Brassica juncea (mustard)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Rainfall Regime
- Soil Tolerances
- Natural enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Economic Impact
- Environmental Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Links to Websites
- Organizations
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Brassica juncea (L.) Czern.
Preferred Common Name
- mustard
Other Scientific Names
- Brassica argyi H.Lév.
- Brassica besseriana Andrz. ex Trautv.
- Brassica cernua (Thunb.) F. B. Forbes & Hemsl.
- Brassica cernua Forbes & Hemsley
- Brassica integrifolia (H. West) Rupr.
- Brassica japonica (Thunb.) Siebold ex Miq.
- Brassica lanceolata (DC.) Lange
- Brassica napiformis (Pailleux & Bois) L.H.Bailey
- Brassica richeri Lange
- Brassica rugosa (Roxb.) L.H. Bailey
- Brassica rugosa (Roxb.) Prain
- Brassica taquetii H.Lév.
- Brassica willdenovii Boiss.
- Crucifera juncea E.H.L. Krause
- Raphanus junceus (L.) Crantz
- Sinabraca juncea (L.) G.H. Loos
- Sinapis abyssinica A. Braun
- Sinapis cernua Thunb.
- Sinapis chinensis L.
- Sinapis cuneifolia Roxb.
- Sinapis integrifolia H. West
- Sinapis japonica Thunb.
- Sinapis juncea L.
- Sinapis lanceolata DC.
- Sinapis patens Roxb.
- Sinapis ramosa Roxb.
- Sinapis ramosa Roxb. ex Fleming, Henry
- Sinapis rugosa Roxb.
- Sinapis timoriana DC.
International Common Names
- English: brown mustard; canola; Chinese mustard; gai-choi; Indian mustard; oilseed mustard; oriental mustard; wild mustard
- Spanish: mostaza
Local Common Names
- China: jie-cai
- Cuba: mostaza China; mostaza de la tierra
- Czech Republic: brukev sítinovitá; kapusta sitinová
- Denmark: ager-stedmorsblomst; håret viol; jernurt; marts-viol; tandbægret vårsalat
- Estonia: sarepta kapsasrohi
- Finland: karvaorvokki; pelto-orvokki; rikkavuonankaali; rohtorautayrtti; tuoksuorvokk
- France: choux faux jonc; mountarde brune; moutarde de Chine; moutarde de Indie; moutarde de Sarepta; moutarde frisée; moutarde Indiennne
- French Polynesia: pota tinito
- Germany: Ruten-Kohl; Sareptasenf
- Hungary: szareptai mustár
- India: saiso
- Japan: irana; karashi; karashi-na; setsuriko; takana
- Kiribati: te kabiti; te kabiti n tiaina
- Korea, Republic of: gas
- Latvia: sareptas sinepe
- Lithuania: sareptinis bastutis
- Malaysia: kai choy; sawi pahit
- Norway: åkerstemorsblom; jernurt; lodnefiol; marsfiol; tandbægret vårsalat
- Spain: mostacilla; mostaza de la China; mostaza de la tierra; mostaza de Sarepta; mostaza India
- Sweden: åkerviol; buskviol; järnört; luktviol; sommarklynne
- Tonga: pauteni
- USA: mustard greens
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageBrassica juncea has been distributed worldwide as a crop, and has escaped cultivation to become naturalized in fields, wasteland and roadsides as a weed. Seeds can persist in fields after harvesting and become a weed for subsequent crops. It is an invasive weed in Australia, New Zealand, Japan, the Americas, and many Pacific Islands, although it is not considered a significant weed in Canada. As some Brassica species use allelochemicals to inhibit other species and B. juncea extract has been shown to have a deleterious effect on sunflower germination and growth, this species could reduce local biodiversity.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Capparidales
- Family: Brassicaceae
- Genus: Brassica
- Species: Brassica juncea
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageBrassica juncea was classified by Linneaus as Sinapis juncea in 1753 in Species Plantarum 2. Shortly after, in 1769, Cranz changed this species to Raphanus junceus. Cosson and Czernajew placed it in the genus Brassica ninety years later in 1859. It is a hybrid of Brassica nigra and Brassica rapa, believed to have originated 10,000 years ago (OECD, 2016) and has multiple varieties. All of these varieties have a chromosome number of 2n = 36 and they can be readily crossed and produce fully fertile offspring (Flora of China, 2015).
