Capra hircus (goats)

Pictures

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Picture

Title

Caption

Copyright

Goats grazing in a tree

Capra hircus (goats); goats grazing in an Argan tree (Argania spinosa). Essaouira, Morocco. June 2013.

©Grand Parc - Bordeaux, France/via wikipedia - CC BY 2.0

Female

Capra hircus (goats); female Toggenburg goat from "Zlatusha" farm of the Institute of Animal Science, Kostinbrod, Bulgaria, 1995.

©Nadezhda Petrova

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Capra hircus Linnaeus 1758

Preferred Common Name

goats

Other Scientific Names

Capra aegagrus hircus
Capra indicus

International Common Names

English: billy; goat; kid; kids; nanny
Spanish: cabras
French: chèvres

Local Common Names

Germany: Hausziege; Ziegen
Italy: capre
Portugal: cabras

Summary of Invasiveness

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The goat (Capra hircus) was domesticated 10,000 years ago in the highlands of western Iran. These herbivores have a highly varied diet and are able to utilise a larger number of plant species than other livestock. Goats alter plant communities and forest structure and threaten vulnerable plant species. The reduction of vegetation reduces shelter options for native animals and overgrazing in native communities leads to ecosystem degradation. Feral goats spread disease to native animals. Native fauna on islands are particularly susceptible.

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Metazoa
Phylum: Chordata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Suborder: Ruminantia
Family: Bovidae
Genus: Capra
Species: Capra hircus

Description

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Males weigh between 45 and 55 kilos and females weigh between 25 and 35 kilos. Colouration is highly variable from mostly black, to various shades of brown, and from single-coloured to multi-coloured. Black anterior with brown posterior is a common pattern. Horns are dimorphic, having homonymous spiral and anterior keel. Males are bearded and produce pheromones during the breeding season.

Distribution

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Goats were domesticated 10,000 years ago in the highlands of western Iran. Feral goats are derived from domestic goats, originally native to Asia.

