Capra hircus (goats)

Datasheet

Capra hircus (goats)

Index

Pictures
Identity
Summary of Invasiveness
Taxonomic Tree
Description
Distribution
Distribution Table
Habitat
Habitat List
Biology and Ecology
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Pathway Causes
Impact Summary
Impact
Threatened Species
Risk and Impact Factors
Uses
Uses List
Prevention and Control
Bibliography
References
Principal Source
Contributors
Distribution Maps

Summary

Last modified
22 October 2018

Datasheet Type(s)
Invasive Species
Natural Enemy
Host Animal

Preferred Scientific Name
Capra hircus

Preferred Common Name
goats

Taxonomic Tree
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Metazoa
Phylum: Chordata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Class: Mammalia

Summary of Invasiveness
The goat (Capra hircus) was domesticated 10,000 years ago in the highlands of western Iran. These herbivores have a highly varied diet and are able to utilise a larger number of plant spe...

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Principal Source
Global Invasive Species Database

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Pictures

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Picture

Title

Caption

Goats grazing in a tree

Capra hircus (goats); goats grazing in an Argan tree (Argania spinosa). Essaouira, Morocco. June 2013.

©Grand Parc - Bordeaux, France/via wikipedia - CC BY 2.0

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Capra hircus Linnaeus 1758

Preferred Common Name

goats

Other Scientific Names

Capra aegagrus hircus
Capra indicus

International Common Names

English: billy; goat; kid; kids; nanny
Spanish: cabras
French: chèvres

Local Common Names

Germany: Hausziege; Ziegen
Italy: capre
Portugal: cabras

Summary of Invasiveness

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The goat (Capra hircus) was domesticated 10,000 years ago in the highlands of western Iran. These herbivores have a highly varied diet and are able to utilise a larger number of plant species than other livestock. Goats alter plant communities and forest structure and threaten vulnerable plant species. The reduction of vegetation reduces shelter options for native animals and overgrazing in native communities leads to ecosystem degradation. Feral goats spread disease to native animals. Native fauna on islands are particularly susceptible.

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Metazoa
Phylum: Chordata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Suborder: Ruminantia
Family: Bovidae
Genus: Capra
Species: Capra hircus

Description

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Males weigh between 45 and 55 kilos and females weigh between 25 and 35 kilos. Colouration is highly variable from mostly black, to various shades of brown, and from single-coloured to multi-coloured. Black anterior with brown posterior is a common pattern. Horns are dimorphic, having homonymous spiral and anterior keel. Males are bearded and produce pheromones during the breeding season.

Distribution

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Goats were domesticated 10,000 years ago in the highlands of western Iran. Feral goats are derived from domestic goats, originally native to Asia.