The high levels of polymorphism and the number of cultivars developed has led to a confusing taxonomy with regards to subspecies and varieties. Spect and Diedrichsen (2001) define 4 subspecies: integrifolia, juncea, napiformis and taisai. Whereas Flora of China (2015) revised the 7 varieties and 3 species defined in Florae Reipublicae Popularis Sinicae (Cheo, 1987) into three varieties, juncea, napiformis and tumida. Most of the variation among varieties comes from the tremendous variation in basal leaf morphology of the species. All cultivars within these groups are used as vegetables, except for those of var. juncea, which is cultivated for its seeds and, less commonly, as animal feed.
Description
Top of pageFlora of China (2015), describes the biology of B. juncea as follows:
Herbs annual, (20-)30-100(-180) cm tall, pubescent or rarely glabrous, glaucous or not, sometimes with fleshy taproots. Stems erect, branched above. Basal and lowermost cauline leaves long petiolate; petiole (1-)2-8(-15) cm; leaf blade ovate, oblong, or lanceolate in outline, (4-) 6-30(-80) × 1.5-15(-28) cm, lyrate-pinnatifid or pinnatisect; terminal lobe ovate, repand, dentate, or incised; lateral lobes 1-3 on each side of midvein, much smaller than terminal lobe, crisped incised, dentate, repand, or entire. Upper cauline leaves petiolate or subsessile, oblanceolate, oblong, lanceolate, or linear, to 10 × 5 cm, base cuneate to attenuate, margin entire or repand, rarely dentate. Fruiting pedicels straight, divaricate, (0.5-)0.8-1.5(-2) cm. Sepals oblong, (3.5-)4-6(-7) × 1-1.7 mm, spreading. Petals yellow, (6.5-)8-11(-13) × 5-7.5 mm, ovate or obovate, apex rounded or emarginate; claw 3-6 mm. Filaments 4-7 mm; anthers oblong, 1.5-2 mm. Fruit linear, (2-)3-5(-6) cm × 3-4(-5) mm, terete or slightly 4-angled, sessile, divaricate or ascending; valvular segment (1.5-)2-4.5 cm, 6-15(-20)-seeded per locule; valves with a prominent midvein, slightly torulose; terminal segment conical, (4-)5-10(-15) mm, seedless; style often obsolete. Seeds dark to light brown or grey, globose, 1-1.7 mm in diameter, minutely reticulate.
Distribution
Top of pageThis species is distributed worldwide, except in northern and polar areas with an annual average temperature below 6°C. Its original distribution is believed to be between Eastern Europe and China, where the range of its parent species, Brassica nigra and Brassica rapa, overlap, with centres of diversity in central and western China, eastern India, Myanmar, and through Iran to the Near East. It has been cultivated for centuries in many parts of Eurasia. These days, the species is mainly grown in Bangladesh, Central Africa, China, India, Japan, Nepal and Pakistan, as well as southern Russia north of the Caspian Sea.