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 10 Feb 2022

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	First Reported	Invasive	Reference	Notes
Africa
Botswana	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Cameroon	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Egypt	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Eritrea	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Ethiopia	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Gambia	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Ghana	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Guinea	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Kenya	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Libya	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Madagascar	Present	Introduced	1860		Seebens et al. (2017)	As: Capra hircus
Malawi	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Mali	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Mauritius	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011) Seebens et al. (2017)
Mayotte	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)
Morocco	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Namibia	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Nigeria	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Réunion	Present	Introduced	1610		Seebens et al. (2017) Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)	As: Capra hircus
Saint Helena	Present	Introduced	1513		Seebens et al. (2017)	As: Capra hircus
-Ascension	Absent, Eradicated				Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011) Seebens et al. (2017)	First reported: <1700
-Tristan da Cunha	Absent, Eradicated				Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011) Seebens et al. (2017)	First reported: <1790, 1942
Senegal	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Seychelles	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011) Seebens et al. (2017)
Somalia	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
South Africa	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Sudan	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Tanzania	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Togo	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Uganda	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Zambia	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Zimbabwe	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Antarctica
French Southern Territories	Absent, Eradicated				Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011) Seebens et al. (2017)	First reported: 1800s
-Crozet Islands	Present	Introduced	1875		Seebens et al. (2017)	As: Capra hircus
Asia
Afghanistan	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Bangladesh	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
China	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
-Beijing	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
-Gansu	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
-Inner Mongolia	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
India	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
-Andhra Pradesh	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
-Assam	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
-Himachal Pradesh	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
-Karnataka	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
-Kerala	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
-Meghalaya	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
-Odisha	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
-Punjab	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
-Rajasthan	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
-Tamil Nadu	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
-Uttar Pradesh	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
-West Bengal	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Indonesia	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Iran	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Iraq	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Israel	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Japan	Present	Introduced	1853		Seebens et al. (2017) CABI Data Mining (2001)	As: Capra hircus
Jordan	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Kuwait	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Malaysia	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Nepal	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Oman	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Pakistan	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Philippines	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Saudi Arabia	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
South Korea	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Sri Lanka	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Taiwan	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Thailand	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Turkey	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
United Arab Emirates	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Vietnam	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Europe
Austria	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Bulgaria	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Croatia	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Cyprus	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Czechia	Present	Introduced	1953		Seebens et al. (2017) CABI Data Mining (2001)	As: Capra hircus
Denmark	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
France	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Germany	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Greece	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011) Seebens et al. (2017)
Hungary	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Ireland	Present	Introduced	1750		Seebens et al. (2017)	As: Capra hircus
Italy	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Malta	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Netherlands	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Norway	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Poland	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Portugal	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
-Azores	Present	Introduced	1960		Seebens et al. (2017)	As: Capra hircus
-Madeira	Present	Introduced	1550		Seebens et al. (2017)	As: Capra hircus
Slovakia	Present	Introduced	1910		Seebens et al. (2017) CABI Data Mining (2001)	As: Capra hircus
Spain	Present	Introduced	1855		Seebens et al. (2017) CABI Data Mining (2001)	As: Capra hircus
-Canary Islands	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011) Seebens et al. (2017)
Switzerland	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
United Kingdom	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
North America
Anguilla	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)
Antigua and Barbuda	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)
Bahamas	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)
Bonaire, Saint Eustatius and Saba
-Bonaire	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011) Seebens et al. (2017)
British Virgin Islands	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)
Canada	Present	Introduced	1850		Seebens et al. (2017) CABI Data Mining (2001)	As: Capra hircus
-British Columbia	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)
Curaçao	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011) Seebens et al. (2017)
Dominican Republic	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)
Guadeloupe	Present	Introduced	1830		Seebens et al. (2017) CABI Data Mining (2001)	As: Capra hircus
Haiti	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)
Jamaica	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)
Martinique	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Mexico	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)
Puerto Rico	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)
Saint Lucia	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Daltry (2009) ISSG (2012)	Invasive on Dennery Island; impacts vegetation and animal habitats
Trinidad and Tobago	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)
Turks and Caicos Islands	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)
U.S. Virgin Islands	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)
United States	Present	Introduced	1650		Seebens et al. (2017) CABI Data Mining (2001)	As: Capra hircus
-Alabama	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
-California	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)	First reported: <1827
-Georgia	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
-Hawaii	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011) Seebens et al. (2017)
-Indiana	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
-Montana	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
-North Carolina	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)	First reported: c. 1800
Oceania
Australia	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011) Seebens et al. (2017)
-Lord Howe Island	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011) Seebens et al. (2017)	First reported: c. 1834
-New South Wales	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
-Tasmania	Absent, Eradicated		1947		Seebens et al. (2017)	As: Capra hircus
Cook Islands	Present	Introduced			Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)
Fiji	Present	Introduced			Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)
French Polynesia	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)
-Marquesas Islands	Present	Introduced			Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)
Guam	Present	Introduced	1705		Seebens et al. (2017)	As: Capra hircus
Kiribati
-Phoenix Islands	Present	Introduced			Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)
New Caledonia	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011) Seebens et al. (2017)
New Zealand	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011) Seebens et al. (2017)
Norfolk Island	Absent, Eradicated				Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011) Seebens et al. (2017)	First reported: >1774
Northern Mariana Islands	Present	Introduced			Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)
Pitcairn	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)	First reported: before 1843
South America
Argentina	Present	Introduced	1700		Seebens et al. (2017) CABI Data Mining (2001)	As: Capra hircus
Bolivia	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Brazil	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
-Ceara	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
-Minas Gerais	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
-Paraiba	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
-Rio de Janeiro	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Chile	Present	Introduced	1574		Seebens et al. (2017) CABI Data Mining (2001)	As: Capra hircus
Ecuador	Present				CABI (Undated)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Galapagos Islands	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)
Falkland Islands	Present, Localized	Introduced	1870	Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011) Seebens et al. (2017)
Venezuela	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)	First reported: c.1500

Habitat

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Goats usually move in herds that roam over territories up to 20km wide. Sometimes herd ranges can be as small as 100m². Males usually wander more widely than females. Grasslands, scrub lands, rocky outcrops and semi-open or open forests are all used extensively by goats as habitat substrate. In bad weather, they may seek shelter under rocky ledges (SPREP, 2000).

Habitat List

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Category	Sub-Category	Habitat	Presence	Status
Terrestrial	Managed	Managed forests, plantations and orchards	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Natural forests	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Natural grasslands	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Scrub / shrublands	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)

Biology and Ecology

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Nutrition
Goats are herbivores and will forage on any palatable plants in their home range. Goats have rather large rumino-reticular volume so they are able to subsist on poorer quality plants than most herbivores, therefore goats can survive and subsist in heavily exploited environments.

