Bos taurus (cattle)

Datasheet

Bos taurus (cattle)

Index

Pictures
Identity
Summary of Invasiveness
Taxonomic Tree
Description
Distribution
Distribution Table
Habitat List
Biology and Ecology
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Pathway Causes
Impact Summary
Impact
Threatened Species
Risk and Impact Factors
Uses
Uses List
Prevention and Control
Bibliography
References
Links to Websites
Principal Source
Contributors
Distribution Maps

Summary

Last modified
20 November 2018

Datasheet Type(s)
Invasive Species
Host Animal

Preferred Scientific Name
Bos taurus

Preferred Common Name
cattle

Taxonomic Tree
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Metazoa
Phylum: Chordata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Class: Mammalia

Summary of Invasiveness
Feral cattle (Bos taurus) are escaped or released domestic animals. Unless well contained by adequate fences, they form feral herds and wander into native vegetation wherever suitable food ...

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Principal Source
Global Invasive Species Database

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Pictures

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Picture

Title

Caption

Herd

Bos taurus (cattle); feral cattle in the Keoladeo Ghana National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan, India. November 2007.

©Paul Asman & Jill Lenoble/via flickr - CC BY 2.0

Herd

Bos taurus (cattle); feral zebu cattle, at 3800m, in the Simien Mountains National Park, Ethiopia. November 2012.

©Bernard Gagnon, Quebec, Canada/via wikipedia - CC BY-SA 3.0

Bull

Bos taurus (cattle); feral Charolais bull, 4600 metres above sea level, in the Sierra Nevada de Mérida, Venezuela.

Public Domain - CC0 1.0 (from wikipedia)

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Bos taurus

Preferred Common Name

cattle

Other Scientific Names

Bos indicus Linnaeus, 1758
Bos primigenius Bojanes, 1827

International Common Names

English: bull; bulls; calf; calves; cow; cows; ox; oxen; taurine cattle
Spanish: ganados
French: bétail; vaches; veau

Local Common Names

Germany: Hausrind; Vieh
Italy: bestiami
Portugal: gado

DADIS local name

Aurochs
B.p. namadicus
B.p. opisthonomus
B.p. primigenius
Bos
reem
rimu
Ur
urus
wild ox
Willayati and Cross

DADIS main name

Exotic and cross-bred
Tur

Summary of Invasiveness

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Feral cattle (Bos taurus) are escaped or released domestic animals. Unless well contained by adequate fences, they form feral herds and wander into native vegetation wherever suitable food is available. They can severely modify native vegetation by browsing, crushing and trampling. In native forests they invariably lay bare the forest floor and eliminate nearly all young trees, shrubs and ferns until only a few unpalatable or browse-resistant species remain. In subalpine environments feral cattle open up clearings by breaking down and browsing low-canopied vegetation.

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Metazoa
Phylum: Chordata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Suborder: Ruminantia
Family: Bovidae
Genus: Bos
Species: Bos taurus

Description

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Feral cattle can be distinguished from domestic stock only by their location and lack of ear marks or tags. Their size and conformation vary greatly depending on sex, age and breed. The male is heavier and larger, particularly around the head and neck. The hair is either straight or curly, and ranges from whitish to black with shades and blotches of red, roan, brown or buff. Both sexes can have horns, which are permanent and hollow, and grow throughout life over bony cores projecting from a prominent ridge on the skull. The horns of bulls are usually shorter and thicker than those of cows (Parkes, 2005).

Distribution

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The ancestors of today's Eurasian breeds of humpless cattle were the "wild aurochs" - large, formidable, long-legged and long-horned beasts - the last of which were hunted to extinction in Poland in 1627. Archaeological evidence suggests that cattle were first domesticated in the Middle East between 6000 and 5000 BC, and spread from there through Africa and Europe. Other early independent centres of domestication included Switzerland, Germany and Denmark. Hundreds of distinct breeds have been produced by artificial selection and transported throughout the world (Parkes, 2005).

