from global warming and climate change. Also needed is more information on the effect naturalized populations of D. esculentum have on habitats and native species.
References
Top of pageBadola, HK, 2010. A vegetable fern, Diplazium esculentum – potential for food security and socioeconomic development in the Himalaya. Non-wood News, 20, 10-11.
Dash, GK, Khadijah, S, Khadidi, J, Shamsuddin, AF, 2017. Pharmacognostic studies on Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw. Der Pharmacia Lettre, 9(3), 113-120.
Diddell MW, 1948. Diplazium esculentum in Florida. American Fern Journal, 38(1), 16-19.
Encyclopedia of Life, 2020. Encyclopedia of Life. In: Encyclopedia of Life . http://www.eol.org
Flora of New Zealand, 2020. Flora of New Zealand. Lincoln, New Zealand: Manaaki Whenua - Landcare Research.http://www.nzflora.info/index.html
HEAR, 2020. HEAR species information index. Puunene, Hawaii, USA: Hawaii Ecosystems at Risk project.http://www.hear.org/species/
Huttleston DG, 1962. Fern Sources in the United States. American Fern Journal, 52(3), 97-109.
Hyndman DC, Menzies I, 1990. Secondary Forest within the lower montane zone Rain Forests of the Ok Tedi Headwaters, New Guinea: An Ecological Analysis. Journal of Biogeography, 17(3), 241-273.
Irudayaraj, V, 2011. Diplazium esculentum. In: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011 : IUCN.https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2011-1.RLTS.T194150A8883499.en
PIER, 2020. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii.http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Sharma SC, Goel AK, 1994. The National Botanical Research Institute (NBRI) Botanic Garden: a national facility for India. Botanic Gardens Conservation News, 2(3), 59-62.
Takeuchi W, 2003. Botanical summary of a lowland ultrabasic flora in Papua New Guinea. SIDA Contributions to Botany, 20(4), 1491-1559.
The Plant List, 2020. The Plant List a working list of all plant species. Version 1.1. Richmond, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.http://www.theplantlist.org
Vernon AL, Ranker TA, 2013. Current status of the ferns and lycophytes of the Hawaiian Islands. American Fern Journal, 103(2), 59-111.
Wei R, Schneider H, Zhang X, 2013. A molecular phylogeny with morphological implications and infrageneric taxonomy. Taxon, 62(3), 441-457.
Wilson, KA, 2002. Continued pteridophyte invasion of Hawaii. American Fern Journal, 92(2), 179-183.
Distribution References
Badola HK, 2010. A vegetable fern, Diplazium esculentum – potential for food security and socioeconomic development in the Himalaya. Non-wood News. 10-11.
CABI, 2020. CABI Distribution Database: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Dash GK, Khadijah S, Khadidi J, Shamsuddin AF, 2017. Pharmacognostic studies on Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw. Der Pharmacia Lettre. 9 (3), 113-120.
Diddell MW, 1948. Diplazium esculentum in Florida. American Fern Journal. 38 (1), 16-19.
Encyclopedia of Life, 2020. Encyclopedia of Life. In: Encyclopedia of Life, http://www.eol.org
Flora of New Zealand, 2020. Flora of New Zealand. Lincoln, New Zealand: Manaaki Whenua - Landcare Research. http://www.nzflora.info/index.html
Irudayaraj V, 2011. Diplazium esculentum. In: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011, IUCN. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2011-1.RLTS.T194150A8883499.en
PIER, 2020. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Wilson KA, 2002. Continued pteridophyte invasion of Hawaii. American Fern Journal. 92 (2), 179-183.
Contributors
Top of page09/02/20 Original text by:
Jeanine Vélez-Gavilán, University of Puerto Rico at Mayagüez, Puerto Rico
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