bovine parainfluenza 3 infection

Pictures

Picture	Title	Caption	Copyright
Title Symptoms Caption Calf with enzootic pneumonia. Copyright ©Paul R. Greenough	Symptoms	Calf with enzootic pneumonia.	©Paul R. Greenough
Title Infected lung cells Caption Bovine fetal lung cells infected with BPIV3. Cells were fixed 72 hours post-infection and stained with hematoxylin/eosin. Note the multinuclear cell (synctium) at the centre of the picture. Copyright S. van Drusen Littel-van den Hurk	Infected lung cells	Bovine fetal lung cells infected with BPIV3. Cells were fixed 72 hours post-infection and stained with hematoxylin/eosin. Note the multinuclear cell (synctium) at the centre of the picture.	S. van Drusen Littel-van den Hurk
Title BPIV3 antigen Caption Detection of BPIV3 antigen by indirect immunofluorescence. Bovine fetal lung cells were fixed 72 hours post-infection and stained with anti-fusion protein monoclonal antibody and anti-species lgG linked to fluoresceine. Note the fluorescence in the cytoplasm of infected cells. Copyright S. van Drusen Littel-van den Hurk	BPIV3 antigen	Detection of BPIV3 antigen by indirect immunofluorescence. Bovine fetal lung cells were fixed 72 hours post-infection and stained with anti-fusion protein monoclonal antibody and anti-species lgG linked to fluoresceine. Note the fluorescence in the cytoplasm of infected cells.	S. van Drusen Littel-van den Hurk
Title Infected BPIV3 lung tissue Caption Immunohistological staining of lung tissue of a calf infected with BPIV3. Tissue sections were fixed and stained with rabbit antibodies to BPIV3 and avidin-biotin immunoperoxidase complex using diamonobezidine, and counterstained with hematoxylin. Note presence of BPIV3 antigen (red colour) in broncheolar epithelium. Copyright D. Haines/WCVM, Saskatoon, Canada.	Infected BPIV3 lung tissue	Immunohistological staining of lung tissue of a calf infected with BPIV3. Tissue sections were fixed and stained with rabbit antibodies to BPIV3 and avidin-biotin immunoperoxidase complex using diamonobezidine, and counterstained with hematoxylin. Note presence of BPIV3 antigen (red colour) in broncheolar epithelium.	D. Haines/WCVM, Saskatoon, Canada.
Title Pathology - fibrinous pneumonia Caption Bovine lung with fibrinous pneumonia caused by Pasteurella haemolytica and bovine parainfluenzavirus 3, affecting the cranial lobe, the middle lobe and the cranio-ventral portions of the caudal lobes of the lungs. Copyright ©Paul R. Greenough	Pathology - fibrinous pneumonia	Bovine lung with fibrinous pneumonia caused by Pasteurella haemolytica and bovine parainfluenzavirus 3, affecting the cranial lobe, the middle lobe and the cranio-ventral portions of the caudal lobes of the lungs.	©Paul R. Greenough

Identity

Preferred Scientific Name

• bovine parainfluenza 3 infection

International Common Names

• English: bovine respiratory disease; bovine respiratory disease caused by BPIV 3; enzootic pneumonia of calves; parainfluenza virus, pi-3, infection in sheep and goats; shipping fever; shipping fever of cattle; undifferentiated respiratory disease of cattle
• Chinese: xin fu nian liu gan bing du

Overview

Bovine parainfluenza virus 3 (BPIV3) is an important pathogen that causes acute upper and lower respiratory tract infections in calves (Bryson et al., 1978). The virus was isolated for the first time in 1959 from mucus of a calf with respiratory disease and was identified as a myxovirus (Reisinger et al., 1959). Since that time, BPIV3 has been frequently associated with outbreaks of respiratory disease in dairy and beef calves in many countries (Betts et al., 1964; Tsai and Thomson, 1975; Allan et al., 1978; Bryson et al., 1978, 1979a, b). Subsequently, pneumonia typical of field cases was reproduced experimentally by infecting calves with BPIV3 (Tsai and Thomson, 1975; Bryson et al., 1979a, b). In the acute phase of the pneumonia, virus replication was observed within epithelial cells of the respiratory tract and within alveolar macrophages, and loss of cilia and ciliated cells in bronchi and broncheoli and necrosis of bronchiolar epithelium was noted (Tsai and Thomson, 1975; Bryson et al., 1983).

Although an infection with BPIV3 may cause pathology in the respiratory tract of young cattle, this is often subclinical and generally not associated with a recognizable clinical syndrome. The true impact of a BPIV3 infection is that, by causing damage to cells of the respiratory tract, it can impair pulmonary clearance from the lung and predispose calves to secondary infections by other pathogens. As such, BPIV3 is associated with respiratory disease, a major cause of morbidity and mortality in dairy and veal calves (enzootic pneumonia) and feedlot calves (shipping fever pneumonia) that results in substantial economic losses (Thomson, 1980; Yates, 1980; Ghram et al., 1989; Anon., 1992; Radostits et al., 2000a,b). Factors associated with the etiology of bovine respiratory disease are viruses (BPIV3, bovine herpesvirus 1, bovine viral diarrhoea virus, bovine respiratory syncytial virus), bacteria (Mannheimia [Pasteurella] haemolytica, Pasteurella multocida and Haemophilus somnus [Histophilus somni]), stress, and management practices (Yates, 1980; Rebhun et al., 1995; Otter and Farrer, 1997; Radostits et al., 2000a,b). Frequently, more than one infectious agent is involved and together they may act in synergy (Rosenquist et al., 1970; Irwin et al., 1979; Yates, 1980; Ghram et al., 1989).

BPIV3 is an enveloped, non-segmented, negative-sense, single-stranded RNA virus classified in the genus Respirovirus in the Paramyxoviridae family, order Mononegavirales (King et al., 2012).

The Paramyxoviridae contains important pathogens of humans (measles virus, human respiratory syncytial virus, human parainfluenza virus 3 and mumps), and livestock and poultry (bovine parainfluenza virus 3, bovine respiratory syncytial virus, rinderpest virus and Newcastle disease virus; Murphy, 1996), as well as the virus of canine distemper.

Hosts/Species Affected

Parainfluenza viruses generally have a narrow host range (Murphy, 1996). The natural host for BPIV3 is cattle. Based on serology, antibodies to PIV3 have been found in humans, cattle, sheep, goats, water buffalo, deer, dogs, cats, monkeys, guineapigs, pigs, and rats (Tehteh and Goyal, 1988; Maglione and Rosati, 1988; Ulbrich, 1991; Fenner et al., 1993; Aguirre et al., 1995). Although there is a serological relationship, it is not clear whether BPIV3 infects all of these species under natural circumstances or whether there are species-specific virus strains. Human PIV3 (HPIV3) is serologically and antigenically different from BPIV3 (Andrewes et al., 1978; Klippmark et al., 1990). BPIV3 can infect humans, sheep, goats, and bisons, but is probably not pathogenic in these species (Rodger, 1989; Zarnke and Erickson, 1990; Bechmann, 1997). Vaccines using BPIV3 have been used to vaccinate humans and sheep and were found to be safe (Karron et al., 1995). It is not known if PIV3 viruses of other species can infect cattle. PIV3 can cause a mild undifferentiated pneumonia in sheep and goats, and surveys have shown that PIV3 infections are widespread and are associated with respiratory disease of economical importance (Martin, 1996; Watt, 1996). Infections in sheep and goats causing disease are probably caused by species-specific PIV3 isolates.