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	First Reported	Invasive	Reference	Notes
Asia
Bangladesh	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Cambodia	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
China	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Anhui	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Beijing	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Gansu	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Guangdong	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Guangxi	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Guizhou	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Heilongjiang	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Henan	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Hubei	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Hunan	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Jiangsu	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Jiangxi	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Jilin	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Shandong	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Sichuan	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Tibet	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Yunnan	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
India	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Andaman and Nicobar Islands	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Andhra Pradesh	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Assam	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Gujarat	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Haryana	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Himachal Pradesh	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Indian Punjab	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Karnataka	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Kerala	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Maharashtra	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Odisha	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Rajasthan	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Tamil Nadu	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Tripura	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Uttar Pradesh	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-West Bengal	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Indonesia	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Nusa Tenggara	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Iran	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Iraq	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Israel	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Japan	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Jordan	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Korea, Republic of	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Malaysia	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Mongolia	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Nepal	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Pakistan	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Philippines	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Saudi Arabia	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
South East Asia	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Sri Lanka	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Syria	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Taiwan	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Thailand	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Turkey	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Uzbekistan	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Vietnam	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Africa
Algeria	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Benin	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Botswana	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Burkina Faso	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Burundi	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Cameroon	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Cape Verde	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Central African Republic	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Côte d'Ivoire	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Egypt	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Ethiopia	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Gambia	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Ghana	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Guinea	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Kenya	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Madagascar	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Malawi	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Mali	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Mauritania	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Morocco	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Mozambique	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Namibia	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Niger	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Nigeria	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Senegal	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
South Africa	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Sudan	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Tanzania	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Togo	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Tunisia	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Uganda	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
West Africa	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Zambia	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Zimbabwe	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
North America
Canada	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Alberta	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-British Columbia	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Ontario	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Quebec	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Mexico	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
USA	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Alabama	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Alaska	Restricted distribution	Introduced		Invasive	ISSG, 2011
-California	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Florida	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Hawaii	Present	Introduced	1793	Invasive	ISSG, 2011
-Idaho	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Illinois	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Iowa	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Michigan	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Minnesota	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Mississippi	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Montana	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Nebraska	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-New York	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-North Carolina	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Oklahoma	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Pennsylvania	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Texas	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Virginia	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Wyoming	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Central America and Caribbean
British Virgin Islands	Present	Introduced		Invasive	ISSG, 2011
Caribbean	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Costa Rica	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Cuba	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Guatemala	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Haiti	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Nicaragua	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Trinidad and Tobago	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Turks and Caicos Islands	Present	Introduced		Invasive	ISSG, 2011
South America
Argentina	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Bolivia	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Brazil	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Bahia	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Espirito Santo	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Goias	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Mato Grosso	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Mato Grosso do Sul	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Minas Gerais	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Para	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Parana	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Rio de Janeiro	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Rio Grande do Sul	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Santa Catarina	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Sao Paulo	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Chile	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Colombia	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Ecuador	Present					Present based on regional distribution.
-Galapagos Islands	Present only in captivity/cultivation	Introduced		Invasive	ISSG, 2011
Falkland Islands	Present	Introduced	1839 on West Falkland, earlier on East Falkland	Invasive	ISSG, 2011
Guyana	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Paraguay	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Peru	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Uruguay	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Venezuela	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Europe
Austria	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Belarus	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Belgium	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Bulgaria	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Croatia	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Czech Republic	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Denmark	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Estonia	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Finland	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
France	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Germany	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Greece	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Hungary	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Ireland	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Italy	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Sicily	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Lithuania	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Malta	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Netherlands	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Norway	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Poland	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Portugal	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Romania	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Russian Federation	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Scandinavia	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Slovakia	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Slovenia	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Spain	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Sweden	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Switzerland	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
UK	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Northern Ireland	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Scotland	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Ukraine	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Western Europe	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro)	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Oceania
Australia	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Australian Northern Territory	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-New South Wales	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Queensland	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Western Australia	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Fiji	Present	Introduced			ISSG, 2011
French Polynesia	Present	Introduced		Invasive	ISSG, 2011
-Marquesas	Present	Introduced		Invasive	ISSG, 2011
French Southern and Antarctic Territories	Restricted distribution	Introduced	1871	Invasive	ISSG, 2011
Kiribati	Present	Introduced			ISSG, 2011
New Caledonia	Present	Introduced	1850	Invasive	ISSG, 2011
New Zealand	Present	Introduced		Invasive	ISSG, 2011
Northern Mariana Islands	Present	Introduced	before 1742	Invasive	ISSG, 2011
Samoa	Present	Introduced			ISSG, 2011
Solomon Islands	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Tuvalu	Absent, formerly present	Introduced			ISSG, 2011

Habitat List

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Category	Sub-Category	Habitat	Presence	Status
Terrestrial
	Terrestrial – Managed	Large ruminant farms	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural
		Cultivated / agricultural land	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
		Urban / peri-urban areas	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
		Urban / peri-urban areas	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural
	Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural	Natural forests	Secondary/tolerated habitat	Harmful (pest or invasive)
		Natural grasslands	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
		Natural grasslands	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural
		Scrub / shrublands	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
		Scrub / shrublands	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural

Biology and Ecology

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Nutrition
In mainland forests feral cattle browse on a very wide range of shrubs and young trees. Feral cattle are afoot at first light, feeding rapidly until the paunch is full, and then they alternate periods of chewing the cud with grazing throughout the day. Normally they ruminate lying down, but in wet weather they may stand with their backs to the wind. In bush country feral cattle will "walk down" tall saplings up to 6m high, straddling the stem in order to bend the tops within reach, and then stripping off the leaves.

Reproduction
The oestrus cycle is 3 weeks, and the gestation period about 9.5 months. Feral calves are most commonly born in late spring. Multiple births are unknown in feral herds. Calves are born with their eyes open, they stand and suckle almost at once, and within a few hours can follow their mother. They are usually weaned well before the next calf is born.

Males reach puberty at about 10 months of age, and thereafter are fecund throughout the year, but feral bulls do not mate until strong enough to compete for cows. Domestic cows can conceive at 6-10 months, but apparently very few do so in the wild. Cows may remain fertile for about 12 years and comes into season in spring for about 3 weeks after calving.

Means of Movement and Dispersal

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Introduction pathways to new locations
Transportation of domesticated animals: Particularly important in Hawaii and New Caledonia as the basis for a meat industry.

Local dispersal methods
Escape from confinement: Unless well contained by adequate fences, cattle wander into native vegetation wherever suitable food is available. If unchecked this can result in the formation of feral herds roaming wild through extensive areas of country.

Pathway Causes

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Cause	Notes	Long Distance	Local	References
Animal production		Yes	Yes
Escape from confinement or garden escape			Yes

Impact Summary

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Category	Impact
Biodiversity (generally)	Negative
Crop production	Negative
Economic/livelihood	Positive
Environment (generally)	Negative
Forestry production	Negative
Human health	Positive
Livestock production	Positive
Native flora	Negative
Rare/protected species	Negative

Impact

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General Impacts

Original text compiled by IUCN SSC Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG)

Feral cattle can severely modify native vegetation by browsing, crushing and trampling (Aston 1912; Wodzicki 1950). In native forests they invariably lay bare the forest floor and eliminate nearly all young trees, shrubs and ferns, until only a few unpalatable or browse-resistant species remain. In subalpine environments feral cattle open up clearings by breaking down and browsing low-canopied vegetation. On sub-antarctic Enderby Island feral cattle prevented the regeneration of Poa litorosa tussock grassland and a variety of endemic sub-antarctic herbs (Parkes, 2005). Scott et al. (in Stone 1984) regarded domestic and feral cattle as the “single most destructive agent to Hawai‘ian ecosystems, particularly to koa forests”. Regeneration of young koa (see Acacia koaia in IUCN Red List of Threatened Species) trees is completely suppressed in some forests of Hawai‘I (Baldwin and Fagerlund 1943; SPREP, 2000).

Degradation of breeding sites by introduced cattle has decreased the range and population of the 'critically endangered' Amsterdam albatross (see Diomedea amsterdamensis in IUCN Red List of Threatened Species). Across Amsterdam Island in the Southern French Territories (BirdLife International 2007).