In a study conducted by Chimera, Coleman and Parkes (1995) the rumen contents of 49 goats (captured in 1989) were identified and the dry weight of each component was measured to produce a breakdown of the diet of a small, unique remnant population (now extinct) of feral goats on Auckland Island (a Sub-Antarctic island located south of New Zealand). Woody plants and grasses made up the bulk of their diet (41% and 39%, respectively); seaweeds made up 13%, ferns 4% and herbaceous species 3%. At least 40 plant species were eaten by the goats, but just three species made up half of the total: rata (Metrosideros umbellate), snow tussock (Chionochloa Antarctica) and kelp (Durvillea Antarctica). Rata (Metrosideros umbellate), Coprosma foetidissima, Pseudopanax simplex and Carex appressa were the most commonly found species - eaten in at least some quantity by 90%, 80%, 76% and 69% of the goats respectively.

Unidentified grasses composed 21.4% of the total contents (dry weight) and were found in 100% of goats. NB: This population had a unique genetic makeup as it evolved separately for over 100 years on an isolated island with a cold and harsh climate and so it may not represent the dietary preferences of all goats. However, it highlights the huge adaptability of goats and their ability to subsist in particular and inhospitable landscapes.

Reproduction
Both sexes are physiologically capable of reproduction at about 6 months of age. Dominant males fight to win females. They follow a serial pattern and attend to one female after another as they come into oestrus. In one sense this is termed polygyny, as males breed with as many females as they can during a breeding period, but more properly this is serial monogamy as a male will tend a female for extended periods, both before and after copulation and before leaving in search of a different mate.

Realised reproduction varies among populations, seasons and years. At best a typical female goat would produce one young in its first pregnancy and twin kids in subsequent pregnancies. However, most females are at less than optimal condition, which may result in a twinning rate of as little as 0%. At best, herds may produce twins at a rate of 80% or more. Triplets are not uncommon.

Means of Movement and Dispersal

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Introduction pathways to new locations
Other: Goats (Capra hircus) were released as potential food for people marooned by shipwrecks.
Transportation of domesticated animals: Goats (Capra hircus) were introduced to islands for their milk.

Local dispersal methods
Escape from confinement:
Natural dispersal (local):

Pathway Causes

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Cause	Long Distance	Local
Animal production	Yes
Escape from confinement or garden escape		Yes
Food	Yes
Self-propelled		Yes

Impact Summary

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Category	Impact
Biodiversity (generally)	Negative
Environment (generally)	Negative
Livestock production	Negative

Impact

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General Impacts

Original text compiled by IUCN SSC Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG)

Biodiversity on islands is vulnerable to introduced species, and the vegetation tends to lack adaptions to mammalian herbivores (Campbell and Donlan 2005). Unfortunately, goats (Capra hircus) have been established on many islands. Goats alter plant communities and forest structures and threaten vulnerable plant species; the flow-down effect of these outcomes includes increased soil erosion and the reduction of native fauna that share a similar environmental niche (Spatz and Mueller-Dombois 1973, Coblentz 1978, Parkes 1984, Brennan 1986, Coblentz and Van Vuren 1987, Cronk 1989, Walker 1991, Moran 1996, Desender et al. 1999, in Campbell and Donlan 2005). In some island ecosystems it has been the case that goats are the most destructive herbivore present (King, 1985). Feral goats are particularly destructive in such environments and cause a huge loss of native vegetation due to their grazing habits. This leads to ecosystem degradation and biodiversity loss (Coblentz 1978; Schofield 1989; Moran 1996; Desender et al. 1999 in Campbell and Donlan 2005).