Distribution

Reports on serological surveys and virus isolations demonstrate that BPIV3 has a worldwide geographical distribution. Seroprevalence is generally high and varies from 50 to 90% (Fenner et al., 1993; Martin, 1996; Radostits et al., 2000a,b).

The complete genome analyses of the representative BPIV3 isolates from Australia and North America indicated that BPIV3 falls into two distinct genotypes, BPIV3 genotype A (BPIV-3a) and BPIV3 genotype B (BPIV-3b) (Horwood et al., 2008). Four isolates, which were only detected in China, were proposed as genotype C (Zhu et al., 2011).

Distribution Table

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Pathology

Pneumonia caused by BPIV3 by itself is usually subclinical. Necropsy findings in the apical and cardiac lobes consist of areas of atelectasis and emphysema. In the later stages of infection, dark red-coloured consolidations on apical and cardiac lobes are observed. Bronchointerstitial pneumonia is observed histologically. Generally, an acute inflammation of the nasal mucosa is accompanied by mucopurulent exudate. Microscopically, there are lesions consisting of bronchiolitis, bronchial and bronchiolar hyperplasia, alveolar epithelialization, and giant cell or syncytial formation (Radostits et al., 2000a).

Diagnosis

The clinical signs of BPIV3 infection in calves or cattle are generally not specific enough to lead to a definitive diagnosis. Therefore, a diagnosis of a BPIV3 infection is based on recovery of the virus from animal samples or on demonstration of an increase in BPIV3 antibody titres in paired serum samples in the laboratory. Samples obtained via tracheal wash, nasopharyngeal swab, or necropsy specimens from infected calves are inoculated in cell culture. Virus is allowed to replicate in cell culture and identified by immunological staining using BPIV3-specific antibodies (Haanes et al., 1997). A direct analysis for BPIV3 can be performed on specimens taken from the respiratory tract, including specimens collected from fatal cases followed by an identification of viral antigens using immunological detection (Gardner et al., 1971; Haines et al., 1992). Alternatively, virus can be assayed by screening for viral RNA in nasal secretions by reverse transcription followed by PCR and immunodetection (Karron et al., 1994). In general, BPIV3 is only detected during the first 7-8 days after infection and is often absent in specimens taken during secondary bacterial infections. Serological diagnosis of BPIV3 antibodies in paired serum samples by complement fixation (CF), haemagglutination inhibition (HI), virus neutralization (VN), or ELISA can establish the occurrence of a virus infection (Assaf et al., 1983; Trybala et al., 1989; van Donkersgoed et al., 1991; Graham et al., 1999).

Because of the multifactorial aetiology of bovine respiratory disease (shipping fever), the high incidence of subclinical BPIV3 infections and the use of modified live virus BPIV3 vaccines, detecting the virus, viral antigens or viral nucleic acid does not prove disease causation. Therefore, the test results should be interpreted after taking into consideration the overall clinical condition of the herd and the individual animal (MacLachlan and Dubovi, 2011).

List of Symptoms/Signs

Disease Course

Young cattle usually become susceptible to BPIV3 infection when maternal antibody levels are dropping. The clinical signs of a BPIV3 infection include fever of 40-41.7°C, depression, anorexia, nasal and ocular serous discharge, increased respiratory rate (40-80/min) tracheal rales, and occasional rales in the lower parts of the lung. Recovery from acute infection is usually within 7-10 days (Bryson et al., 1979a, b). Fatal cases due to BPIV3 infection by itself are rare. A BPIV3 infection can cause lesions in the ciliated epithelial lining of the respiratory tract and BPIV3 can infect alveolar macrophages and hence impair the defence mechanisms against respiratory pathogens (Liggitt et al., 1985; Slauson et al., 1987; Brown and Ananaba, 1988; Basaraba et al., 1993). Therefore, in most cases of a moderate to severe (including fatal) pneumonia, a BPIV3 infection is usually accompanied by bacterial infection. The most common bacteria encountered in complicated pneumonia are Mannheimia [Pasteurella] haemolytica, Pasteurella multocida and Haemophilus somnus [Histophilus somni] (Otter and Farrer, 1997; Radostits et al., 2000a, b).

Although it has been reported that BPIV3 may infect foetuses and cause abortions in cattle, it is not considered a common cause of abortion (Dunne et al., 1973; Swift and Trueblood, 1974).

Epidemiology

The prevalence of BPIV3-specific antibodies in dairy and beef cattle is high and the virus is commonly isolated from calves with respiratory disease (Potgieter, 1977; Thomson, 1980; Fulton et al., 1982; Key and Derbyshire, 1984; Martin and Bohac, 1986; Radostits et al., 2000a,b). A BPIV3 infection of calves is generally subclinical in the absence of other pathogens and adverse environmental and management factors (Rebhun et al., 1995; Radostits et al., 2000a,b). An uncomplicated respiratory infection caused by BPIV3 is characterized by clinical signs for 3-5 days followed by a complete recovery (Fenner et al., 1993). Usually, housed dairy calves and nursing beef calves become infected with BPIV3 when they are 1-5 months old. Beef calves often become infected within 2 weeks when they enter a feedlot. Following BPIV3 infection, virus can be isolated for 1-2 weeks from individual calves and can persist for several weeks in the group. By interference with the pulmonary clearance system the virus is capable of predisposing infected young calves to more severe pneumonia (enzootic pneumonia and shipping fever pneumonia) when they are subsequently exposed to bacterial pathogens such as Mannheimia [Pasteurella] haemolytica (Radostits et al., 2000a,b). A combined infection with BPIV3 and BHV-1 causes more severe disease in calves than either virus by itself, and antibody responses are delayed and lower in calves infected with both viruses (Ghram et al., 1989).

BPIV3 is transmitted by direct contact between animals and by aerosol infection.

Impact: Economic

The economic impact of BPIV3 by itself is not known. BPIV3 is one of the factors associated with enzootic pneumonia in housed dairy calves, veal calves and beef calves in crowded calving grounds, and bovine respiratory disease (BRD, shipping fever) in feedlot cattle. BRD has been reported to cause 31% of cattle deaths in the USA and enzootic pneumonia can be responsible for up to 30% of all dead calves in dairy herds is and the single largest cause of death in veal calf farms (van Donkersgoed et al., 1993; Vogel and Parrott, 1994; Radostits et al., 2000b). The economic losses for the beef industry in the USA due to death, treatment, decreased animal performance, and labour have been estimated at US $624 million per year (Anon., 1992). Morbidity rates for enzootic pneumonia in dairy cattle and BRD in beef cattle are 80-100% (van Donkersgoed et al., 1993; Vogel and Parrott, 1994; Radostits et al., 2000a,b).