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 18 May 2022Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
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Algeria | Present | Introduced | |||||
Angola | Present | Introduced | |||||
Burundi | Present | Introduced | |||||
Cameroon | Present | Introduced | |||||
Central African Republic | Present | Introduced | |||||
Chad | Present | Introduced | |||||
Comoros | Present | Introduced | |||||
Congo, Democratic Republic of the | Present | Introduced | |||||
Djibouti | Present | Introduced | |||||
Egypt | Present | Introduced | |||||
Equatorial Guinea | Present | Introduced | |||||
Eritrea | Present | Introduced | |||||
Ethiopia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Gabon | Present | Introduced | |||||
Libya | Present | Introduced | |||||
Madagascar | Present | Introduced | |||||
Mauritius | Present | Introduced | |||||
Mayotte | Present | Introduced | |||||
Morocco | Present | Introduced | |||||
Mozambique | Present | Introduced | |||||
Réunion | Present | Introduced | |||||
Rwanda | Present | Introduced | |||||
São Tomé and Príncipe | Present | Introduced | |||||
Seychelles | Present | Introduced | |||||
Somalia | Present | Introduced | |||||
South Africa | Present | Introduced | |||||
South Sudan | Present | Introduced | |||||
Sudan | Present | Introduced | |||||
Tanzania | Present | Introduced | |||||
Tunisia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Uganda | Present | Introduced | |||||
Zambia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Zimbabwe | Present | Introduced | 1912 | ||||
Asia |
|||||||
Afghanistan | Present | Introduced | |||||
Azerbaijan | Present | Introduced | |||||
Bangladesh | Present | ||||||
China | Present | Native and Introduced | Reported as native and introduced and invasive. This may be due to regional variation | ||||
-Anhui | Present | ||||||
-Beijing | Present | ||||||
-Fujian | Present | ||||||
-Gansu | Present | ||||||
-Guangdong | Present | ||||||
-Guangxi | Present | ||||||
-Guizhou | Present | ||||||
-Hainan | Present | ||||||
-Hebei | Present | ||||||
-Heilongjiang | Present | ||||||
-Henan | Present | ||||||
-Hubei | Present | ||||||
-Hunan | Present | ||||||
-Inner Mongolia | Present | ||||||
-Jiangsu | Present | ||||||
-Jiangxi | Present | ||||||
-Jilin | Present | ||||||
-Liaoning | Present | ||||||
-Ningxia | Present | ||||||
-Qinghai | Present | ||||||
-Shaanxi | Present | ||||||
-Shandong | Present | ||||||
-Shanghai | Present | ||||||
-Sichuan | Present | ||||||
-Tianjin | Present | ||||||
-Xinjiang | Present | ||||||
-Yunnan | Present | ||||||
-Zhejiang | Present | ||||||
Cocos Islands | Present | Native | |||||
Hong Kong | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
India | Present | Native | |||||
-Chhattisgarh | Present | ||||||
-Delhi | Present | ||||||
-Haryana | Present | ||||||
-Punjab | Present | ||||||
-Rajasthan | Present | ||||||
-Uttar Pradesh | Present | ||||||
-Uttarakhand | Present | ||||||
Indonesia | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Iran | Present | Introduced | |||||
Iraq | Present | Introduced | |||||
Japan | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Kuwait | Present | Introduced | |||||
Kyrgyzstan | Present | Introduced | |||||
Macau | Present | ||||||
Malaysia | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Myanmar | Present | Introduced | |||||
Nepal | Present | Introduced | |||||
North Korea | Present | Introduced | 1909 | ||||
Oman | Present | Introduced | |||||
Pakistan | Present | Introduced | |||||
Saudi Arabia | Present | Introduced | |||||
South Korea | Present | Introduced | 1909 | Cultivated | |||
Taiwan | Present | Introduced | |||||
Turkmenistan | Present | Introduced | |||||
Vietnam | Present | ||||||
Yemen | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Socotra | Present | Introduced | 2003 | ||||
Europe |
|||||||
Austria | Present | Introduced | 1909 | Not established | |||
Belgium | Present | Introduced | 1857 | ||||
Bulgaria | Present | Introduced | |||||
Czechia | Present | Introduced | 1963 | Not established | |||
Denmark | Present | Introduced | Established | ||||
Estonia | Present | Introduced | 1777 | Not established | |||
Finland | Present | Introduced | |||||
France | Present | Introduced | Not established | ||||
Germany | Present | Introduced | Not established | ||||
Hungary | Present | Introduced | Not established | ||||
Ireland | Present | Introduced | 1905 | Not established | |||
Latvia | Present | Introduced | 1888 | Not established | |||
Lithuania | Present | Introduced | 1954 | Not established | |||
Moldova | Present | Introduced | |||||
Netherlands | Present | Introduced | |||||
Norway | Present | Introduced | 1876 | Not established | |||
Poland | Present | Introduced | 1846 | ||||
Portugal | |||||||
-Azores | Present | Introduced | 1987 | Established | |||
Romania | Present | Introduced | |||||
Russia | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Southern Russia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Serbia | Present | ||||||
Slovakia | Present | Introduced | 1988 | ||||
Spain | Present | Introduced | |||||
Sweden | Present | Introduced | First reported: <1891 | ||||
Switzerland | Present | Introduced | |||||
Ukraine | Present | Introduced | |||||
United Kingdom | Present | Introduced | 1876 | Established | |||
-Channel Islands | Present | Introduced | Not established | ||||
North America |
|||||||
Belize | Present | Introduced | |||||
Canada | Present | Introduced | 1875 | Present as a weed, but not abundant or problematic | |||
-Alberta | Present | Introduced | |||||
-British Columbia | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Manitoba | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Saskatchewan | Present | Introduced | |||||