Threatened Species

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Threatened Species	Conservation Status	Where Threatened	Mechanism	References
Acrocephalus luscinia (nightingale reed warbler)	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Guam; Northern Mariana Islands	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (1998d)
Adelocosa anops (Kauai cave wolf spider)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2006a)
Bidens amplectens (koko'olau)	VU (IUCN red list: Vulnerable); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2012a)
Bidens campylotheca subsp. waihoiensis (ko`oko`olau)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2013a)
Bidens conjuncta (ko`oko`olau)	VU (IUCN red list: Vulnerable); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2013b)
Bidens micrantha subsp. ctenophylla (ko`oko`olau)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2013a)
Calamagrostis hillebrandii (Hillegrands reedgrass)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2013b)
Canavalia pubescens (jack bean)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2013b)
Cinclodes aricomae	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered)	Peru	Herbivory/grazing/browsing
Cyanea asplenifolia (haha)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); National list(s); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2013b)
Cyanea calycina	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2012a)
Cyanea duvalliorum	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2013b)
Cyanea horrida (prickly cyanea)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2013b)
Cyanea kunthiana (Kunth's cyanea)	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2013b)
Cyanea lanceolata (lanceleaf cyanea)	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2012a)
Cyanea magnicalyx	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); National list(s); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2013b)
Cyanea maritae	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2013b)
Cyanea marksii (Marks' cyanea)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2013a)
Cyanea mauiensis	EX (IUCN red list: Extinct)	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2013b)
Cyanea munroi	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2013b)
Cyanea obtusa (bluntlobe cyanea)	National list(s); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2013b)
Cyanea profuga (Mapulehu Valley cyanea)	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2013b)
Cyanea recta (Kealia cyanea)	National list(s); USA ESA listing as threatened species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (1995b)
Cyanea solanacea (popolo)	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2013b)
Cyclura stejnegeri (Mona Island iguana)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as threatened species	Puerto Rico	Competition - monopolizing resources	US Fish and Wildlife Service (1984a)
Cyrtandra ferripilosa	NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2013b)
Cyrtandra filipes	NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2013b)
Cyrtandra limahuliensis (Limahuli cyrtandra)	NatureServe; USA ESA listing as threatened species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (1995b)
Cyrtandra oxybapha	NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2013b)
Doryopteris takeuchii (Takeuch's lipfern)	NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2012a)
Dracaena forbesii (hala pepe)	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing
Chrysodracon hawaiiensis (hala pepe)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (1998a)
Drosophila aglaia	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	NatureServe (2010)
Drosophila differens (Hawaiian picture-wing fly)	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	NatureServe (2010)
Drosophila digressa	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2013a)
Drosophila hemipeza	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	NatureServe (2010)
Drosophila heteroneura	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	NatureServe (2010)
Drosophila montgomeryi	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	NatureServe (2010)
Drosophila musaphilia	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	NatureServe (2010)
Drosophila ochrobasis	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	NatureServe (2010)
Drosophila substenoptera	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	NatureServe (2010)
Emballonura semicaudata rotensis (Pacific sheath-tailed bat)	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Northern Mariana Islands	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2015a)
Epicrates monensis monensis (Mona boa)	USA ESA listing as threatened species	Puerto Rico	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service (1984b)
Festuca hawaiiensis (Hawai'i fescue)	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2015b)
Festuca molokaiensis	NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2013b)
Gardenia remyi (Remy's gardenia)	VU (IUCN red list: Vulnerable); NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2014a)
Harrisia portoricensis (higo chumbo)	USA ESA listing as threatened species	Puerto Rico	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010m)
Huperzia stemmermanniae (Stemmermann's clubmoss)	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2014b)
Hylaeus assimulans (assimulans yellow-faced bee)	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2014c)
Hylaeus facilis (easy yellow-faced bee)	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2014d)
Hylaeus hilaris (hilaris yellow-faced bee)	USA ESA species proposed for listing	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2014e)
Hylaeus kuakea (Hawaiian yellow-faced bee)	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2014f)
Hylaeus longiceps	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2014g)
Hylaeus mana	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2014h)
Isodendrion longifolium (longleaf isodendrion)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as threatened species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2011f)
Joinvillea ascendens ascendens	NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2014i)
Korthalsella taenioides (Degener's korthal mistletoe)	NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing
Leiolopisma telfairii (Round Island skink)	USA ESA listing as threatened species	Mauritius	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	Madagascar Reptile & Amphibian Specialist Group (1996)
Lobelia monostachya (Waianae Range lobelia)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (1998c)
Lobelia niihauensis (Niihau lobelia)	NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (1998c)
Loxioides bailleui (palila)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2006b)
Melanthera tenuifolia (Waianae Range nehe)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (1998c)