One report by Senf et al. (1988) indicates the economic impact of BPIV3 infection. BPIV3 was isolated from 202 lung samples of calves with a respiratory disease complex over a 5-year period on 131 premises, and immunization with a BPIV3 vaccine reduced economic losses and disease.

Zoonoses and Food Safety

BPIV3 is closely related to human PIV3 and can infect humans. However, a relatively high dose of BPIV3 is required for the infection of humans (Collins et al., 1996). Therefore, infection by consumption of BPIV3-contaminated meat from cattle, (particularly from the respiratory organs) is unlikely. BPIV3 does not survive in properly cooked meat. In addition, a live BPIV3 candidate vaccine for humans has been tested and was found to be safe and induce immunity in children (Karron et al., 1995; Collins et al., 1996). Nevertheless, a period of 3-4 weeks disease-free before slaughter of cattle is recommended for livestock previously infected with BPIV3.

Disease Treatment

Treatment of BPIV3- infected calves with alpha-interferon has been reported (Kishko and Mukvich, 1998).

Treatment must take into consideration the frequent secondary bacterial pneumonia following a BPIV3 infection. Sick animals should be isolated from healthy ones and, in consultation with a veterinarian, treated with antibiotics to prevent secondary infections.

Prevention and Control

Disease prevention and control is based on good husbandry, management strategies to decrease stress, and appropriate vaccination (Ballásh and Kudron, 1993; Elze and Selbitz, 1993; Rebhun et al., 1995; Radostits et al., 2000a,b). Many guidelines that address these factors are available for local situations from government institutions.

Enzootic Pneumonia

With respect to enzootic pneumonia, the animal population at risk for development of pneumonia are housed dairy and veal calves and to a lesser extent beef calves of 2 weeks and older (Radostits et al., 2000b).

Steps to prevent and control pneumonia include the following:

• Make sure that calves drink adequate colostrum containing a high level of antibodies to BPIV3 (and other respiratory disease-causing infectious agents; Hofmann et al., 1991; Barringer and Rosenberg, 1995).


• Ensure that calves are fed and housed well.


• Group and house calves by size and age, and avoid overcrowding.


• Isolate newly purchased calves for a few weeks.


• Follow an all-in, all-out procedure; clean and disinfect pens, and leave pens empty for a few days between groups.


• Keep sick calves separated from healthy ones, and treat them with antibiotics in consultation with a veterinarian.


• Obtain a diagnosis of the causative agent.


• Keep health records on calves.


• Vaccinate calves against respiratory diseases with a vaccine including BPIV3 when passive antibodies have decreased, which usually occurs at 4 months and give a booster at 6 months, followed by yearly booster immunizations (Rebhun et al., 1995).

Many effective BPIV3 vaccines are available; modified-live vaccines for intra-nasal and intra-muscular administration and killed products for intra-muscular use (van Donkersgoed et al., 1991; Fulton et al., 1995; Hermülheim and Wittkowski, 1995). Intra-nasal BPIV3-containing products elicit a fast local immune response.

Bovine Respiratory Disease

With respect to BRD (shipping fever) in feedlot cattle, the animals at risk for development of pneumonia are beef calves during the first weeks after arrival (Martin and Bohac, 1986; Martin et al., 1989; Radostits et al., 2000a). The cause of disease is multifactorial and greatly affected by management practices and degree of stress. Generally calves arriving in feedlots seroconvert to several respiratory viruses including BPIV3 within the first month (Fulton et al., 2000; Radostits et al., 2000a).

Risk factors associated with disease include increased mixing of calves from different origins, month of purchase, duration of transport, and weather conditions at arrival (Radostits et al., 2000a). To reduce stress and disease associated with transport and entering into a feedlot, a program of preconditioning and preimmunization is undertaken in which calves are dehorned, castrated and vaccinated before weaning by the cow-calf producer. Immunization of the calves with a vaccine containing BPIV3 is recommended during preconditioning and at arrival at the feedlot. Many modified-live and killed BPIV3 vaccines are available usually combined with other viral and bacterial products. Sick animals should be isolated from healthy calves and treated with appropriate antibiotics to prevent bacterial disease, in consultation with a veterinarian.

The efficacy of the current vaccines, irrespective of the formulation, is fair in dairy cattle, but with the different management issues confronting the feedlot industry, the control of UF/BRDC is complicated using the vaccination approach (Elankumaran, 2013). There are conflicting reports on the efficacy of the intranasal vaccine formulations in comparison with parenteral live attenuated vaccines (Ellis, 2010). Both types of vaccine are capable of inducing local and systemic protective antibody responses, but the duration and magnitude of response may depend on the status of local and systemic antibody levels at the time of vaccination. Maternal antibodies inhibit the development of active immunity against BPIV3 (Marshall and Frank, 1975; Adair et al., 2000; Fulton et al., 2004).

Contradictory data have been described with respect to the benefit of the use of alpha-interferon for prevention or reduction of disease caused by BPIV3 (Bryson et al., 1989; Kishko and Mukvich, 1998).

References

Adair BM; Bradford HEL; Bryson DG; Foster JC; McNulty MS, 2000. Effect of parainfluenza-3 virus challenge on cell-mediated immune function in parainfluenza-3 vaccinated and non-vaccinated calves. Research in Veterinary Science, 68(2):197-199.

Aguirre AA; Hansen DE; Starkey EE; McLean RG, 1995. Serologic survey of wild cervids for potential disease agents in selected national parks in the United States. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 21(4):313-322; 51 ref.

Allan EM; Pirie HM; Selman IE; Snodgrass DR, 1978. Some characteristics of a natural infection by parainfluenza-3 virus in a group of calves. Veterinary Science, 24:339-346.

Andrewes C; Pereira HG; Wildy P (eds), 1978. Viruses of vertebrates: Paramixoviridae. London, UK: Cassell & Co Ltd, 221-254.

Anon., 1992. Cattle and calves death loss. National Agricultural Statistics Services, USDA.

Assaf R; Montpetit C; Marsolais G, 1983. Serology of bovine parainfluenza virus type 3: comparison of the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and hemagglutination. Canadian Journal Comparative Medicine, 47:140-142.

Ballásh A; Kudron E, 1993. Observations on the PI-3 virus infection of calves kept in pens and later in sheds. Magyar állatorvosok Lapja, 48(5):281-285; 13 ref.

Barringer LS; Rosenberg JB, 1995. Better colostrum. Large Animal Veterinarian, 50(6):22-23; 2 ref.

Basaraba RJ; Brown PR; Laegreid WW; Silflow RM; Evermann JF; Leid RW, 1993. Suppression of lymphocyte proliferation by parainfluenza virus type 3-infected bovine alveolar macrophages. Immunology, 79(2):179-188; 40 ref.