Costa Rica | Present | Introduced | |||||
Cuba | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Dominican Republic | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
El Salvador | Present | Introduced | |||||
Guatemala | Present | Introduced | Reported as both invasive and non-invasive | ||||
Honduras | Present | Introduced | |||||
Mexico | Present | Introduced | Weed | ||||
Nicaragua | Present | Introduced | Reported as both invasive and non-invasive | ||||
Panama | Present | Introduced | |||||
Puerto Rico | Present | Introduced | Weed | ||||
U.S. Virgin Islands | Present | Introduced | St Croix | ||||
United States | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Present based on regional distribution. Reported as invasive in some states. | |||
-Alabama | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Alaska | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Arizona | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Arkansas | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-California | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Colorado | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Connecticut | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Delaware | Present | Introduced | |||||
-District of Columbia | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Florida | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Georgia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Hawaii | Present | Introduced | 1942 | ||||
-Idaho | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Illinois | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Indiana | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Iowa | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Kansas | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Kentucky | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Louisiana | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Maine | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Maryland | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Massachusetts | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Michigan | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Minnesota | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Mississippi | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Missouri | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Montana | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Nebraska | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Nevada | Present | Introduced | |||||
-New Hampshire | Present | Introduced | |||||
-New Jersey | Present | Introduced | |||||
-New Mexico | Present | Introduced | |||||
-New York | Present | Introduced | |||||
-North Carolina | Present | Introduced | |||||
-North Dakota | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Ohio | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Oklahoma | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Oregon | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Pennsylvania | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Rhode Island | Present | Introduced | |||||
-South Carolina | Present | Introduced | |||||
-South Dakota | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Tennessee | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Texas | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Utah | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Vermont | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Virginia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Washington | Present | Introduced | |||||
-West Virginia | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Wisconsin | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Wyoming | Present | Introduced | |||||
Oceania |
|||||||
Australia | Present | Introduced | 1897 | Reported as invasive and non-invasive weed | |||
-New South Wales | Present | Introduced | Reported as invasive and non-invasive | ||||
-Queensland | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-South Australia | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Victoria | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Western Australia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Fiji | Present | Introduced | Reported as cultivated, non-invasive and invasive | ||||
French Polynesia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Cultivated and invasive | |||
Guam | Present | Introduced | Occasionally cultivated | ||||
Marshall Islands | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Nauru | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
New Caledonia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
New Zealand | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Niue | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Norfolk Island | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
South America |
|||||||
Argentina | Present | Introduced | Weed | ||||
Bolivia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Brazil | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Invasive weed of winter crops | |||
-Espirito Santo | Present | ||||||
-Minas Gerais | Present | ||||||
-Rio Grande do Sul | Present | ||||||
-Santa Catarina | Present | ||||||
-Sao Paulo | Present | ||||||
Colombia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Ecuador | |||||||
-Galapagos Islands | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
French Guiana | Present | Introduced | |||||
Peru | Present | Introduced | |||||
Venezuela | Present | Introduced |
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageThis species is already widespread and new introductions are not of concern.
Habitat
Top of pageThis is a cultivated and naturalized species around the world. In the wild it is mainly found in fields, wasteland and roadsides as a weed.