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	First Reported	Invasive	Reference	Notes
Asia
Afghanistan	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Bangladesh	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
China	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Beijing	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Gansu	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Nei Menggu	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
India	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Andhra Pradesh	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Assam	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Himachal Pradesh	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Indian Punjab	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Karnataka	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Kerala	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Meghalaya	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Odisha	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Rajasthan	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Tamil Nadu	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Uttar Pradesh	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-West Bengal	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Indonesia	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Iran	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Iraq	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Israel	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Japan	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Jordan	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Korea, Republic of	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Kuwait	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Malaysia	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Middle East	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Nepal	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Oman	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Pakistan	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Philippines	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Saudi Arabia	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Sri Lanka	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Taiwan	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Thailand	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Turkey	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
United Arab Emirates	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Vietnam	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Africa
Botswana	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Cameroon	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Egypt	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Eritrea	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Ethiopia	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Gambia	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Ghana	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Guinea	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Kenya	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Libya	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Malawi	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Mali	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Mauritius	Restricted distribution	Introduced		Invasive	ISSG, 2011
Mayotte	Present	Introduced		Invasive	ISSG, 2011
Morocco	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Namibia	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Nigeria	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Réunion	Present	Introduced			ISSG, 2011
Saint Helena
-Ascension	Eradicated	Introduced	<1700	Invasive	ISSG, 2011
-Tristan Da Cunha	Eradicated	Introduced	<1790, 1942	Invasive	ISSG, 2011
Senegal	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Seychelles	Restricted distribution	Introduced		Invasive	ISSG, 2011
Somalia	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
South Africa	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Spain
-Canary Islands	Restricted distribution	Introduced		Invasive	ISSG, 2011
Sudan	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Tanzania	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Togo	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Uganda	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Zambia	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Zimbabwe	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
North America
Canada	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-British Columbia	Restricted distribution	Introduced		Invasive	ISSG, 2011
Mexico	Restricted distribution	Introduced		Invasive	ISSG, 2011
USA	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Alabama	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-California	Restricted distribution	Introduced	<1827	Invasive	ISSG, 2011
-Georgia	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Hawaii	Present	Introduced		Invasive	ISSG, 2011
-Indiana	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Montana	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-North Carolina	Restricted distribution	Introduced	c. 1800	Invasive	ISSG, 2011
Central America and Caribbean
Anguilla	Present	Introduced		Invasive	ISSG, 2011
Antigua and Barbuda	Present	Introduced		Invasive	ISSG, 2011
Bahamas	Present	Introduced		Invasive	ISSG, 2011
Bonaire	Restricted distribution	Introduced		Invasive	ISSG, 2011
British Virgin Islands	Present	Introduced		Invasive	ISSG, 2011
Curaçao	Present	Introduced		Invasive	ISSG, 2011
Dominican Republic	Present	Introduced		Invasive	ISSG, 2011
French West Indies	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Guadeloupe	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Haiti	Present	Introduced		Invasive	ISSG, 2011
Jamaica	Present	Introduced		Invasive	ISSG, 2011
Martinique	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Puerto Rico	Present	Introduced		Invasive	ISSG, 2011
Saint Lucia	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Daltry, 2009; ISSG, 2012	Invasive on Dennery Island; impacts vegetation and animal habitats
Trinidad and Tobago	Restricted distribution	Introduced		Invasive	ISSG, 2011
Turks and Caicos Islands	Present	Introduced		Invasive	ISSG, 2011
United States Virgin Islands	Present	Introduced		Invasive	ISSG, 2011
South America
Argentina	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Bolivia	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Brazil	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Ceara	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Minas Gerais	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Paraiba	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Rio de Janeiro	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Chile	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Ecuador	Present					Present based on regional distribution.
-Galapagos Islands	Present	Introduced		Invasive	ISSG, 2011
Falkland Islands	Restricted distribution	Introduced	1870	Invasive	ISSG, 2011
Venezuela	Restricted distribution	Introduced	c.1500	Invasive	ISSG, 2011
Europe
Austria	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Bulgaria	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Croatia	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Cyprus	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Czech Republic	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Denmark	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
France	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Germany	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Greece	Restricted distribution	Introduced		Invasive	ISSG, 2011
Hungary	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Italy	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Malta	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Netherlands	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Norway	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Poland	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Portugal	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Slovakia	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Spain	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Switzerland	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
UK	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Oceania
Australia	Restricted distribution	Introduced		Invasive	ISSG, 2011
-Lord Howe Is.	Restricted distribution	Introduced	c. 1834	Invasive	ISSG, 2011
-New South Wales	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Cook Islands	Present	Introduced			ISSG, 2011
Fiji	Present	Introduced			ISSG, 2011
French Polynesia	Present	Introduced		Invasive	ISSG, 2011
-Marquesas	Present	Introduced			ISSG, 2011
French Southern and Antarctic Territories	Eradicated	Introduced	1800s	Invasive	ISSG, 2011
New Caledonia	Present	Introduced		Invasive	ISSG, 2011
New Zealand	Present	Introduced	1773 -	Invasive	ISSG, 2011
-Kermadec Islands	Unconfirmed record	Introduced	before 1836	Invasive	ISSG, 2011
Norfolk Island	Eradicated	Introduced	>1774	Invasive	ISSG, 2011
Northern Mariana Islands	Present	Introduced			ISSG, 2011
Phoenix Islands	Present	Introduced			ISSG, 2011
Pitcairn Island	Present	Introduced	before 1843	Invasive	ISSG, 2011

Habitat

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Goats usually move in herds that roam over territories up to 20km wide. Sometimes herd ranges can be as small as 100m². Males usually wander more widely than females. Grasslands, scrub lands, rocky outcrops and semi-open or open forests are all used extensively by goats as habitat substrate. In bad weather, they may seek shelter under rocky ledges (SPREP, 2000).