Bechmann G, 1997. Serological diagnosis of cattle viruses in sheep. Deutsche Tierärztliche Wochenschrift, 104(8):321-324; 4 ref.

Betancur Hurtado C; Orrego Uribe A; González Tous M, 2010. Seroepidemiological study of parainfluenza 3 virus in bovines with reproductive failure, from Monteria-Colombia. (Estudio seroepidemiológico del virus de parainfluenza 3 en bovinos del municipio de Montería (Colombia) con trastornos reproductivos.) Revista de Medicina Veterinaria, No.20:63-70. http://publicaciones.lasalle.edu.co/images/openacces/Revistas/veterinaria/MV20/estudio_seroepidemiologico.pdf

Betts AO; Jennings AR; Omar AR; Page ZE; Spence JB; Walker RG, 1964. Pneumonia in calves by parainfluenza virus type 3. Veterinary Record, 76:382-384.

Breker-Klassen MM; Yoo DongWan; Babiuk LA, 1996. Comparisons of the F and HN gene sequences of different strains of bovine parainfluenza virus type 3: relationship to phenotype and pathogenicity. Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research, 60(3):228-236; 64 ref.

Brown TT; Ananaba G, 1988. Effect of respiratory infections caused by bovine herpesvirus-1 or parainfluenza-3 virus on bovine alveolar macrophage functions. American Journal Veterinary Research, 49:1447-1451.

Bryson DG; McFerran JB; Ball HJ; Neil SD, 1978. Observations on outbreaks of respiratory disease in housed calves. II. Pathological and microbiological findings. Veterinary Record, 103:503-509.

Bryson DG; McFerran JB; Ball HJ; Neil SD, 1979a. Observations on outbreaks of respiratory disease in caves associated with parainfluenza type 3 virus and respiratory syncytial virus infection. Veterinary Record, 104:45-49.

Bryson DG; McNulty MS; Ball HJ; Neil SD; Connor TJ; Cush PF, 1979b. The experimental production of pneumonia in calves by intranasal inoculation of parainfluenza type 3 virus. Veterinary Record, 105:566-573.

Bryson DG; McNulty MS; Ball HJ; Neil SD; McCracken RM; Cush PF, 1983. Ultrastructural features of experimental parainfluenza type 3 virus pneumonia in calves. Journal of Comparative Pathology, 93:397-414.

Bryson DG; McNulty MS; Evans RT; Allan G, 1989. Studies of the effect of recombinant human-alpha 1 interferon on experimental parainfluenza type 3 virus infections of the respiratory tract of calves. Veterinary Record, 125(25):615-618; 20 ref.

Cambir S; Coman I, 1991. Simultaneous administration of inactivated tribacterial vaccine (Salmonella, Escherichia coli and Pasteurella) with the triviral vaccine (PI3), BVD and IBR) in calves aged from 1 to 30 days. Lucrarile Institutului de Cercetari Veterinare si Biopreparate 'Pasteur', 19:55-59; 8 ref.

Catalán O; Terreu M; Pérez Calahorra M; Alamán C, 1994. Evaluation of the efficacy and economic impact of a vaccination programme with a tetravalent vaccine against bovine respiratory disease. Medicina Veterinaria, 11(4):220-225; 6 ref.

Christiansson A; Naidu AS; Nilsson I; Wadström T; Pettersson HE, 1989. Toxin production by Bacillus cereus dairy isolates in milk at low temperatures. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 55(10):2595-2600; 36 ref.

Collins PL; Channock RM; McIntosh K, 1996. Parainfluenza viruses. In: Fields BN, Knipe DM, Howley PM, Channock RM, Melnick JL, Monath TP, Roizman B, Straus, eds. Fields virology, 3rd ed. Vol 1. Philadelphia, Pa, USA: Lippincot-Raven, 1205-1243.

Coulibaly S, 1990. Serological studies on the occurrence of antibodies against viral pathogens in cattle in Austria. Wiener Tierärztliche Monatsschrift, 77(7):245; [Abstract of dissertation, Veterinary University, Vienna.].

Dal Pizzol M; Ravazzolo AP; Fernandes JCT; Moojen V, 1989. Detection of antibodies to parainfluenza-3 virus in cattle and sheep in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, 1986. Arquivos da Faculdade de Veterinaria UFRGS, 17:59-64.

Donkersgoed J van; Hurk JV van den; McCartney D; Harland RJ, 1991. Comparative serological responses in calves to eight commercial vaccines against infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, parainfluenza-3, bovine respiratory syncytial, and bovine viral diarrhea viruses. Canadian Veterinary Journal, 32(12):727-733; 21 ref.

Donkersgoed J van; Ribble CS; Boyer LG; Townsend HGG, 1993. Epidemiological study of enzootic pneumonia in dairy calves in Saskatchewan. Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research, 57(4):247-254; 32 ref.

Dunn SE; Godwin J; Hoare RJT; Kirkland PD; Walker SB; Coverdale DA; Gibson JA, 1998. Diseases of feedlot cattle in Eastern Australia. In: Caple W, ed. World Buitrics Congress Proceedings Volume 1, Sydney, Australia, 159-164.

Dunne HW; Ajinka FM; Bubash GR; Griel LC, 1973. Parainfluenza-3 and bovine enteroviruses as possible important causative factors in bovine abortion. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 34:1121-1126.

Durham PJK; Hassard LE, 1990. Prevalence of antibodies to infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, parainfluenza 3, bovine respiratory syncytial, and bovine viral diarrhea viruses in cattle in Saskachewan and Alberta. Canadian Veterinary Journal, 31(12):815-820; 20 ref.

Elankumaran S, 2013. Bovine parainfluenza virus 3. In: Mononegaviruses of veterinary importance. Volume I: Pathobiology and molecular diagnosis [ed. by Munir, M.]. Wallingford, UK: CABI, 117-140. http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20133399509

Ellis JA, 2010. Bovine parainfluenza-3 virus. Veterinary Clinics of North America, Food Animal Practice, 26(3):575-593. http://www.vetfood.theclinics.com/article/S0749-0720(10)00035-6/abstract

Elze K; Selbitz HJ, 1993. Differential diagnosis, treatment and prevention of respiratory diseases of calves. Tierärztliche Umschau, 48(9):581-587; 28 ref.

Ettinger SJ; Feldman EC, 2000. Textbook of veterinary internal medicine: diseases of the dog and cat, Volumes 1 and 2, Ed. 5. Philadelphia, USA: W.B. Saunders, 1996 pp.