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
Brassica juncea is a natural amphidiploid (AABB genome, 2n=36) hybrid of Brassica rapa (AA genome, 2n=20) and Brassica nigra (BB genome, 2n=16). Axelsson et al. (2000) used linkage mapping to show that the B. juncea genome has remained largely unchanged since the hybridization event and contains the conserved genomes of both progenitor species.
Reproductive Biology
This species is mainly self-pollinated, although 20-30% cross pollination has been recorded. This cross pollination can be the result of the raceme of different individuals touching. Although the major pollinator for the species seems to be bees due to the heavy and sticky nature of its pollen (Canadian Food Inspection Agency, 2008), at least 30 species of insect pollinators, belonging to ten families under four orders, were observed visiting brown mustard flowers in open pollinated and caged individuals in India, including the cabbage white butterfly (Pieris brassicae) (Kunjwal et al., 2014). In farmlands in Indonesia, three bee species were found to make up approximately 88% of the pollinators, but a diversity of Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, Diptera and Coleoptera species were observed (Atmowidi et al., 2007).
Environmental Requirements
Brassica juncea grows worldwide from Boreal Wet to Tropical Thorn through Tropical Wet Forest Life Zones. It is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 500 to 4200 mm, annual temperature of 6 to 27°C, and pH of 4.3 to 8.3.
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
Af - Tropical rainforest climate | Tolerated | > 60mm precipitation per month | |
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Tolerated | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Tolerated | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
BS - Steppe climate | Tolerated | > 430mm and < 860mm annual precipitation | |
BW - Desert climate | Tolerated | < 430mm annual precipitation | |
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Tolerated | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | |
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Tolerated | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) | |
Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year | Tolerated | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year | |
Ds - Continental climate with dry summer | Preferred | Continental climate with dry summer (Warm average temp. > 10°C, coldest month < 0°C, dry summers) | |
Dw - Continental climate with dry winter | Preferred | Continental climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, coldest month < 0°C, dry winters) | |
Df - Continental climate, wet all year | Preferred | Continental climate, wet all year (Warm average temp. > 10°C, coldest month < 0°C, wet all year) |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
60 | 50 |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Mean annual rainfall | 500 | 4200 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Albugo candida | Pathogen | not specific | ||||
Athelia rolfsii | Pathogen | not specific | ||||
Cucumber mosaic virus | Pathogen | not specific | ||||
Entomoscelis americana | not specific | |||||
Fusarium | Pathogen | not specific | ||||
Gaeumannomyces graminis var. graminis | Pathogen | not specific | ||||
Heterodera schachtii | Pathogen | not specific | ||||
Leptosphaeria maculans | Pathogen | not specific | ||||
Macrophomina phaseolina | Pathogen | not specific | ||||
Meloidogyne hapla | Pathogen | not specific | ||||
Meloidogyne incognita | Pathogen | not specific | ||||
Murgantia histrionica | not specific | |||||
Mycosphaerella brassicicola | Pathogen | not specific | ||||
Phasianus colchicus | Plants|Seeds | not specific | ||||
Pieris brassicae | not specific | |||||
Pieris rapae | not specific | |||||
Plutella xylostella | not specific | |||||
Pontia protodice | not specific | |||||
Pythium | not specific | |||||
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum | Pathogen | not specific | ||||
Turnip mosaic virus | Pathogen | not specific | ||||
Xanthomonas campestris pv. zinniae | Pathogen | not specific |
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageNatural Dispersal
Brassica juncea seeds are released as its seed pods dry and shatter. It shows slightly greater shattering resistance than other closely related Brassica species, which may reduce its rate of dispersal (Canadian Food Inspection Agency, 2008). A large number of small seeds are produced, which can be dispersed by wind and water (Office of the Gene Technology Regulator, 2017).
Vector Transmission (Biotic)
Animals, including ants, birds and mammals, can disperse seeds (Office of the Gene Technology Regulator, 2017).
Accidental Introduction
Mathematical modelling of the spread of naturalized populations of B. juncea in New Zealand found the presence of seed storage facilities and transportation routes explained a high percentage of the variance in B. juncea presence or absence. This suggests human-mediated dispersal is a major pathway for spreading wild populations (Peltzer et al., 2008).