Feral cattle can threaten other closely related species through interbreeding. For example, Halbert and Derr (2007) showed through genetic analysis that feral cattle threaten the genetic integrity of populations of North American bison (Bison bison).

Threatened Species

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Threatened Species	Conservation Status	Where Threatened	Mechanism	References
Acacia koaia	VU (IUCN red list: Vulnerable) VU (IUCN red list: Vulnerable)	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing; Trampling	ISSG, 2011
Diomedea amsterdamensis (Amsterdam albatross)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered)	French Southern and Antarctic Territories		ISSG, 2011
Aconitum noveboracense (northern wild monkshood)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	Iowa; New York; Ohio; Wisconsin	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1983
Adelocosa anops (Kauai cave wolf spider)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2006a
Amaranthus pumilus (seabeach amaranth)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	California	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008g
Apios priceana (Price's potato-bean)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	Alabama; Illinois; Kentucky; Mississippi; Tennessee	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1990
Artemisia campestris var. wormskioldii (Northern wormwood)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA candidate species USA ESA candidate species	Oregon; Washington	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014c
Astragalus anserinus (Goose Creek milkvetch)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA candidate species USA ESA candidate species	Idaho; Nevada; Utah	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014d
Astragalus desereticus (Deseret milkvetch)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	Utah	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1999a
Astragalus lentiginosus var. piscinensis (Fish Slough milk-vetch)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	California	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2004b
Bidens campylotheca subsp. pentamera (ko`oko`olau)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	California; Oregon	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2007g
Bidens campylotheca subsp. waihoiensis (ko`oko`olau)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	,
Bidens micrantha subsp. ctenophylla (ko`oko`olau)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	,
Brodiaea filifolia (thread-Leaved brodiaea)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	California	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009d
Brodiaea pallida (Chinese Camp brodiaea)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	California	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2012a
Canavalia pubescens (jack bean)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	,
Chorizanthe parryi var. fernandina (San Fernando Valley spineflower)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA species proposed for listing USA ESA species proposed for listing	California	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013e
Cyanea asplenifolia (haha)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); National list(s) National list(s); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013b
Cyanea duvalliorum	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013b
Cyanea horrida (prickly cyanea)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013b
Cyanea kunthiana (Kunth's cyanea)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013b
Cyanea magnicalyx	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); National list(s) National list(s); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013b
Cyanea maritae	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013b
Cyanea marksii (Marks' cyanea)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013a
Cyanea mauiensis	EX (IUCN red list: Extinct) EX (IUCN red list: Extinct)	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013b
Cyanea munroi	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013b
Cyanea obtusa (bluntlobe cyanea)	National list(s) National list(s); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013b
Cyanea profuga (Mapulehu Valley cyanea)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013b
Cycladenia humilis var. jonesii (Jones' cycladenia)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	Arizona; Utah	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008h
Cyrtandra oxybapha	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013b
Chrysodracon hawaiiensis (hala pepe)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1998a
Drosophila aglaia	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	NatureServe, 2010
Drosophila differens (Hawaiian picture-wing fly)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	NatureServe, 2010
Drosophila hemipeza	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	NatureServe, 2010
Drosophila heteroneura	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	NatureServe, 2010
Drosophila montgomeryi	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	NatureServe, 2010
Drosophila musaphila	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	NatureServe, 2010
Drosophila ochrobasis	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	NatureServe, 2010
Drosophila substenoptera	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	NatureServe, 2010
Drosophila digressa	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013a
Dudleya cymosa subsp. marcescens (marcescent dudleya)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	California	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1999b
Dudleya nesiotica (Santa Cruz Island dudleya)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	California	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009h
Dudleya stolonifera (Laguna Beach liveforever)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	California	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1998b
Elaphrus viridis (delta green ground beetle)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	California	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2005a
Escobaria robbinsorum (Cochise pincushion cactus)	VU (IUCN red list: Vulnerable) VU (IUCN red list: Vulnerable); USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	Arizona	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1993
Gaura neomexicana subsp. coloradensis (Colorado butterfly plant)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	Colorado; Nebraska; Wyoming	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2012c
Grindelia fraxinipratensis (ash meadows gumplant)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	California; Nevada	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2007a
Helianthus paradoxus (paradoxical sunflower)	LC (IUCN red list: Least concern) LC (IUCN red list: Least concern); USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	New Mexico; Texas	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2005b
Hesperidanthus argillaceus	USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	Utah	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1992
Hexastylis naniflora (dwarf-flowered heartleaf)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	North Carolina; South Carolina	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011b
Huperzia stemmermanniae (Stemmermann's clubmoss)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014e
Hylaeus assimulans (assimulans yellow-faced bee)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014f
Hylaeus facilis (easy yellow-faced bee)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014g
Hylaeus hilaris (hilaris yellow-faced bee)	USA ESA species proposed for listing USA ESA species proposed for listing	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014h
Hylaeus kuakea (Hawaiian yellow-faced bee)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014i
Hylaeus longiceps	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014j
Hylaeus mana	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014k
Ivesia kingii var. eremica (Ash Meadows ivesia)	USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	California; Nevada	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1985
Ivesia webberi (Webber's ivesia)	USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	California; Nevada	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014b
Lithophragma maximum (San Clemente Island woodland-star)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	California	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1984a; US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2007b
Lobelia monostachya (Waianae Range lobelia)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1998c
Lupinus nipomensis (Nipomo Mesa lupine)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	California	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	D’Antonio and Vitousek, 1992; Bossard et al., 2000; US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009j
Lyonia truncata var. proctorii (Proctor's staggerbush)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Puerto Rico	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1994a
Marstonia ogmoraphe (royal marstonia (snail))	LC (IUCN red list: Least concern) LC (IUCN red list: Least concern); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Tennessee	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1994b
Melanthera venosa (spreading nehe)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1994d
Mucuna sloanei var. persericea	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013b
Neostapfia colusana (Colusa grass)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	California	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008b
Ochrosia haleakalae (island yellowwood)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014l
Oncorhynchus aguabonita whitei	USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	California	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011f
Oncorhynchus clarkii seleniris (Paiute cutthroat trout)	USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	California	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013c
Orcuttia californica (California Orcutt grass)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	California	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011g