Ezzi AA; Hatami A; Bakhshesh M; Shoukri MR; Gharaghozloyan M, 2013. Serological study of bovine herpesvirus type 1 and parainfluenza type 3 in cow farms of qazvin province based on different ages and seasons. Archives of Razi Institute, 68(1):53-57. http://www.archrazi.com/browse.php?a_id=367&sid=1&slc_lang=en

Farzinpour M; Pourjafar M; Badiei K; Ghane M; Zare K, 2014. Detection of antibodies and risk factors for infection with bovine herpesvirus-1 and parainfluenza virus-3 in dairy Holstein farms. Online Journal of Veterinary Research, 18(2):82-90. http://users.comcen.com.au/~journals/bovineholsteinabs2014.htm

Fenner FJ; Gibbs EP; Murphy FA; Rott R; Studdert MJ; White DO, 1993. Paramyxoviridae. In: Fenner FJ, Gibbs EP, Murphy FA, Rott R, Studdert MJ, White DO, eds. Veterinary Virology. Orlando, USA: Academic Press, Inc, 485-502.

Fulton RW; Briggs RE; Payton ME; Confer AW; Saliki JT; Ridpath JF; Burge LJ; Duff GC, 2004. Maternally derived humoral immunity to bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) 1a, BVDV1b, BVDV2, bovine herpesvirus-1, parainfluenza-3 virus bovine respiratory syncytial virus, Mannheimia haemolytica and Pasteurella multocida in beef calves, antibody decline by half-life studies and effect on response to vaccination. Vaccine, 22(5/6):643-649.

Fulton RW; Confer AW; Burge LJ; Perino LJ; D'Offay JM; Payton ME; Mock RE, 1995. Antibody responses by cattle after vaccination with commercial viral vaccines containing bovine herpesvirus-1, bovine viral diarrhea virus, parainfluenza-3 virus, and bovine respiratory syncytial virus immunogens and subsequent revaccination at day 140. Vaccine, 13(8):725-733; 20 ref.

Fulton RW; Pearson NJ; Potter MT; Springer WT; Domning MM; Hagstad HV; Nicholson SS, 1982. Infectious bovine rhinothracheitis virus and parainfluenza-3 virus in the nasal flora of dairy calves. Bovine Practitioner, 17:59-62.

Fulton RW; Purdy CW; Confer AW; Saliki JT; Loan RW; Briggs RE; Burge LJ, 2000. Bovine viral diarrhea viral infections in feeder calves with respiratory disease: interactions with Pasteurella spp., parainfluenza-3 virus, and bovine respiratory syncytial virus. Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research, 64(3):151-159; 43 ref.

Gardner PS; McQuillin J; McGucken R; Ditchburn RK, 1971. Observations on clinical and immunofluorescent diagnosis of parainfluenza virus infections. British Medical Journal, 2:7-12.

Ghram A; Minocha HC, 1990. Neutralizing antibodies to bovine herpesvirus-1 (BHV-1) and bovine parainfluenza (PI-3) viruses in cattle in Tunisia. Archives de l'Institut Pasteur de Tunis, 67(1/2):25-31; 9 ref.

Ghram A; Reddy PG; Morrill JL; Blecha F; Minocha HC, 1989. Bovine herpesvirus-1 and parainfluenza-3 virus interactions: clinical and immunological response in calves. Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research, 53(1):62-67; 33 ref.

Giangaspero M; Vacirca G; Vanopdenbosch E; Blondeel H, 1992. Epidemiological survey on virus diseases of cattle in north west Syria. Tropicultura, 10(2):55-57; 14 ref.

Graham DA; Mawhinney KA; German A; Foster JC; Adair BM; Merza M, 1999. Isotype- and subclass-specific responses to infection and reinfection with parainfluenza-3 virus: comparison of the diagnostic potential of ELISAs detecting seroconversion and specific IgM and IgA. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation, 11(2):127-133; 26 ref.

Gulliksen SM; Jor E; Lie KI; Løken T; Akerstedt J; Østeras O, 2009. Respiratory infections in Norwegian dairy calves. Journal of Dairy Science, 92(10):5139-5146. http://jds.fass.org/cgi/content/abstract/92/10/5139

Haanes EJ; Guimond P; Wardley R, 1997. The bovine parainfluenza virus type-3 (BPIV-3) hemagglutinin/neuraminidase glycoprotein expressed in baculovirus protects calves against experimental BPIV-3 challenge. Vaccine, 15(6/7):730-738; 34 ref.

Haines DM; Kendall JC; Remenda BW; Breker-Klassen MM; Clark EG, 1992. Monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies for immunohistochemical detection of bovine parainfluenza type 3 virus in frozen and formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissues. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation, 4(4):393-399; 33 ref.

Healy AM; Monaghan ML; Bassett HF; Gunn HM; Markey BK; Collins JD, 1993. Morbidity and mortality in a large Irish feedlot: microbiological and serological findings in cattle with acute respiratory disease. British Veterinary Journal, 149(6):549-560; 24 ref.

Heminway BR; Yu Y; Galinski M, 1994. Paramixovirus mediated cell fusion requires both the fusion and hemagglutinin-neuraminidase glycoproteins. Virus Research, 31:1-16.

Hermülheim A; Wittkowski G, 1995. Safety of immunizing calves simultaneously against viral respiratory disease and IBR/IPV. Tierärztliche Umschau, 50(3):162, 164-165; 10 ref.

Hofmann W; Heckert HP; Mölle G; Steinhagen P, 1991. Immune status of purchased calves. Tierärztliche Umschau, 46(4):181.190; 16 ref.

Horwood PF; Gravel JL; Mahony TJ, 2008. Identification of two distinct bovine parainfluenza virus type 3 genotypes. Journal of General Virology, 89(7):1643-1648. http://vir.sgmjournals.org

Ibu J; Obi TU; Aba-Adulugba E, 1996. Serological evidence of parainfluenza type 3 virus infection of cattle in Plateau State [Nigeria]. Nigerian Veterinary Journal, 1(1):100-102; 10 ref.

Ikonomi R; Melonashi V; Joti K; Canaj Z, 1988. Trivalent vaccine for calves against respiratory infections caused by parainfluenza, 3, IBR and adenoviruses. Buletini i Shkencave Zooteknike e Veterinare, 6(1):59-67; 8 ref.

Irwin MR; McConnellis S; Cleman JD; Wilcox GE, 1979. Bovine respiratory disease complex: a comparison of potential predisposing and etiological factors in Australia and the United States. Journal American Veterinary Medical Association, 175:1095-1099.

Itoh O; Sugimori T; Ogata M; Noda M; Inaba Y; Saepulloh M; Jusa ER; Noor MAR, 1989. Serological survey of some bovine disease viruses among Indonesian cattle. Annual Report of the National Veterinary Assay Laboratory, No.26:29-31; 6 ref.

Jetteur P; Eyanga E; Makumbu S, 1988. Serological survey of rinderpest, IBR IPV, bovine respiratory syncytial, parainfluenza 3 and bovine virus diarrhoea viruses in cattle in Shaba and West Zaire. Revue d'élevage et de Médecine Vétérinaire des Pays Tropicaux, 41(2):121-124; 13 ref.

Kadoi K; Watanabe N; Sasagawa T; Kozasa M, 1998. Antibody response of cattle experimentally inoculated with parainfluenza type-3 live vaccine in a post-tracheal position. Microbiologica, 21(3):249-254; 24 ref.