Intentional Introduction
Brassica juncea is a crop that has been distributed worldwide through human introduction.
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Breeding and propagation | Breeding programme for enhancement of crop traits for fodder and oil production | Yes | Office of the Gene Technology Regulator (2008) | |
Crop production | Deliberately introduced as a crop in most temperate and tropical areas | Yes | Office of the Gene Technology Regulator (2008) | |
Forage | Yes | Office of the Gene Technology Regulator (2008) | ||
Industrial purposes | Oil production | Yes | Office of the Gene Technology Regulator (2008) | |
Internet sales | Yes | Yes | ||
Medicinal use | Yes | Canadian Food Inspection Agency (2008) | ||
Research | Yes | Yes | ||
Seed trade | Yes | Yes |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Clothing, footwear and possessions | Yes | Office of the Gene Technology Regulator (2008) | ||
Containers and packaging - wood | Yes | Office of the Gene Technology Regulator (2008) | ||
Yes | Yes |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Economic/livelihood | Positive |
Environment (generally) | Positive |
Human health |
Economic Impact
Top of pageIn cultivation, B. juncea seed may escape harvest, allowing it to persist and become a weed of subsequent crops. It is a major weed in Australia, and considered a minor weed in Canada (Office of the Gene Technology Regulator, 2008). In Canada it is less common as a volunteer weed than other closely related species, such as Brassica napus, perhaps as a result of reduced shattering in B. juncea limiting its spread (Canadian Food Inspection Agency, 2008).
Environmental Impact
Top of pageSome Brassica species have been shown to have an allelopathic effect on native species. Brassica nigra has been shown to inhibit arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, which can prevent the establishment of native plants dependent on this symbiosis (Pakpour and Klironomos, 2015; Maltz et al., 2016). Extracts from B. juncea, B. napus and B. rapa were shown to reduce germination rate, seedling root, hypocotyl length and fresh and dry weight in sunflower (Jafariehyazdi and Javidfar, 2011).
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Abundant in its native range
- Fast growing
- Allelopathic
- Hybridization
Uses
Top of pageEconomic Value
Brassica juncea is one of six cultivated Brassicaceae species, and it is a major oil yielding crop (Sharma et al., 2014). B. juncea, B. rapa and B. napus are the primary sources of canola oil, due to the 35-45% oil content of their seeds. Brassica oilseed production represents 14% of the edible oil production, ranking third after Palm and Soybean edible oil (OECD-FAO, 2012). Of the three Brassica oilseed crops, B juncea has a higher heat tolerance and is more common in subtropical regions, such as Asia, compared to B. napus and B. rapa, which dominate in temperate regions. Mustard oil, produced from B. juncea or B. nigra, is a major cooking oil in India and is highly prized for vegetable and fish frying for its distinctive taste and pungency due to the presence of allyl-isothiocynate and related compounds (Malode and Shelke, 2010). Canola meal (a byproduct of canola oil process) can be used as animal food or a condiment, and plants cultivated as an oilseed crop can be collected in the spring and be used as hay (Office of the Gene Technology Regulator, 2008).
The species has some technological application in biodiesel production and bioremediation and for its insecticidal, fungicidal, nematicidal and medicinal properties (Lee et al., 2014; Main et al., 2014, Ngala et al., 2015; Oliveira et al., 2011; Perniola et al., 2014; Rodríguez-Vila et al., 2015; Jham et al., 2009; Smrithi et al., 2012). Its insecticidal activity is due mainly to its glucosinolate and erucic acid composition (Cartea et al., 2011). At least 34 phenolic compounds have been identified in B. juncea leaves, but only varieties with low phenolic content are used for canola oil production (Cartea et al., 2011; Canadian Food Inspection Agency, 2008).