Habitat List

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Category	Habitat	Presence	Status
Terrestrial-managed
Terrestrial-managed	Managed forests, plantations and orchards	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial-natural/semi-natural
	Natural forests	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
	Natural grasslands	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
	Scrub / shrublands	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)

Biology and Ecology

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Nutrition
Goats are herbivores and will forage on any palatable plants in their home range. Goats have rather large rumino-reticular volume so they are able to subsist on poorer quality plants than most herbivores, therefore goats can survive and subsist in heavily exploited environments.

In a study conducted by Chimera, Coleman and Parkes (1995) the rumen contents of 49 goats (captured in 1989) were identified and the dry weight of each component was measured to produce a breakdown of the diet of a small, unique remnant population (now extinct) of feral goats on Auckland Island (a Sub-Antarctic island located south of New Zealand). Woody plants and grasses made up the bulk of their diet (41% and 39%, respectively); seaweeds made up 13%, ferns 4% and herbaceous species 3%. At least 40 plant species were eaten by the goats, but just three species made up half of the total: rata (Metrosideros umbellate), snow tussock (Chionochloa Antarctica) and kelp (Durvillea Antarctica). Rata (Metrosideros umbellate), Coprosma foetidissima, Pseudopanax simplex and Carex appressa were the most commonly found species - eaten in at least some quantity by 90%, 80%, 76% and 69% of the goats respectively.

Unidentified grasses composed 21.4% of the total contents (dry weight) and were found in 100% of goats. NB: This population had a unique genetic makeup as it evolved separately for over 100 years on an isolated island with a cold and harsh climate and so it may not represent the dietary preferences of all goats. However, it highlights the huge adaptability of goats and their ability to subsist in particular and inhospitable landscapes.

Reproduction
Both sexes are physiologically capable of reproduction at about 6 months of age. Dominant males fight to win females. They follow a serial pattern and attend to one female after another as they come into oestrus. In one sense this is termed polygyny, as males breed with as many females as they can during a breeding period, but more properly this is serial monogamy as a male will tend a female for extended periods, both before and after copulation and before leaving in search of a different mate.

Realised reproduction varies among populations, seasons and years. At best a typical female goat would produce one young in its first pregnancy and twin kids in subsequent pregnancies. However, most females are at less than optimal condition, which may result in a twinning rate of as little as 0%. At best, herds may produce twins at a rate of 80% or more. Triplets are not uncommon.

Means of Movement and Dispersal

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Introduction pathways to new locations
Other: Goats (Capra hircus) were released as potential food for people marooned by shipwrecks.
Transportation of domesticated animals: Goats (Capra hircus) were introduced to islands for their milk.

Local dispersal methods
Escape from confinement:
Natural dispersal (local):

Pathway Causes

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Cause	Long Distance	Local
Animal production	Yes
Escape from confinement or garden escape		Yes
Food	Yes
Self-propelled		Yes

Impact Summary

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Category	Impact
Biodiversity (generally)	Negative
Environment (generally)	Negative
Livestock production	Negative

Impact

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General Impacts

Original text compiled by IUCN SSC Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG)

Biodiversity on islands is vulnerable to introduced species, and the vegetation tends to lack adaptions to mammalian herbivores (Campbell and Donlan 2005). Unfortunately, goats (Capra hircus) have been established on many islands. Goats alter plant communities and forest structures and threaten vulnerable plant species; the flow-down effect of these outcomes includes increased soil erosion and the reduction of native fauna that share a similar environmental niche (Spatz and Mueller-Dombois 1973, Coblentz 1978, Parkes 1984, Brennan 1986, Coblentz and Van Vuren 1987, Cronk 1989, Walker 1991, Moran 1996, Desender et al. 1999, in Campbell and Donlan 2005). In some island ecosystems it has been the case that goats are the most destructive herbivore present (King, 1985). Feral goats are particularly destructive in such environments and cause a huge loss of native vegetation due to their grazing habits. This leads to ecosystem degradation and biodiversity loss (Coblentz 1978; Schofield 1989; Moran 1996; Desender et al. 1999 in Campbell and Donlan 2005).