Kakamoukas K; Papakostaki D; Paschaleri-Papadopoulou E; Anastasiadis G, 1989. Investigation of viral infections in respiratory diseases of fattening calves. Bulletin of the Hellenic Veterinary Medical Society, 40(1):16-20; 13 ref.

Karron RA; Froehlick JL; Bobo L; Belse RB; Yolken RH, 1994. Rapid detection of parainfluenza virus type 3 RNA in respiratory specimens: use of reverse transcription-PCR-enzyme immunoassay. Journal Clinical Microbiology, 32:484-488.

Karron RA; Wright PW; Hall SL; Makhene M; Thompson J; Burs BA; Tollefson S; Steinhoff MC; Wilson MH; Clements ML; Murphy BM, 1995. A live attenuated bovine parainfluenza virus type 3 vaccine is safe, infectious, immunogenic and phenotypically stable in children. Journal Infectious Diseases, 171:1107-1114.

Kestaitiene K; Salomskas A; Jacevicius E; Petkevicius S; Lelesius R; Mockeliu¯nas R; Liutkeviciene V, 2009. Prevalence of bovine parainfluenza 3 and respiratory sincytial virus in Lithuanian cattle. (Galviju paragripo 3 ir respiratoriniu sincitiniu virusu paplitimo serologiniai tyrimai.) Veterinarija ir Zootechnika, No.47:32-36.

Key DW; Derbyshire JB, 1984. Serological studies of parainfluenza type 3 virus, bovine adenovirus type 3 and bovine respiratory syncytial virus infection in beef calves. Veterinary Microbiology, 9(6):587-592; 20 ref.

Kim DW; Park BK; Yoo HS; Heo Y; Kim YH; Kwon HJ, 1988. Safety and immunogenicity of a inactivated infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR)-bovine viral diarrhea (BVD)-parainfluenza type-3 (PI3) vaccine. Research Reports of the Rural Development Administration, Veterinary, Korea Republic, 30(1):18-22; 13 ref.

King AMQ; Adams MJ; Carstens EB; Lefkowitz (eds) EJ, 2012. Virus Taxonomy: Classification and Nomenclature of Viruses. Ninth Report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. San Diego, California, USA: Elsevier Academic Press.

Kishko YaG; Mukvich MS, 1998. Treatment and prophylaxis of some infectious diseases of swine and cattle using of natural alpha-interferons. Mikrobiologichnii Zhurnal, 60(3):70-79; 35 ref.

Klimentowski S; Folwarczny J; Rypula K, 1995. Serological survey into viral respiratory infections in cattle. Medycyna Weterynaryjna, 51(8):459-461; 26 ref.

Klippmark E; Rydbeck R; Shibuta H; Norrby E, 1990. Antigenic variation of human and bovine parainfluenza virus type 3 strains. Journal of General Virology, 71(7):1577-1580; 30 ref.

Komoda M; Kozai Y; Itoi H; Noro A; Yamada T; Kimura Y; Noguchi M; Koizumi S, 1988. Outbreak of shipping fever associated with several pathogens in grazing calves. Journal of the Japan Veterinary Medical Association, 41(6):408-411; 15 ref.

Kosarov A; Peshev R; Alexandrov M; Kandov P; Todorov D, 1998. Etiological studies on calf pneumonia. Bulgarian Journal of Agricultural Science, 4(2):271-277; 17 ref.

Kovác G; Sranko L; Vozár T; Kalinác P, 1995. Use of the "Cattlemaster 4" vaccine under farm conditions. Veterinárství, 45(5):237-238.

Lamb RA; Kolakofsky D, 1996. Paramixoviridae: The viruses and their replication. In: Fields BN, Knipe DM, Howley PM, Channock RM, Melnick JL, Monath TP, Roizman B, Straus, eds. Fields virology, 3rd ed. Vol 1. Philadelphia, Pa, USA: Lippincot-Raven, 1177-1204.

Lazic S; Knezevic N; Durisic S; Pavlovic R, 1995. Humoral immune response of cows in advanced pregnancy to Iberol-Plus vaccine [inactivated bovine herpesvirus 1 and parainfluenza 3 virus]. Veterinarski Glasnik, 49(5/6):299-304; 15 ref.

Ledinek M; Silak F, 1995. Immunoprophylaxis of respiratory diseases in fattening cattle on a large farm. Veterinarska Stanica, 26(5):265-274; 6 ref.

Liao YK; Lu YS; Chiu SY; Lee YL; Lin DT; Lin DF; Kwang MJ; Tsai HJ, 1992. The development of multivalent inactivated vaccines composed of infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, bovine viral diarrhoea, and parainfluenza-3 viral antigens. Journal of the Chinese Society of Veterinary Science, 18(1):47-52; 17 ref.

Liggitt D; Huston L; Silflow R; Evermann J; Trigo E, 1985. Impaired function of bovine alveolar macrophages infected with parainfluenza-3 virus. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 46(8):1740-1744; 42 ref.

Läuchli C; Kocherhans R; Wyler R, 1990. Multiple viral infections of the respiratory tract of cattle during the winter of 1986/87. Wiener Tierärztliche Monatsschrift, 77(4):109-110, 112-116; 37 ref.

MacLachlan NJ; Dubovi EJ, 2011. Paramyxoviridae: bovine parainfluenzavirus 3. In: Fenner's Veterinary Virology, 4th edition [ed. by MacLachlan, N. J. \Dubovi, E. J.]. London, UK: Academic Press, 308-309.

Maglione E; Rosati S, 1988. Haemagglutination inhibition antibodies to human and bovine parainfluenza-3 viruses in cattle. Annali della Facoltà di Medicina Veterinaria di Torino, 33:101-106; 8 ref.

Mahmoud MA; Allam AM, 2013. Seroprevalence of bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV), bovine herpes virus type 1 (BHV-1), parainfluenza type 3 virus (PI-3V) and bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV) among non vaccinated cattle. Global Veterinaria, 10(3):348-353. http://www.idosi.org/gv/gv10(3)13/18.pdf

Maidana SS; Lomonaco PM; Combessies G; Craig MI; Diodati J; Rodriguez D; Parreño V; Zabal O; Konrad JL; Crudelli G; Mauroy A; Thiry E; Romera SA, 2012. Isolation and characterization of bovine parainfluenza virus type 3 from water buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) in Argentina. BMC Veterinary Research, 8(83):(20 June 2012). http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/pdf/1746-6148-8-83.pdf

Maiga S; Sarr J, 1992. Epidemiological survey of the main respiratory viruses of small ruminants in Mali. Revue d'élevage et de Médecine Vétérinaire des Pays Tropicaux, 45(1):15-17; 10 ref.

Marshall RG; Frank GH, 1975. Clinical and immunologic responses of calves with colostrally acquired maternal antibody against parainfluenza-3 virus to homologous viral infection. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 36(8):1085-1089.