Social Benefit
Brassica juncea is not a common medicine, but it is used in folk medicine, as reported by Duke (1983):
It is reported to be an anodyne, aperitif, emetic, rubefacient and stimulant, and used to treat arthritis, foot ache, lumbago, and rheumatism. In China, the seeds are used for treating tumours and leaves are eaten in soups to treat bladder disorders, inflammation or haemorrhage. In Korea it is used to treat abscesses, colds, lumbago, rheumatism and stomach disorders, while is considered an antisyphilitic emmenagogue in Java. The root is used as a galactagogue in Africa and its ingestion may impart a body odour that serves as mosquito repellent. Mustard oil is used to treat skin conditions.
More recent studies have evaluated the healing and pharmacological properties of B. juncea. The seeds, oil and leaves are a source of a number of potentially bioactive phytochemicals, but research into this area is still limited (Kumar et al., 2011; Malan et al., 2011).
Environmental Services
Brassica juncea is a potential candidate for bioremediation of heavy metal pollution as it has been found to significantly deplete levels of cadmium, lead and zinc in soil (Singh and Fulekar, 2012). In addition, this species has been suggested as a biological control of several plagues as a trap crop for Plutella xylostella (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae) in South Africa (Charleston and Kfir, 2000; Badenes-Perez et al., 2004), among other pests, including fungi and nematodes (Ngala et al., 2015).
Uses List
Top of pageAnimal feed, fodder, forage
- Fodder/animal feed
- Forage
Fuels
- Biofuels
General
- Sociocultural value
Genetic importance
- Gene source
Human food and beverage
- Oil/fat
- Seeds
- Spices and culinary herbs
- Vegetable
Materials
- Green manure
- Oils
- Pesticide
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Traditional/folklore
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageThis species is of hybrid origin. It closely resembles B. napus and B. rapa except that the upper leaves of these two species are clasping, while in B. juncea they are not. Brassica juncea seeds are very similar to those of Brassica niger, one of its parent species, both less than 2 mm in diameter, reddish-brown to brown or orange in colour. However, the seeds of B. juncea are more spherical than those of B. nigra, which are more oval or oblong. The seed texture varies, with B. juncea being defined by fine, distinct lines outlining flat-bottomed interspaces, while B. niger has thick, prominent ridges surrounding concave interspaces. B. juncea seeds have small, distinct stipples covering the entire seed, while the stipples on the seeds of B. niger are partially or completely obscured and may not be visible (Commercial Seed Analysts Association of Canada, 2010)
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Brassica juncea seed persists in soils for more than a year, contaminating subsequent crops, which can make this species difficult to eradicate once established.
References
Top of pageAtmowidi T, Buchori D, Manuwoto S, 2007. Diversity of pollinator insects in relation to seed set of Mustard (Brassica rapa L.: Cruciferae). HAYATI Journal of Biosciences, 14(4), 155-161.
Canadian Food Inspection Agency, 2008. The Biology of Brassica juncea (Canola/Mustard). Ottowa, Canada: Government of Canada.http://www.inspection.gc.ca/plants/plants-with-novel-traits/applicants/directive-94-08/biology-documents/brassica-juncea/eng/1330727837568/1330727899677
Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health, 2019. Indian mustard Brassica juncea (L.) Czern. Georgia, USA: The University of Georgia . https://www.invasive.org/browse/subinfo.cfm?sub=5205
Cheo TY, 1987. Flora Republicae Popularis Sinicae. Tomus 33: Crucifereae, Beijing, China: Science Press.483 pp.
Commercial Seed Analysts Association of Canada, 2010. Visual identification of seeds of five species of Brassica and one species of Sinapis. British Colombia, Canada: CSAAC.9 pp.
DAISIE, 2015. Delivering Alien Invasive Species Inventories for Europe. http://www.europe-aliens.org/
Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2015. Flora of China. St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria.http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2
Kumar V, Thakur AK, Barothia ND, Chatterjee SS, 2011. Therapeutic potentials of Brassica juncea: An overview. TANG: International Journal of Genuine Traditional Medicine, 1(1), 1-16.
Malan R, Walia A, Saini V, Gupta S, 2011. Comparison of different extracts leaf of Brassica juncea Linn on wound healing activity. European Journal of Experimental Biology, 1(2), 33-40.
Malode SN, Shelke PB, 2010. Morphological, phenological and anatomical studies in yellow seeded mutant Brassica juncea. Bionano Frontier, 3(2), 172-177.