Melanthera venosa (spreading nehe)	NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (1994)
Melanthera waimeaensis (Waimea Canyon nehe)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (1998b)
Melicope christophersenii	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2012a)
Melicope hiiakae	NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2012a)
Melicope makahae	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2012a)
Melicope makahae	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2012a)
Mucuna sloanei var. persericea	NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2013b)
Myrsine linearifolia (narrowleaf colicwood)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); NatureServe; USA ESA listing as threatened species	Hawaii	Competition - monopolizing resources	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2003)
Nothocestrum latifolium (broadleaf aiea)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2013c)
Nothocestrum peltatum (Oahu aiea)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (1995b)
Nototrichium humile (kaala rockwort)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	National Tropical Botanical Garden (2007); US Fish and Wildlife Service (2008c)
Oceanodroma castro (band-rumped storm-petrel)	LC (IUCN red list: Least concern); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Montana	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration
Ochrosia haleakalae (island yellowwood)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2014j)
Ochrosia kilaueaensis (Hawai'i yellowwood)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (1996a)
Oreomystis bairdi (akikiki)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2006b)
Oreomystis mana (Hawaii creeper)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2006b)
Osmoxylon mariannense	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Northern Mariana Islands	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2007)
Ovis ammon (argali)	NT (IUCN red list: Near threatened); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Kyrgyzstan; Mongolia; Tajikistan	Competition - monopolizing resources	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2002)
Ovis canadensis sierrae (Sierra Nevada bighorn sheep)	USA ESA listing as endangered species	California	Pathogenic	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2008h)
Panicum fauriei (Carter's panicgrass)	NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2011g)
Paroreomyza flammea (Molokai creeper)	EX (IUCN red list: Extinct); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2006b)
Partula gibba (humped tree snail)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Guam; Northern Mariana Islands	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2015a)
Partula langfordi (Langford's tree snail)	USA ESA listing as endangered species; CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered)	Northern Mariana Islands	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2015a)
Partula radiolata (Guam tree snail)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Guam	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2015a)
Partulina semicarinata (Lanai tree snail)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2013b)
Partulina variabilis (Lanai tree snail)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2013b)
Peucedanum sandwicense (makou)	NatureServe; USA ESA listing as threatened species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2011d)
Phyllostegia glabra var. lanaiensis (ulihi phyllostegia)	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service (1995a)
Phyllostegia knudsenii (Waimea phyllostegia)	NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2009b)
Phyllostegia mannii (Mann's phyllostegia)	NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2011h)
Phyllostegia mollis (Waianae Range phyllostegia)	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2009f)
Phyllostegia parviflora (smallflower phyllostegia)	NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2008d)
Phyllostegia renovans (red-leaf phyllostegia)	NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010l)
Phyllostegia waimeae (Kauai phyllostegia)	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2008e)
Phyllostegia wawrana (fuzzystem phyllostegia)	NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2009a)
Phytotoma raimondii (Peruvian plantcutter)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Peru	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration
Pittosporum napaliense (royal cheesewood)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010l)
Plantago hawaiensis (Hawai'i plantain)	NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (1996a)
Plantago princeps	NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010n)
Platydesma cornuta var. cornuta	NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2012a)
Platydesma cornuta var. decurrens	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); NatureServe	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2012a)
Platydesma rostrata	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010l)
Poa mannii (Mann's bluegrass)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010b)
Portulaca sclerocarpa	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (1996a)
Pritchardia hardyi (Makaleha pritchardia)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010o)
Pritchardia kaalae (Waianae Range pritchardia)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (1998c); US Fish and Wildlife Service (2008f)
Pritchardia munroi (Kamalo pritchardia)	No Details	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (1996b); US Fish and Wildlife Service (2011b)
Pritchardia napaliensis	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010c)
Pritchardia remota (Remota loula palm)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2011a)
Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. molokaiense (enaena)	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2014k)
Psittirostra psittacea (Ou)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2006b); US Fish and Wildlife Service (2009k)
Psychotria grandiflora (large-flowered balsamo)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010l)
Psychotria hobdyi (Hobdy's wild-coffee)	USA ESA listing as endangered species; USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010l)
Pteralyxia kauaiensis (Kauai pteralyxia)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (1995b); US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010d)
Pteralyxia laurifolia (ridged pteralyxia)	VU (IUCN red list: Vulnerable); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing
Pterodroma sandwichensis	VU (IUCN red list: Vulnerable)	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2011e)
Pteropus mariannus mariannus (Mariana fruit bat)	USA ESA listing as threatened species	Guam; Northern Mariana Islands	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2009e)