Threatened Species

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Threatened Species	Conservation Status	Where Threatened	Mechanism	References
Acrocephalus luscinia (nightingale reed warbler)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Guam; Northern Mariana Islands	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1998d
Adelocosa anops (Kauai cave wolf spider)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2006a
Bidens amplectens (koko'olau)	VU (IUCN red list: Vulnerable) VU (IUCN red list: Vulnerable); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2012a
Bidens campylotheca subsp. waihoiensis (ko`oko`olau)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013a
Bidens conjuncta (ko`oko`olau)	VU (IUCN red list: Vulnerable) VU (IUCN red list: Vulnerable); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013b
Bidens micrantha subsp. ctenophylla (ko`oko`olau)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013a
Calamagrostis hillebrandii (Hillegrands reedgrass)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013b
Canavalia pubescens (jack bean)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013b
Cinclodes aricomae	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered)	Peru	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	,
Cyanea asplenifolia (haha)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); National list(s) National list(s); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013b
Cyanea calycina	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2012a
Cyanea duvalliorum	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013b
Cyanea horrida (prickly cyanea)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013b
Cyanea kunthiana (Kunth's cyanea)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013b
Cyanea lanceolata (lanceleaf cyanea)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2012a
Cyanea magnicalyx	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); National list(s) National list(s); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013b
Cyanea maritae	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013b
Cyanea marksii (Marks' cyanea)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013a
Cyanea mauiensis	EX (IUCN red list: Extinct) EX (IUCN red list: Extinct)	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013b
Cyanea munroi	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013b
Cyanea obtusa (bluntlobe cyanea)	National list(s) National list(s); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013b
Cyanea profuga (Mapulehu Valley cyanea)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013b
Cyanea recta (Kealia cyanea)	National list(s) National list(s); USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1995b
Cyanea solanacea (popolo)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013b
Cyclura stejnegeri (Mona Island iguana)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	Puerto Rico	Competition - monopolizing resources	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1984a
Cyrtandra ferripilosa	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013b
Cyrtandra filipes	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013b
Cyrtandra limahuliensis (Limahuli cyrtandra)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1995b
Cyrtandra oxybapha	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013b
Doryopteris takeuchii (Takeuch's lipfern)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2012a
Dracaena forbesii (hala pepe)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	,
Chrysodracon hawaiiensis (hala pepe)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1998a
Drosophila aglaia	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	NatureServe, 2010
Drosophila differens (Hawaiian picture-wing fly)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	NatureServe, 2010
Drosophila digressa	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013a
Drosophila hemipeza	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	NatureServe, 2010
Drosophila heteroneura	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	NatureServe, 2010
Drosophila montgomeryi	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	NatureServe, 2010
Drosophila musaphila	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	NatureServe, 2010
Drosophila ochrobasis	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	NatureServe, 2010
Drosophila substenoptera	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	NatureServe, 2010
Emballonura semicaudata rotensis (Pacific sheath-tailed bat)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Northern Mariana Islands	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2015a
Epicrates monensis monensis (Mona boa)	USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	Puerto Rico	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1984b
Festuca hawaiiensis (Hawai'i fescue)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2015b
Festuca molokaiensis	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013b
Gardenia remyi (Remy's gardenia)	VU (IUCN red list: Vulnerable) VU (IUCN red list: Vulnerable); NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014a
Harrisia portoricensis (higo chumbo)	USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	Puerto Rico	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010m
Huperzia stemmermanniae (Stemmermann's clubmoss)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014b
Hylaeus assimulans (assimulans yellow-faced bee)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014c
Hylaeus facilis (easy yellow-faced bee)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014d
Hylaeus hilaris (hilaris yellow-faced bee)	USA ESA species proposed for listing USA ESA species proposed for listing	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014e
Hylaeus kuakea (Hawaiian yellow-faced bee)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014f
Hylaeus longiceps	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014g
Hylaeus mana	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014h
Isodendrion longifolium (longleaf isodendrion)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011f
Joinvillea ascendens ascendens	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014i
Korthalsella taenioides (Degener's korthal mistletoe)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	,
Leiolopisma telfairii (Round Island skink)	USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	Mauritius	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	Madagascar Reptile & Amphibian Specialist Group, 1996