Osmoxylon mariannense	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Northern Mariana Islands	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2007e
Ovis ammon (argali)	NT (IUCN red list: Near threatened) NT (IUCN red list: Near threatened); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Kyrgyzstan; Mongolia; Tajikistan	Competition - monopolizing resources	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2002
Ovis canadensis sierrae (Sierra Nevada bighorn sheep)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	California	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008j
Paroreomyza flammea (Molokai creeper)	EX (IUCN red list: Extinct) EX (IUCN red list: Extinct); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2006b
Partulina semicarinata (Lanai tree snail)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013b
Partulina variabilis (Lanai tree snail)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013b
Parvisedum leiocarpum (Lake County stonecrop)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	California	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009k
Pediocactus winkleri (Winkler's pincushion cactus)	LC (IUCN red list: Least concern) LC (IUCN red list: Least concern); USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	Utah	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010h
Peristylus holochila (Hawai'i bog orchid)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009a
Peucedanum sandwicense (makou)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011d
Phacelia insularis var. insularis (island phacelia)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	California	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008e
Phyllostegia bracteata (bracted phyllostegia)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013b
Phyllostegia glabra var. lanaiensis (ulihi phyllostegia)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1995
Phyllostegia racemosa (kiponapona)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1998a
Phyllostegia velutina (velvet phyllostegia)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1998a
Physaria congesta (Dudley Bluffs bladderpod)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	Colorado	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008c
Physaria filiformis (Missouri bladderpod)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	Arkansas; Missouri	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2003a
Plagiobothrys hirtus (rough popcorn flower)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Oregon	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2003b
Poa atropurpurea (San Bernardino bluegrass)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	California	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	,
Pogogyne nudiuscula (Otay Mesa mint)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	California	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010f
Pritchardia remota (Remota loula palm)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011a
Pritchardia schattaueri (Lands of Papa pritchardia)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009b
Pseudocopaeodes eunus obscurus (Carson wandering skipper)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	California	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2007f
Pseudonestor xanthophrys (Maui parrotbill)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); National list(s) National list(s); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2006b; US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011e
Psittirostra psittacea (Ou)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2006b; US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009n
Pteropus mariannus mariannus (Mariana fruit bat)	USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	Guam; Northern Mariana Islands	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009g
Ptilimnium nodosum (harperella)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Alabama	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1988
Pyrgulopsis bernardina (San Bernardino springsnail)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	Arizona	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2012b
Ranunculus acriformis var. aestivalis (autumn buttercup)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Utah	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1991a
Ranunculus hawaiensis (Hawai'ian buttercup)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014m
Remya kauaiensis (Kauai remya)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010b
Remya mauiensis (Maui remya)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Trampling	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009l
Rhinichthys osculus (Kendall Warm Springs dace)	LC (IUCN red list: Least concern) LC (IUCN red list: Least concern); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Oregon	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009i
Sarracenia oreophila (green pitcherplant)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Alabama; Georgia; North Carolina	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1994c
Schiedea jacobii (Jacobi's schiedea)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013b
Schiedea kauaiensis (Kauai schiedea)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008a
Schiedea salicaria	National list(s) National list(s); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013b
Sclerocactus brevispinus	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	Utah	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010g
Sclerocactus glaucus	USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	Colorado	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	,
Serianthes nelsonii	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Guam; Northern Mariana Islands	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1994e
Sesbania tomentosa	National list(s) National list(s); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010j
Sicyos albus (white burr cucumber)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	,
Sidalcea keckii (Keck's checker-mallow)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	California	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008f
Silene spaldingii (Spalding's catchfly)	USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	Idaho; Montana; Oregon; Washington	Behaviour disruption	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2007d
Solanum nelsonii (popolo)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014n
Spermolepis hawaiiensis (Hawaii scaleseed)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010k
Speyeria callippe callippe (callippe silverspot butterfly)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	California	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009e
Speyeria zerene hippolyta (Oregon silverspot butterfly)	USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	California; Oregon	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2001
Spiranthes delitescens	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Arizona	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1997
Stahlia monosperma	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	Puerto Rico	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1996b
Stenogyne kanehoana (Oahu stenogyne)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1998c
Stephanomeria malheurensis (Malheur wire-lettuce)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Oregon	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1991b
Synthliboramphus hypoleucus (Xantus' murrelet)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) EN (IUCN red list: Endangered)	Canada; ; California; Oregon	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2012d
Acmispon dendroideus var. traskiae (San Clemente Island broom)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	California	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1984a; US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2007c
Taraxacum californicum (California taraxacum)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	California	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008k
Tetramolopium remyi (Awalua Ridge tetramolopium)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1995
Tetramolopium rockii (dune tetramolopium)	USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1996a
Thelypodium howellii subsp. spectabilis (Howell's spectacular thelypody)	USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	Oregon	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010e
Thymophylla tephroleuca (ashy dogweed)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Texas	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1987
Townsendia aprica (last chance townsendia)	USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	Utah	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013d
Trifolium dichotomum (showy Indian clover)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); National list(s) National list(s); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	USA	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008i
Tuctoria greenei (Greene's tuctoria)	National list(s) National list(s); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	California	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008d
Tuctoria mucronata (solano grass)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	California		US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009m
Urocyon littoralis catalinae (Santa Catalina Island fox)	USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	California	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2004a
Lepidaploa proctorii	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Puerto Rico	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010d
Vetericaris chaceorum (anchialine pool shrimp)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	,
Vicia menziesii (Hawaiian vetch)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1984b
Villosa perpurpurea (purple bean)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	USA	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	Butler and Biggins, 2004
Vulpes macrotis mutica (San Joaquin kit fox)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	California	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010i
Zanthoxylum dipetalum var. tomentosum	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009c
Zeltnera namophila	No Details	California; Nevada	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009f