Martin SW; Bateman KG; Shewen PE; Rosendal S; Bohac JE, 1989. The frequency, distribution and effects of antibodies, to seven putative respiratory pathogens, on respiratory disease and weight gain in feedlot calves on Ontario. Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research, 53(3):355-362; 20 ref.

Martin SW; Bohac JG, 1986. The association between serological titers in infectious bovine rhinotracheitis virus, bovine virus diarrhea virus, parainfluenza-3 virus, respiratory syncytial virus and treatment for respiratory disease in Ontario feedlot calves. Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research, 50(3):351-358; 19 ref.

Martin WB, 1996. Respiratory infections of sheep. Comparative Immunology, Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, 19(3):171-179; 30 ref.

Masimov NA, 1994. Epidemiology of mixed respiratory infections in calves. Aktual'nye voprosy infektsionnykh i invazionnykh boleznei zhivotnykh., 73-75.

Melgarejo CV; Rubio MS; Islas AA; Setien AA; Virgen RH; Campero DB, 1991. Evaluation of the TSV IBR-PI3 vaccine in Mexican dairy cattle. Técnica Pecuaria en México, 29(1):19-23; 9 ref.

Miklós R; Izadpanah R; László F, 1999. Aetiology of the respiratory disease complex on some intensive cattle and sheep farms in Hungary. Magyar állatorvosok Lapja, 121(5):255-259; 21 ref.

Moriconi E; Gnaccarini M, 1991. Epidemiological studies on some bovine respiratory viral diseases. Atti della Società Italiana di Buiatria, 23:171-181; 11 ref.

Motha J; Hansen M; Orr D, 1997. Viral aetiologies for bovine respiratory disease. New Zealand Veterinary Journal, 45(1):40; 5 ref.

Motha MXJ; Hansen MF, 1998. Prevalence of IBR [infectious bovine rhinotracheitis], PI 3 [parainfluenza type 3], BRS [bovine respiratory syncytial] and BCV [bovine coronavirus] infections in the dairy cattle population of New Zealand. New Zealand Veterinary Journal, 46(6):239-240; 10 ref.

Murphy FA, 1996. Virus Taxonomy. In: Fields BN, Knipe DM, Howley PM, Channock RM, Melnick JL, Monath TP, Roizman B, Straus, eds. Fields virology, 3rd ed. Vol 1. Philadelphia, Pa, USA: Lippincot-Raven, 15-57.

Muzychin SI; Letetskii VA, 1988. Isolation and properties of bovine parainfluenza virus. Veterinarnaya Nauka - Proizvodstvu, 26:3-7; 6 ref.

Otter A; Farrer ME, 1997. Pneumonia associated with five respiratory pathogens in a group of steers. Veterinary Record, 140(7):187-188.

Ozdarendeli A; Bolat Y; Bulut H; Doymaz MZ, 1997. Development and use of an ELISA to detect bovine parainfluenza 3 virus. Saglik Bilimleri Dergisi (Veteriner), Firat üniversitesi, 11(2):277-282; 22 ref.

Oztürk F; Duman R, 1992. Determination of haemagglutination inhibition antibodies to parainfluenza 3 (PI-3) virus in cattle. Hayvancilik Arastiirma Dergisi, 2(2):24-27; 29 ref.

Oztürk F; Yavru S, 1988. Serological survey for parainfluenza virus-3 (PIV-3) infection in cattle in Konya province. Veteriner Fakültesi Dergisi, Selcuk üniversitesi, 4(1):135-141; 27 ref.

Pardon B; Bleecker Kde; Dewulf J; Callens J; Boyen F; Catry B; Deprez P, 2011. Prevalence of respiratory pathogens in diseased, non-vaccinated, routinely medicated veal calves. Veterinary Record, 169(11):278. http://veterinaryrecord.bvapublications.com/archive/

Pelet T; Curran J; Kolakofsky D, 1991. The P gene of bovine parainfluenza virus 3 expresses all three reading frames from a single mRNA editing site. EMBO Journal, 10(2):443-448; 27 ref.

Penn F; Savey M, 1990. Viral respiratory diseases of cattle: epidemiological data for 1984-90 from the NORDEN Laboratory. In: Espinasse-J, ed. Actualites 90 en buiatrie. Paris, France: Societe Francais de Buiatrie, 195-199.

Potgieter LND, 1977. Current concepts on the role of viruses in respiratory tract disease of cattle. Bovine Practitioner, 12:75-81.

Pringle CR, 1991. The order of Mononegalovirales. Archives of Virology, 117:137-140.

Rebhun WC; Guard C; Richards CM (eds), 1995. Diseases of dairy cattle. Chapter 4: Respiratory diseases. Baltimore, USA: Williams and Wilkins, 65-105.

Reisinger RC; Heddleston KL; Manthei CA, 1959. A mixovirus (SF4) associated with shipping fever of cattle. Journal of the American Veterinary Association, 135:147-152.

Riedemann S; Reinhardt G; Tadich N; Aguilar M; Aguilar R; Montecinos MI; Miranda JC, 1996. Seroprevalence of bovine diarrhoea virus (BDV), bovine herpesvirus 1 (BHV-1), parainfluenza virus 3 (PI-3) and bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV) in 12 dairy herds in the province of Valdivia in Chile. Archivos de Medicina Veterinaria, 28(1):121-124; 24 ref.

Rodger JL, 1989. Parainfluenza 3 vaccination of sheep. Veterinary Record, 125(18):453-456; 16 ref.

Rosenquist BD; English JE; Johnson DW; Loan RW, 1970. Mixed viral etiology of a shipping fever epizootic in cattle. American Journal Veterinary Research, 31:989-994.

Ruiz ML; Lager IA; Cornaglia E; Barrandeguy M; Zabal O; BolondiA; Uroz JC, 1989. Diagnosis of viral diseases of cattle during 1981-85 at the Castelar Virology Institute. Revista de Medicina Veterinaria (Buenos Aires), 70(4):190-194; 15 ref.

Rusvai M; Fodor L, 1998. Occurrence of some viruses and bacteria involved in respiratory diseases of ruminants in Hungary. Acta Veterinaria Hungarica, 46(4):405-414; 21 ref.

Sakai Y; Shibuta H, 1989. Syncytium formation by recombinant vaccinia viruses carrying bovine parainfluenza 3 virus envelope proteins. Journal of Virology, 63:3661-3668.

Sakai Y; Suzu S; Shioda T; Shibuta H, 1987. Nucleotide sequence of the bovine parainfluenza 3 virus genome: its 3' end and the genes of NP, P, C, and M proteins. Nucleic Acids Research, 15:2927-2944.

Senf W; Krippner S; Schneider R; Kirste M, 1988. Parainfluenza-3-virus as a cause of pneumonia in calf units. Monatshefte für Veterinärmedizin, 43(13):466-468; 6 ref.

Shibuta H; Suzu S; Shioda T, 1986. Differences in bovine parainfluenza 3 virus variants studied by monoclonal antibodies against viral proteins. Virology, 155:688-696.