Lobelia monostachya (Waianae Range lobelia)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1998c
Lobelia niihauensis (Niihau lobelia)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1998c
Loxioides bailleui (palila)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2006b
Melanthera tenuifolia (Waianae Range nehe)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1998c
Melanthera venosa (spreading nehe)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1994
Melanthera waimeaensis (Waimea Canyon nehe)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1998b
Melicope christophersenii	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2012a
Melicope hiiakae	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2012a
Melicope makahae	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2012a
Melicope makahae	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2012a
Mucuna sloanei var. persericea	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013b
Myrsine linearifolia (narrowleaf colicwood)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	Hawaii	Competition - monopolizing resources	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2003
Nothocestrum latifolium (broadleaf aiea)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013c
Nothocestrum peltatum (Oahu aiea)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1995b
Nototrichium humile (kaala rockwort)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	National Tropical Botanical Garden, 2007; US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008c
Oceanodroma castro (band-rumped storm-petrel)	LC (IUCN red list: Least concern) LC (IUCN red list: Least concern); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Montana	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	,
Ochrosia haleakalae (island yellowwood)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014j
Ochrosia kilaueaensis (Hawai'i yellowwood)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1996a
Oreomystis bairdi (akikiki)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2006b
Oreomystis mana (Hawaii creeper)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2006b
Osmoxylon mariannense	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Northern Mariana Islands	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2007
Ovis ammon (argali)	NT (IUCN red list: Near threatened) NT (IUCN red list: Near threatened); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Kyrgyzstan; Mongolia; Tajikistan	Competition - monopolizing resources	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2002
Ovis canadensis sierrae (Sierra Nevada bighorn sheep)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	California	Pathogenic	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008h
Panicum fauriei (Carter's panicgrass)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011g
Paroreomyza flammea (Molokai creeper)	EX (IUCN red list: Extinct) EX (IUCN red list: Extinct); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2006b
Partula gibba (humped tree snail)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Guam; Northern Mariana Islands	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2015a
Partula langfordi (Langford's tree snail)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species; CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered)	Northern Mariana Islands	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2015a
Partula radiolata (Guam tree snail)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Guam	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2015a
Partulina semicarinata (Lanai tree snail)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013b
Partulina variabilis (Lanai tree snail)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013b
Peucedanum sandwicense (makou)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011d
Phyllostegia glabra var. lanaiensis (ulihi phyllostegia)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1995a
Phyllostegia knudsenii (Waimea phyllostegia)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009b
Phyllostegia mannii (Mann's phyllostegia)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011h
Phyllostegia mollis (Waianae Range phyllostegia)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009f
Phyllostegia parviflora (smallflower phyllostegia)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008d
Phyllostegia renovans (red-leaf phyllostegia)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010l
Phyllostegia waimeae (Kauai phyllostegia)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008e
Phyllostegia wawrana (fuzzystem phyllostegia)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009a
Phytotoma raimondii (Peruvian plantcutter)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Peru	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	,
Pittosporum napaliense (royal cheesewood)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010l
Plantago hawaiensis (Hawai'i plantain)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1996a
Plantago princeps	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010n
Platydesma cornuta var. cornuta	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2012a
Platydesma cornuta var. decurrens	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); NatureServe NatureServe	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2012a
Platydesma rostrata	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010l
Poa mannii (Mann's bluegrass)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010b
Portulaca sclerocarpa	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1996a
Pritchardia hardyi (Makaleha pritchardia)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010o
Pritchardia kaalae (Waianae Range pritchardia)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1998c; US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008f
Pritchardia munroi (Kamalo pritchardia)	No Details	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1996b; US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011b
Pritchardia napaliensis	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010c
Pritchardia remota (Remota loula palm)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011a
Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. molokaiense (enaena)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014k
Psittirostra psittacea (Ou)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2006b; US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009k