Risk and Impact Factors

Top of page Invasiveness

Proved invasive outside its native range
Is a habitat generalist
Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
Long lived

Impact outcomes

Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
Host damage
Increases vulnerability to invasions
Negatively impacts agriculture
Negatively impacts forestry
Reduced native biodiversity
Threat to/ loss of endangered species
Threat to/ loss of native species

Impact mechanisms

Competition - monopolizing resources
Herbivory/grazing/browsing
Hybridization
Trampling

Uses

Top of page

Domestic cattle are used for meat, milk, hides and as draft animals. Feral cattle may be hunted for meat and hides.

Uses List

Top of page

General

Draught animal
Game animal

Human food and beverage

Meat/fat/offal/blood/bone (whole, cut, fresh, frozen, canned, cured, processed or smoked)
Milk
Milk and dairy products

Materials

Skins/leather/fur

Prevention and Control

Top of page

Management Information

Original text compiled by IUCN SSC Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG)

Preventative measures: Well maintained fences can give adequate protection from cattle to areas of native woody vegetation (Courchamp et al. 2003). A fence was used on Amsterdam Island in the Indian Ocean to prevent cattle damaging the breeding grounds of the 'Critically Endangered (CR)' Amsterdam albatross (see Diomedea amsterdamensis in IUCN Red List of Threatened Species). Cattle were restricted to a small part of the island and eradicated from the rest (Micol and Jouventin, 1995).

Physical: Dogs and shooting are a standard method of control (SPREP, 2000).

Bibliography

Top of page

Aston, B. C. 1912. Some effects of imported animals on the indigenous vegetation. Transactions and Proceedings of the NZ Institute 44: 19-24.

Atkinson, I. A. E. and Atkinson, T. J. 2000. Land vertebrates as invasive species on islands served by the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme. In: Invasive Species in the Pacific: A Technical Review and Draft Regional Strategy. South Pacific Regional Environment Programme, Samoa: 19-84.

Baldwin, P. H. and Fagerlund, G. O. 1943. The effect of cattle grazing on koa reproduction in Hawaii National Park. Ecology 24: 118–122.

BirdLife International 2007. Diomedea amsterdamensis. In: IUCN 2007. 2007 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species http://www.iucnredlist.org/apps/redlist/details/144900/0

Bomford, M., 2003. Risk Assessment for the Import and Keeping of Exotic Vertebrates in Australia. Bureau of Rural Sciences, Canberra. http://www.em.gov.au/Documents/Assessing_the_risk_importing_exotic_vertebrates.pdf

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Chapuis, J.L, & Bousses, P. 1987. Relations animal-végétation : conséquences des introductions de mammifères phytophages dans l'archipel de Kerguelen. Actes du colloque sur la Recherche française dans les Terres Australes.269-278

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US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1991. Autumn buttercup (Ranunculus acriformis var. aestivalis) Recovery Plan. In: Autumn buttercup (Ranunculus acriformis var. aestivalis) Recovery Plan : US Fish and Wildlife Service.20 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1991. Stephanomeria malheurensis (Malheur Wire lettuce) Recovery Plan. In: Stephanomeria malheurensis (Malheur Wire lettuce) Recovery Plan : US Fish and Wildlife Service.29 pp. + appendices.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1992. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants Final Rule to Determine the Plant Schoenocrambe argillacea (Clay Reed-Mustard) To Be a Threatened Species and the Plant Schoenocrambe barnebyl (Barneby Reed-Mustard) To Be an Endangered Species. In: Federal Register , 57(9) : US Fish and Wildlife Service.1398-1403. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/federal_register/fr2006.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1993. Cochise Pincushion Cactus (Coryphantha robbinsorum) Recovery Plan. In: Cochise Pincushion Cactus (Coryphantha robbinsorum) Recovery Plan : US Fish and Wildlife Service.49 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/recovery_plan/930927c.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1994. Aristida chaseae, Lyonia truncata var. proctorii, and Vernonia proctorii Recovery Plan. In: Aristida chaseae, Lyonia truncata var. proctorii, and Vernonia proctorii Recovery Plan : US Fish and Wildlife Service.21 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1994. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Determintation of Endangered Status for the Royal Snail and Anthony's Riversnail. In: Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Determintation of Endangered Status for the Royal Snail and Anthony's Riversnail : US Fish and Wildlife Service.5 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1994. Green Pitcher Plant Recovery Plan. In: Green Pitcher Plant Recovery Plan : US Fish and Wildlife Service.23 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1994. Recovery Plan for Lipochaeta venosa and Isodendrion hosakae. In: Recovery Plan for Lipochaeta venosa and Isodendrion hosakae : US Fish and Wildlife Service.46 pp. + appendix.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1994. Recovery Plan for Serianthes nelsonii. In: Recovery Plan for Serianthes nelsonii : US Fish and Wildlife Service.60 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1995. Lana'i Plant Cluster Recovery Plan. In: Lana'i Plant Cluster Recovery Plan : US Fish and Wildlife Service.138 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1996. Recovery Plan for the Molokai Plant Cluster. In: Recovery Plan for the Molokai Plant Cluster : US Fish and Wildlife Service.143 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1996. Stahlia monosperma (Cobana Negra) Recovery plan. In: Stahlia monosperma (Cobana Negra) Recovery plan : US Fish and Wildlife Service.20 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/recovery_plan/961101a.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1997. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Determination of Endangered Status for Three Wetland Species Found in Southern Arizona and Northern Sonora, Mexico. In: Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Determination of Endangered Status for Three Wetland Species Found in Southern Arizona and Northern Sonora, Mexico : US Fish and Wildlife Service.25 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1998. Big Island II: Addendum to the Recovery Plan for the Big Island Plant Cluster. In: Big Island II: Addendum to the Recovery Plan for the Big Island Plant Cluster : US Fish and Wildlife Service.80 pp. + appendices.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1998. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Determination of Endangered or Threatened Status for Four Plants From Southwestern California and Baja California, Mexico. In: Federal Register , 63(197) : US Fish and Wildlife Service.54938-54946. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/federal_register/fr3325.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1998. Recovery Plan for Oahu Plants. In: Recovery Plan for Oahu Plants : US Fish and Wildlife Service.207 pp. + appendices.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1999. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Final Rule to List Astragalus desereticus (Deseret milkvetch) as Threatened. In: Federal Register , 64(202) : US Fish and Wildlife Service.56590-56596. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/federal_register/fr3460.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1999. Recovery Plan for Six Plants from the Mountains Surrounding the Los Angeles Basin. In: Recovery Plan for Six Plants from the Mountains Surrounding the Los Angeles Basin : US Fish and Wildlife Service.77 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/recovery_plan/990930a.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2001. Revised Recovery Plan for the Oregon Silverspot Butterfly (Speyeria zerene hippolyta). In: Revised Recovery Plan for the Oregon Silverspot Butterfly (Speyeria zerene hippolyta) : US Fish and Wildlife Service.121 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/recovery_plan/010822.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2002. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Retention of Threatened Status for Argali in Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, and Tajikistan. In: Federal Register , 67(99) : US Fish and Wildlife Service.35942-35957. http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2002-05-22/pdf/02-12824.pdf#page=1