Shioda T; Wakao S; Siuzu S; Shibuta H, 1988. Differences in bovine parainfluenza 3 virus variants studied by sequencing the genes of viral envelope proteins. Virology, 162:388-396.

Singh VP, 1991. Serological parity of indigenous isolates of parainfluenza-3 virus from sheep. Indian Journal of Virology, 7(1):98-99; 6 ref.

Slauson DO; Lay JC; Castleman WL; Neilsen NR, 1987. Alveolar macrophage phagocytic kinetics following pulmonary parainfluenza-3 virus infection. Journal of Leukocyte Biology, 41(5):412-420; 47 ref.

Solís G G; Rivera G H; Falcón P N, 2010. Serological evaluation of respiratory syncytial (RS) and parainfluenza 3 (PI3) viruses in cattle from Cusco. (Evaluación serológica de los virus respiratorio sincitial y parainfluenza 3 en bovinos de Cusco.) Revista de Investigaciones Veterinarias del Perú (RIVEP), 21(2):204-209. http://www.scielo.org.pe/pdf/rivep/v21n2/a09v21n2.pdf

Stetsenko VI; Krasnikov GA; Konovalov BN, 1992. Immunomorphological reaction of calves to aerosol of parainfluenza-3 vaccine. Veterinariya (Kiev), 67:65-68; 2 ref.

Stott JE; Thomas LH; Collins AP; Crouch S; Jebbett J; Smith GS; Luther PD; Cashwell R, 1980. A survey of virus infections of the respiratory tract of cattle and their association with disease. Journal of Hygiene, 85:257.

Suzu S; Sakai Y; Shibuta H, 1987. Nucleotide sequence of bovine parainfluenza 3 virus genome: the genes of the F and HN glycoproteins. Nucleic Acids Research, 15:2945-2958.

Swift BL; Trueblood MS, 1974. Theriogenology, 2:101.

Tabbaa D, 1989. Investigations on parainfluenza-3 virus infection of cattle and bovine leukosis in Syria. Monatshefte für Veterinärmedizin, 44(2):44-45; 7 ref.

Tegtmeier C; Uttenthal A; Friis NF; Jensen NE; Jensen HE, 1999. Pathological and microbiological studies on pneumonic lungs from Danish calves. Journal of Veterinary Medicine. Series B, 46(10):693-700; 32 ref.

Tehteh E; Goyal SM, 1988. Antibodies to parainfluenza virus type 3 in Minnesota swine. British Veterinary Journal, 144(6):613-615; 4 ref.

Thomson RG, 1980. A perspective on respiratory disease in feedlot cattle. Canadian Veterinary Journal, 21:181-185.

Toth TE; Jankura D, 1990. Analysis of bovine parainfluenza-3 virus replication in bovine embryonic lung cells by indirect fluorescent antibody and hemadsorption assays. Journal of Virological Methods, 27(1):113-119; 14 ref.

Trávnícek R, 1999. Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis and parainfluenza-3 virus in the bovine respiratory syndrome. Veterinárství, 49(4):148.

Trybala E; WiSniewski J; Kalicki M, 1992. Evaluation of three serological tests and skin test to diagnose IBR-IPV virus infections in cattle. Medycyna Weterynaryjna, 48(8):345-347; 28 ref.

Tsai KS; Thomson RG, 1975. Bovine parainfluenza type 3 virus infection: Utrastructural aspects of viral pathogenesis in bovine respiratory tract. Infection and Immunity, 26:783-803.

Ulbrich F, 1991. Demonstration of antibodies to IBR IPV, bovine diarrhoea and PI3 viruses in Vietnamese water buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis). Monatshefte für Veterinärmedizin, 46(10):374-375; 8 ref.

Verhoeff J; Nieuwstadt APKMIvan, 1984. BRS virus, PI3 virus and BHV1 infections of young stock on self-contained dairy farms: epidemiological and clinical findings. Veterinary Record, 114(12):288-293; 21 ref.

Vinkovic B; Cac Z, 1990. Environment-related parainfluenza-3 virus bronchopneumonia in fattening cattle under intensive conditions. Veterinarska Stanica, 21(6):397-403; 18 ref.

Virakul P; Suadsong S; Suwimonteerabutr J; Singlor J, 1997. Prevalence of infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR) [bovine herpesvirus 1] bovine diarrhoea virus (BDV), parainfluenza-3 (PI-3) and bovine respiratory syncytial (BRS) viruses in Thai dairy farms. Thai Journal of Veterinary Medicine, 27(3):295-314; 4 ref.

Vogel GJ; Parrott C, 1994. Mortality survey in feedyards: the incidence of death from digestive, respiratory, and other causes in feedyards on the great plains. Compendium on Continuing Education for the Practicing Veterinarian, 16(2):227.234; 2 ref.

Wang HaiYong; Tong Qin; Wang Wei; Wu Hua, 2014. Serological survey of antibodies against bovine parainfluenza virus type 3 in 12 provinces. Zhongguo Yufang Shouyi Xuebao / Chinese Journal of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 36(2):154-156. http://yfsy.paperopen.com/

Wassel MS; Soaud SA; Girgis S; Hussien AZ; El-Rawey E, 1996. Trial for preparation and evaluation of a combined vaccine for IBRV, BVDV, PI-3V, P. multocida and P. haemolytica in Egypt. Assiut Veterinary Medical Journal, 35(70):130-143; 35 ref.

Watt NJ, 1996. Non-parasitic respiratory disease in sheep. Veterinary Annual, 36:391-398; 5 ref.

Wen YongJun; Shi XinChuan; Wang FengXue; Wang Wei; Zhang ShuQin; Li Guo; Song Ni; Chen LiZhi; Cheng ShiPeng; Wu Hua, 2012. Phylogenetic analysis of the bovine parainfluenza virus type 3 from cattle herds revealing the existence of a genotype A strain in China. Virus Genes, 45(3):542-547. http://rd.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11262-012-0810-1/fulltext.html

Yates WDG, 1980. Interaction between viruses inbovine respiratory diseases. A review of infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, shipping fever pneumonia and viral bacterial synergism in respiratory disease in cattle. Canadian Journal Comparative Medicine, 46:341-349.

Zarnke RL; Erickson GA, 1990. Serum antibody prevalence of parainfluenza 3 virus in a free-ranging bison (Bison bison) herd from Alaska. Journal of Wildlife Disease, 26:416-419.

Zhu YuanMao; Shi HongFei; Gao YuRan; Xin JiuQing; Liu NiHong; Xiang WenHua; Ren XianGang; Feng JunKe; Zhao LiPing; Xue Fei, 2011. Isolation and genetic characterization of bovine parainfluenza virus type 3 from cattle in China. Veterinary Microbiology, 149(3/4):446-451. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/03781135

Zhumabaev KhZh; Belousova RV, 1992. Serological survey for chlamydiosis and parainfluenza-3 virus in cattle in Kustanai and Tselinograd regions of Russia. Voprosy veterinarnoi biologii., 68-69.

Distribution Maps