Psychotria grandiflora (large-flowered balsamo)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010l
Psychotria hobdyi (Hobdy's wild-coffee)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010l
Pteralyxia kauaiensis (Kauai pteralyxia)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1995b; US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010d
Pteralyxia laurifolia (ridged pteralyxia)	VU (IUCN red list: Vulnerable) VU (IUCN red list: Vulnerable); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	,
Pterodroma sandwichensis	VU (IUCN red list: Vulnerable) VU (IUCN red list: Vulnerable)	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011e
Pteropus mariannus mariannus (Mariana fruit bat)	USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	Guam; Northern Mariana Islands	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009e
Ranunculus hawaiensis (Hawai'ian buttercup)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014l
Ranunculus mauiensis (Maui buttercup)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	,
Remya kauaiensis (Kauai remya)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010e
Remya mauiensis (Maui remya)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Competition (unspecified)	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009g
Remya montgomeryi (Kalalau Valley remya)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010a
Sanicula mariversa (Waianae Range blacksnakeroot)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1998c; US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008g
Schiedea apokremnos (Kauai schiedea)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010p
Schiedea haleakalensis (Haleakala schiedea)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011i
Schiedea helleri (Kaholuamanu schiedea)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010f
Schiedea helleri (Kaholuamanu schiedea)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010f
Schiedea hookeri (sprawling schiedea)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011j
Schiedea jacobii (Jacobi's schiedea)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013b
Schiedea kaalae (Oahu schiedea)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1998c
Schiedea kauaiensis (Kauai schiedea)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008a
Schiedea kealiae (Waianae Range schiedea)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010g
Schiedea lydgatei (Kamalo Gulch schiedea)	NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011k
Schiedea membranacea	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010h
Schiedea nuttallii	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1999; US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009h
Schiedea pubescens	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014m
Schiedea salicaria	National list(s) National list(s); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013b
Schiedea sarmentosa	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011l
Schiedea spergulina var. leiopoda	National list(s) National list(s); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	,
Schiedea spergulina var. spergulina	USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1995b
Schiedea stellarioides	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010i
Sesbania tomentosa	National list(s) National list(s); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010q
Sibara filifolia (Santra Cruz Island Rockcress)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	California	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2006c
Silene alexandri	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008i
Silene hawaiiensis (Hawaii catchfly)	USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1996a
Silene lanceolata (Kauai catchfly)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010r
Solanum incompletum	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008b
Solanum sandwicense	National list(s) National list(s); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009i
Spermolepis hawaiiensis (Hawaii scaleseed)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010s
Stenogyne campanulata (Kalalau Valley stenogyne)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009c
Stenogyne kanehoana (Oahu stenogyne)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1998c
Stenogyne purpurea (purplefruit stenogyne)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010o
Streptanthus bracteatus (bracted twistflower)	USA ESA species proposed for listing USA ESA species proposed for listing	Texas	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014n
Synthliboramphus hypoleucus (Xantus' murrelet)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) EN (IUCN red list: Endangered)	Canada; ; California; Oregon	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2012b
Tetramolopium arenarium (Maui tetramolopium)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1996a
Tetramolopium filiforme (ridgetop tetramolopium)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010t
Tetramolopium lepidotum (Waianae Range tetramolopium)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009j
Tetramolopium remyi (Awalua Ridge tetramolopium)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1995a
Tetraplasandra flynnii	National list(s) National list(s); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1995b
Urera kaalae	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Pest and disease transmission	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011m
Urocyon littoralis catalinae (Santa Catalina Island fox)	USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	California	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2004
Verbesina dissita (big-leaved crownbeard)	National list(s) National list(s); USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	California	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010u
Vetericaris chaceorum (anchialine pool shrimp)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013a
Vicia menziesii (Hawaiian vetch)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1984c
Vigna o-wahuensis (Oahu cowpea)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011c
Viola chamissoniana subsp. chamissoniana (pamakani)	USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008j
Wilkesia hobdyi (dwarf iliau)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); National list(s) National list(s); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010j
Zanthoxylum dipetalum var. tomentosum	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009d