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2003. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Reclassification of Lesquerella filiformis (Missouri Bladderpod) from Endangered to Threatened. In: Federal Register , 68(111) : US Fish and Wildlife Service.34569-34576. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/federal_register/fr4111.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2003. Recovery Plan for the Rough Popcornflower (Plagiobothrys hirtus). In: Recovery Plan for the Rough Popcornflower (Plagiobothrys hirtus) : US Fish and Wildlife Service.60 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2004. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Listing the San Miguel Island Fox, Santa Rosa Island Fox, Santa Cruz Island Fox, and Santa Catalina Island Fox as Endangered. In: Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Listing the San Miguel Island Fox, Santa Rosa Island Fox, Santa Cruz Island Fox, and Santa Catalina Island Fox as Endangered : US Fish and Wildlife Service.19 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2004. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Proposed Designation of Critical Habitat for Astragalus lentiginosus var. piscinensis (Fish Slough Milk-vetch). In: Federal Register , 69(108) : US Fish and Wildlife Service.31552-31569. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/federal_register/fr4309.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2005. Federally Listed Animal Species. Delta Green Ground Beetle (Elaphrus viridis). In: Recovery Plan for Vernal Pool Ecosystems of California and Southern Oregon : US Fish and Wildlife Service.15 pp. http://www.fws.gov/sacramento/es/Recovery-Planning/Vernal-Pool/Documents/delta_green_ground_beetle.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2005. Pecos Sunflower (Helianthus paradoxus) Recovery Plan. In: Pecos Sunflower (Helianthus paradoxus) Recovery Plan : US Fish and Wildlife Service.47 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/recovery_plan/050915.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2006. Recovery Plan for the Kauai Cave Arthropods: The Kauai Cave Wolf Spider (Adelocosa anops) and the Kauai Cave Amphipod (Spelaeorchestia koloana). In: Recovery Plan for the Kauai Cave Arthropods: The Kauai Cave Wolf Spider (Adelocosa anops) and the Kauai Cave Amphipod (Spelaeorchestia koloana) : US Fish and Wildlife Service.64 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2006. Revised Recovery Plan for Hawaiian Forest Birds. In: Revised Recovery Plan for Hawaiian Forest Birds : US Fish and Wildlife Service.622 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2007. Ash Meadows Gumplant (Grindelia fraxino-pratensis). Five-year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Ash Meadows Gumplant (Grindelia fraxino-pratensis). Five-year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.22 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/five_year_review/doc1865.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2007. Lithophragma maximum (San Clemente Island Woodland Star). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Lithophragma maximum (San Clemente Island Woodland Star). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.29 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2007. Lotus dendroideus var. traskiae (San Clemente Island lotus). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Lotus dendroideus var. traskiae (San Clemente Island lotus). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.22 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2007. Recovery Plan for Silene spaldingii (Spalding's Catchfly). In: Recovery Plan for Silene spaldingii (Spalding's Catchfly) : US Fish and Wildlife Service.203 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/recovery_plan/071012.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2007. Recovery plan for the Carson wandering skipper (Pseudocopaeodes eunus obscurus). In: Recovery plan for the Carson wandering skipper (Pseudocopaeodes eunus obscurus) : US Fish and Wildlife Service.viii + 94 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2007. Recovery Plan for Two Plants from Rota (Nesogenes rotensis and Osmoxylon mariannense). In: Recovery Plan for Two Plants from Rota (Nesogenes rotensis and Osmoxylon mariannense) : US Fish and Wildlife Service.86 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2007. Vernal Pool Fairy Shrimp 5-Year Review. Summary and Evaluation. In: Vernal Pool Fairy Shrimp 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.76 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/five_year_review/doc1150.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008. 5-Year Review, Short Form Summary: Species Reviewed: Schiedea kauaiensis (no common name). In: 5-Year Review, Short Form Summary: Species Reviewed: Schiedea kauaiensis (no common name) : US Fish and Wildlife Service.6 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008. Colusa Grass (Neostapfia colusana). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Colusa Grass (Neostapfia colusana). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.27 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/five_year_review/doc1930.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008. Dudley Bluffs Bladderpod (Lesquerella congesta or Physaria congesta) and Dudley Bluffs Twinpod (Physaria obcordata) 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Dudley Bluffs Bladderpod (Lesquerella congesta or Physaria congesta) and Dudley Bluffs Twinpod (Physaria obcordata) 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.24 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/five_year_review/doc1916.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008. Greene's tuctoria (Tuctoria greenei). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Greene's tuctoria (Tuctoria greenei). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.25 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008. Island phacelia (Phacelia insularis var. insularis). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Island phacelia (Phacelia insularis var. insularis). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.16 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008. Keck's Checkermallow (Sidalcea keckii). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Keck's Checkermallow (Sidalcea keckii). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.13 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008. Purple Amole (Chlorogalum purpureum). Five-year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Purple Amole (Chlorogalum purpureum). Five-year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.33 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/five_year_review/doc1996.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008. Recovery Outline for the Jones Cycladenia (Cycladenia humilis var. jonesii). In: Recovery Outline for the Jones Cycladenia (Cycladenia humilis var. jonesii) : US Fish and Wildlife Service.11 pp. http://www.fws.gov/ecos/ajax/docs/recovery_plan/Jones%20cycladenia_123008.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008. Showy Indian Clover (Trifolium amoenum). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Showy Indian Clover (Trifolium amoenum). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.12 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008. Sierra Nevada Bighorn Sheep, Ovis canadensis californiana (= Ovis canadensis sierrae). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Sierra Nevada Bighorn Sheep, Ovis canadensis californiana (= Ovis canadensis sierrae). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.40 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008. Taraxacum californicum (California taraxacum). Five-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Taraxacum californicum (California taraxacum). Five-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.26 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009. `O`u (Psittirostra psittacea). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: `O`u (Psittirostra psittacea). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.12 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009. 5-Year Review, Short Form Summary: Platanthera holochila (no common name). In: 5-Year Review, Short Form Summary: Platanthera holochila (no common name) : US Fish and Wildlife Service.7 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009. 