Mito T, Uesugi T, 2004. Invasive alien species in Japan: the status quo and the new regulation for prevention of their adverse effects. Global Environmental Research, 8(2), 171-193.
OECD, 2016. Brassica crops (Brassica species). In: Safety Assessment of Transgenic Organisms in the Environment, Volume 5: OECD Consensus Documents Paris, France: OECD Publishing.
OECD-FAO, 2012. OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2012-2021, Paris, Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development.281 pp.
Office of the Gene Technology Regulator, 2008. The biology of Brassica napus L. (canola). Canberra, Australia: Australian Government Department of Health.63 pp.
Office of the Gene Technology Regulator, 2017. The Biology of Brassica napus L. (canola) and Brassica juncea (L.) Czern. & Coss. (Indian mustard). Canberra, Australia: Australian Government Department of Health.
Pakpour S, Klironomos J, 2015. The invasive plant, Brassica nigra, degrades local mycorrhizas across a wide geographical landscape. Royal Society Open Science, 2(9)
Rodri´guez-Vila A, Asensio V, Forja´n J, Covelo EF, 2015. Chemical fractionation of Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn in a mine soil amended with compost and biochar and vegetated with Brassica juncea L. Journal of Geochemical Exploration , 158, 74-81.
Schippers RR , Mnzava NA, 2007. Brassica juncea (L.) Czern. In: PROTA4U, [ed. by van der Vossen HAM, Mkamilo GS]. Wageningen, Netherlands: PROTA.http://www.prota4u.org/search.asp
Singh A, Fulekar MH, 2012. Phytoremediation of Heavy Metals by Brassica juncea in Aquatic and Terrestrial Environment. In: The plant family Brassicaceae: contribution towards phytoremediation, [ed. by Naser A, Anjum NA, Ahmad I, Pereira ME, Duarte AC, Umar S, Khan NA]. Springer. 153-169.
Spect CE, Diederichsen A, 2001. Brassica. In: Mansfeld's Encyclopedia of Agricultural and Horticultural Crops vol 3, [ed. by Hanelt P]. Springer-Verlag. 1453-1456.
Warwick SI, Francis A, 1994. Guide to the wild germplasm of Brassica and allied crops. Part V. Life History and Geographical Data for Wild Species in the Tribe Brassiceae (Cruciferae). Technical Bulletin 1994-2E. Ottawa, Canada: Agriculture Canada Research Branch.61pp.
Distribution References
CABI, 2022. CABI Distribution Database: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Canadian Food Inspection Agency, 2008. The Biology of Brassica juncea (Canola/Mustard). Ottowa, Canada: Government of Canada. http://www.inspection.gc.ca/plants/plants-with-novel-traits/applicants/directive-94-08/biology-documents/brassica-juncea/eng/1330727837568/1330727899677
Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health, 2019. Indian mustard Brassica juncea (L.) Czern. Georgia, USA: The University of Georgia. https://www.invasive.org/browse/subinfo.cfm?sub=5205
DAISIE, 2015. Delivering Alien Invasive Species Inventories for Europe. http://www.europe-aliens.org/
Mito T, Uesugi T, 2004. Invasive alien species in Japan: the status quo and the new regulation for prevention of their adverse effects. Global Environmental Research. 8 (2), 171-193.
Office of the Gene Technology Regulator, 2008. The biology of Brassica napus L. (canola)., Canberra, Australia: Australian Government Department of Health. 63 pp.
Warwick SI, Francis A, 1994. Guide to the wild germplasm of Brassica and allied crops. Part V. Life History and Geographical Data for Wild Species in the Tribe Brassiceae (Cruciferae). Technical Bulletin 1994-2E., Ottawa, Canada: Agriculture Canada Research Branch. 61pp.
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS) | http://griis.org/ | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Organizations
Top of pageChina: BRASSICA DATABASE (BRAD), Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, http://brassicadb.org/brad/
Contributors
Top of page22/06/17 Original text by:
Augusto C. Carvajal Vélez, Consultant, Puerto Rico
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