Risk and Impact Factors

Top of page Invasiveness

Proved invasive outside its native range
Highly adaptable to different environments
Capable of securing and ingesting a wide range of food

Impact outcomes

Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
Negatively impacts agriculture
Negatively impacts forestry
Negatively impacts animal health
Negatively impacts livelihoods
Reduced native biodiversity
Threat to/ loss of native species

Impact mechanisms

Competition - monopolizing resources
Competition
Pest and disease transmission
Herbivory/grazing/browsing
Interaction with other invasive species
Pathogenic

Uses

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The ability of goat herds to survive in harsh environments has led to their introduction onto many islands, including Saint Helena Island, the Juan Fernandez Islands and Hawaii. They provided food for colonising people (specifically European colonisers and ship crews) (Campbell and Donlan 2005). Fishermen may have spread goats onto new islands, such as San Benitos (Mexico) and Pinta Island and Marchena Island (Galapagos Islands, Ecuador) (Campbell and Donlan 2005).

Goats were domesticated 10,000 years ago in the highlands of western Iran (Zeder and Hesse 2000, in Campbell and Donlan 2005). Goats are used for their fur and meat as well as for milk and cheese production. Goat meat is the most highly consumed meat source in the world. More goat’s milk is consumed than cow’s milk. Angora goats have long soft fur which is utilised to produce a soft silk-like fabric called mohair. In New Zealand, mohair prices are strong (2006) and farm gate returns are good. Although little is known of optimum farm management systems, it is considered that the farming of angora goats could contribute to the positive growth of the economy (Mohair NZ Business Plan 2006). The French are well known for utilising goat products for economic purposes; making cheese and other goat milk products (Canus Undated). Some cosmetic products have claimed to help eczema sufferers (Johnson 2006).

Uses List

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Human food and beverage

Fresh meat
Milk and dairy products

Materials

Skins/leather/fur

Prevention and Control

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Management Information

Original text compiled by IUCN SSC Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG)

Goats have been eradicated from approximately 120 islands and there is hope that native communities will recover rapidly (Hamann 1979, 1993, in Campbell and Donlan 2005). The largest islands on which substantial goat populations have been removed are: Lanai Island (Hawaii), San Clemente (USA), Pinta Island and Santiago Island (Galapagos Islands, Ecuador) and Raoul Island (New Zealand) (Campbell and Donlan 2005; Cruz et al., 2009). In general, goat eradication management for islands larger than 500 hectares requires detailed planning and the use of specialised technology, equipment and personnel. Securing funds for eradication programmes may be an obstacle to goat control (Campbell and Donlan 2005). The recent eradication of feral goats from Santiago Island (58,465 ha) in <5 years cost US$6.1 million, and was achieved with a combination of techniques and technologies (Cruz et al. 2009).

The introduction of modern eradication technology has greatly improved the effectiveness of goat control programmes, making goat eradication more likely. Some control methods include the employment of aerial hunting (helicopter), specially trained goat-hunting dogs, Global Positioning Systems and Geographic Information System techniques as well as sterilised goats marked with radiotelemetry collars, called “Judas goats”, which gravitate to, and therefore detect, wild goat herds. Judas goats are used to find wild herds and are especially suitable for finding the last few survivors or to detect the presence of wild goats when it is uncertain whether they have been eradicated. Hunting dogs are particularly useful in situations when goat density is low and vegetation density is high. Aerial hunting is appropriate in situations where there is less ground cover and a higher density of goats. Eradication is always the better option when compared to short-term control. If short-term control is chosen, goats should be kept at low densities.

Although effective eradication technology is available, Benjamin et al. (2011) demonstrate the potential of strategic water management as a non-lethal technique to protect biodiversity from the impacts of feral goats. In the study area in New South Wales, feral goats were found to remain in close proximity to artificial water points. However, they were able to access and impact upon areas of conservation importance which were nearby to these water points. However, by using fencing, the distance the goats needed to travel from the water points to gain access to conservation areas was increased – this protected biodiversity without eradicating the goat population (although the population was locally reduced). This solution was favourable with local landholders some of whom harvest the feral goats.

Guidelines for managing the impact of feral goats have been developed under the Vertebrate Pest Program (VPP) Australia administered by the Bureau of Resource Sciences (BRS). The purpose of these guidelines is to assist in the development of cost-effective strategies to reduce the damage feral goats cause to production and conservation. Management techniques and strategies for feral goat management are recommended and illustrated by case studies. Deficiencies in knowledge, management and legislation are identified. Please follow this link to view and download Parkes, J., R Henzell & G Pickles, 1995. Managing Vertebrate Pests: Feral Goats

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