5-Year Review, Short Form Summary: Species Reviewed: Pritchardia schattaueri (Lo`ulu). In: 5-Year Review, Short Form Summary: Species Reviewed: Pritchardia schattaueri (Lo`ulu) : US Fish and Wildlife Service.7 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009. 5-Year Review, Short Form Summary: Zanthoxylum dipetalum var. tomentosum (A`e). In: 5-Year Review, Short Form Summary: Zanthoxylum dipetalum var. tomentosum (A`e) : US Fish and Wildlife Service.7 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009. Brodiaea filifolia (Thread-Leaved brodiaea). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Brodiaea filifolia (Thread-Leaved brodiaea). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.48 pp. http://www.fws.gov/ecos/ajax/docs/five_year_review/doc2570.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009. Callippe Silverspot Butterfly (Speyeria callippe callippe). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Callippe Silverspot Butterfly (Speyeria callippe callippe). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.29 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009. Centaurium nomaphilum (Spring-loving centaury). 5-year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Centaurium nomaphilum (Spring-loving centaury). 5-year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.32 pp. http://www.fws.gov/ecos/ajax/docs/five_year_review/doc2569.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009. Draft Revised Recovery Plan for the Mariana Fruit Bat or Fanihi (Pteropus mariannus mariannus). In: Draft Revised Recovery Plan for the Mariana Fruit Bat or Fanihi (Pteropus mariannus mariannus) : US Fish and Wildlife Service.98 pp. https://www.fws.gov/pacific/ecoservices/documents/100330.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009. Dudleya nesiotica (Santa Cruz Island dudleya). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Dudleya nesiotica (Santa Cruz Island dudleya). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.23 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/five_year_review/doc2576.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009. Foskett speckled dace (Rhinichthys osculus ssp.). 5-Year Review: summary and Evaluation. In: Foskett speckled dace (Rhinichthys osculus ssp.). 5-Year Review: summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.22 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/five_year_review/doc2524.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009. Lupinus nipomensis (Nipomo Lupine). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Lupinus nipomensis (Nipomo Lupine). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.18 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009. Parvisedum leiocarpum (= Sedella leiocarpa) (Lake County Stonecrop). 5-year review: summary and evaluation. In: Parvisedum leiocarpum (= Sedella leiocarpa) (Lake County Stonecrop). 5-year review: summary and evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.19 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009. Remya mauiensis (Maui remya). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Remya mauiensis (Maui remya). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.15 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009. Solano Grass (Orcuttia mucronata = Tuctoria mucronata). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Solano Grass (Orcuttia mucronata = Tuctoria mucronata). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.28 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010. 5-Year Review, Short Form Summary: Species Reviewed: Poa mannii (Mann's bluegrass). In: 5-Year Review, Short Form Summary: Species Reviewed: Poa mannii (Mann's bluegrass) : US Fish and Wildlife Service.10 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010. 5-Year Review, Short Form Summary: Species Reviewed: Remya kauaiensis (no common name). In: 5-Year Review, Short Form Summary: Species Reviewed: Remya kauaiensis (no common name) : US Fish and Wildlife Service.12 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010. 5-year review, Short Form Summary: Zanthoxylum hawaiiense (a'e, manele). In: 5-year review, Short Form Summary: Zanthoxylum hawaiiense (a'e, manele) : US Fish and Wildlife Service.10 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010. Aristida chaseae (no common name), Aristida portoricensis (pelos del diablo), Lyonia truncata var. proctorii (no common name), Vernonia proctorii (no common name). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Aristida chaseae (no common name), Aristida portoricensis (pelos del diablo), Lyonia truncata var. proctorii (no common name), Vernonia proctorii (no common name). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.22 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010. Howell's spectacular thelypody (Thelypodium howellii ssp. spectabilis). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Howell's spectacular thelypody (Thelypodium howellii ssp. spectabilis). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.19 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/five_year_review/doc3249.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010. Pogogyne nudiuscula (Otay mesa mint). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Pogogyne nudiuscula (Otay mesa mint). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.41 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010. Recovery Outline for the Sclerocactus brevispinus (Pariette Cactus). In: Recovery Outline for the Sclerocactus brevispinus (Pariette Cactus) : US Fish and Wildlife Service.17 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/recovery_plan/Pariette%20Cactus_Recovery%20Outline_Apr%202010.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010. Recovery Outline for the Sclerocactus wetlandicus (Uinta Basin Hookless Cactus). In: Recovery Outline for the Sclerocactus wetlandicus (Uinta Basin Hookless Cactus) : US Fish and Wildlife Service.15 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/recovery_plan/Sclerocactus%20wetlandicus%20recovery%20outline_final_Apr%202010.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010. San Joaquin Kit Fox (Vulpes macrotis mutica). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: San Joaquin Kit Fox (Vulpes macrotis mutica). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.121 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010. Sesbania tomentosa (ohai). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Sesbania tomentosa (ohai). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.24 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010. Spermolepis hawaiiensis (no common name). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Spermolepis hawaiiensis (no common name). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.19 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011. 5-Year Review, Short Form Summary: Species Reviewed: Pritchardia aylmer-robinsonii (wahane). In: 5-Year Review, Short Form Summary: Species Reviewed: Pritchardia aylmer-robinsonii (wahane) : US Fish and Wildlife Service.9 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011. Dwarf-flowered heartleaf (Hexastylis naniflora). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Dwarf-flowered heartleaf (Hexastylis naniflora). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.44 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/five_year_review/doc3627.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Endangered Status for the Sheepnose and Spectaclecase Mussels; Proposed Rule. In: Federal Register , 76(12) : US Fish and Wildlife Service.3392-3420. https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2011-01-19/pdf/2011-469.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Listing 23 Species on Oahu as Endangered and Designating Critical Habitat for 124 Species. In: Federal Register , 76(148) : US Fish and Wildlife Service.46362-46593. http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2011-08-02/pdf/2011-17162.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011. Kiwikiu (Maui Parrotbill) (Pseudonestor xanthophrys). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Kiwikiu (Maui Parrotbill) (Pseudonestor xanthophrys). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.20 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011. Little Kern Golden Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss whitei). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Little Kern Golden Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss whitei). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.32 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/five_year_review/doc3894.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011. Orcuttia californica (California Orcutt grass). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Orcuttia californica (California Orcutt grass). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.44 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2012. Brodiaea pallida (Chinese Camp brodiaea) 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Brodiaea pallida (Chinese Camp brodiaea) 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.22 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/five_year_review/doc4008.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2012. Determination of Endangered Status for Three Forks Springsnail and Threatened Status for San Bernardino Springsnail Throughout Their Ranges and Designation of Critical Habitat for Both Species; Final Rule. In: Determination of Endangered Status for Three Forks Springsnail and Threatened Status for San Bernardino Springsnail Throughout Their Ranges and Designation of Critical Habitat for Both Species; Final Rule , 77(74) : US Fish and Wildlife Service.23060-23092. https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2012-04-17/pdf/2012-8811.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2012. Gaura neomexicana subsp. coloradensis (Colorado butterfly plant). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Gaura neomexicana subsp. coloradensis (Colorado butterfly plant). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.59 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/five_year_review/doc4128.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2012. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Synthliboramphus hypoleucus. In: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Synthliboramphus hypoleucus : US Fish and Wildlife Service.24 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/candidate/assessments/2012/r8/B098_V01.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Determination of Endangered Species Status for 15 Species on Hawaii Island; Final Rule. In: Federal Register , 78(209) , USA: US Fish and Wildlife Service.64638-64690. https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2013-10-29/pdf/2013-24103.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Determination of Endangered Status for 38 Species on Molokai, Lanai, and Maui; Final Rule. In: Federal Register , 78(102) : US Fish and Wildlife Service.32014-32065. https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2013-05-28/pdf/2013-12105.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013. Paiute Cutthroat Trout (Oncorhynchus clarkii seleniris). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Paiute Cutthroat Trout (Oncorhynchus clarkii seleniris). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.80 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/five_year_review/doc4164.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013. Townsendia aprica (Last Chance townsendia). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Townsendia aprica (Last Chance townsendia). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.72 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/five_year_review/doc4267.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Chorizanthe parryi var. fernandina. In: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Chorizanthe parryi var. fernandina : US Fish and Wildlife Service.15 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/candidate/assessments/2014/r8/Q0EZ_P01.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Designation of Critical Habitat for Chromolaena frustrata (Cape Sable Thoroughwort); Final Rule. In: Federal Register , 79(5) : US Fish and Wildlife Service.1552-1590. https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2014-01-08/pdf/2013-31576.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Threatened Species Status for Ivesia webberi. In: Federal Register , 79(106) : US Fish and Wildlife Service.31878-31883. https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2014-06-03/pdf/2014-12627.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Artemisia campestris var. wormskioldii. In: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Artemisia campestris var. wormskioldii : US Fish and Wildlife Service.16 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/candidate/assessments/2014/r1/Q2XG_P01.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Astragalus anserinus. In: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Astragalus anserinus : US Fish and Wildlife Service.30 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/candidate/assessments/2014/r6/Q3B5_P01.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Huperzia (= Phlegmariurus) stemmermanniae. In: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Huperzia (= Phlegmariurus) stemmermanniae : US Fish and Wildlife Service.14 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/candidate/assessments/2014/r1/S02B_P01.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Hylaeus assimulans. In: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Hylaeus assimulans : US Fish and Wildlife Service.33 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/candidate/assessments/2014/r1/I0GQ_I01.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Hylaeus facilis. In: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Hylaeus facilis : US Fish and Wildlife Service.32 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/candidate/assessments/2014/r1/I0GY_I01.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Hylaeus hilaris. In: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Hylaeus hilaris : US Fish and Wildlife Service.31 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/candidate/assessments/2014/r1/I0HT_I01.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Hylaeus kuakea. In: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Hylaeus kuakea : US Fish and Wildlife Service.29 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/candidate/assessments/2014/r1/I0VM_I01.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Hylaeus longiceps. In: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Hylaeus longiceps : US Fish and Wildlife Service.33 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/candidate/assessments/2014/r1/I0HC_I01.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Hylaeus mana. In: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Hylaeus mana : US Fish and Wildlife Service.30 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/candidate/assessments/2014/r1/I0VL_I01.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Ochrosia haleakalae. In: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Ochrosia haleakalae : US Fish and Wildlife Service.17 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/candidate/assessments/2014/r1/Q3ES_P01.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Ranunculus hawaiensis. In: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Ranunculus hawaiensis : US Fish and Wildlife Service.16 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/candidate/assessments/2014/r1/Q38H_P01.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Solanum nelsonii. In: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Solanum nelsonii : US Fish and Wildlife Service.14 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/candidate/assessments/2014/r1/Q21R_P01.pdf

Links to Websites

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Website	URL	Comment
Cattle Network - EAAP	http://www.cattlenetwork.net/	Website of the European Association for Animal Production Cattle Network. The site includes publications, summaries of cattle breeds, EU regulations, a database of companies involved at all levels of the food management chain and job postings.
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway	https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6	Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list.
Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS)	http://griis.org/	Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list.

Principal Source

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Global Invasive Species Database

Contributors

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Principal sources: Taylor R. H. (1990) in King C. M. (ed.) The Handbook of New Zealand Mammals

Compiled by:

Last Modified: Tuesday, July 03, 2007

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Bos taurus (cattle)

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