Ranunculus hawaiensis (Hawai'ian buttercup)	NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2014l)
Ranunculus mauiensis (Maui buttercup)	NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing
Remya kauaiensis (Kauai remya)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010e)
Remya mauiensis (Maui remya)	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Competition (unspecified)	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2009g)
Remya montgomeryi (Kalalau Valley remya)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010a)
Sanicula mariversa (Waianae Range blacksnakeroot)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service (1998c); US Fish and Wildlife Service (2008g)
Schiedea apokremnos (Kauai schiedea)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010p)
Schiedea haleakalensis (Haleakala schiedea)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2011i)
Schiedea helleri (Kaholuamanu schiedea)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010f)
Schiedea helleri (Kaholuamanu schiedea)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010f)
Schiedea hookeri (sprawling schiedea)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2011j)
Schiedea jacobii (Jacobi's schiedea)	NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2013b)
Schiedea kaalae (Oahu schiedea)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (1998c)
Schiedea kauaiensis (Kauai schiedea)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2008a)
Schiedea kealiae (Waianae Range schiedea)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010g)
Schiedea lydgatei (Kamalo Gulch schiedea)	NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2011k)
Schiedea membranacea	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010h)
Schiedea nuttallii	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (1999); US Fish and Wildlife Service (2009h)
Schiedea pubescens	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2014m)
Schiedea salicaria	National list(s); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2013b)
Schiedea sarmentosa	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2011l)
Schiedea spergulina var. leiopoda	National list(s); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing
Schiedea spergulina var. spergulina	USA ESA listing as threatened species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (1995b)
Schiedea stellarioides	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010i)
Sesbania tomentosa	National list(s); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010q)
Sibara filifolia (Santra Cruz Island Rockcress)	USA ESA listing as endangered species	California	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2006c)
Silene alexandri	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2008i)
Silene hawaiiensis (Hawaii catchfly)	USA ESA listing as threatened species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (1996a)
Silene lanceolata (Kauai catchfly)	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010r)
Solanum incompletum	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2008b)
Solanum sandwicense	National list(s); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2009i)
Spermolepis hawaiiensis (Hawaii scaleseed)	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010s)
Stenogyne campanulata (Kalalau Valley stenogyne)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2009c)
Stenogyne kanehoana (Oahu stenogyne)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (1998c)
Stenogyne purpurea (purplefruit stenogyne)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010o)
Streptanthus bracteatus (bracted twistflower)	USA ESA species proposed for listing	Texas	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2014n)
Synthliboramphus hypoleucus (Xantus' murrelet)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered)	Canada; Mexico; California; Oregon	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2012b)
Tetramolopium arenarium (Maui tetramolopium)	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (1996a)
Tetramolopium filiforme (ridgetop tetramolopium)	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010t)
Tetramolopium lepidotum (Waianae Range tetramolopium)	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2009j)
Tetramolopium remyi (Awalua Ridge tetramolopium)	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (1995a)
Tetraplasandra flynnii	National list(s); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (1995b)
Urera kaalae	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Pest and disease transmission	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2011m)
Urocyon littoralis catalinae (Santa Catalina Island fox)	USA ESA listing as threatened species	California	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2004)
Verbesina dissita (big-leaved crownbeard)	National list(s); USA ESA listing as threatened species	California	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010u)
Vetericaris chaceorum (anchialine pool shrimp)	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2013a)
Vicia menziesii (Hawaiian vetch)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (1984c)
Vigna o-wahuensis (Oahu cowpea)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2011c)
Viola chamissoniana subsp. chamissoniana (pamakani)	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2008j)
Wilkesia hobdyi (dwarf iliau)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); National list(s); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010j)
Zanthoxylum dipetalum var. tomentosum	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Herbivory/grazing/browsing	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2009d)

Risk and Impact Factors

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Invasiveness

Proved invasive outside its native range
Highly adaptable to different environments
Capable of securing and ingesting a wide range of food

Impact outcomes

Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
Negatively impacts agriculture
Negatively impacts forestry
Negatively impacts animal health
Negatively impacts livelihoods
Reduced native biodiversity
Threat to/ loss of native species

Impact mechanisms

Competition - monopolizing resources
Competition (unspecified)
Pest and disease transmission
Herbivory/grazing/browsing
Interaction with other invasive species
Pathogenic

Uses

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The ability of goat herds to survive in harsh environments has led to their introduction onto many islands, including Saint Helena Island, the Juan Fernandez Islands and Hawaii. They provided food for colonising people (specifically European colonisers and ship crews) (Campbell and Donlan 2005). Fishermen may have spread goats onto new islands, such as San Benitos (Mexico) and Pinta Island and Marchena Island (Galapagos Islands, Ecuador) (Campbell and Donlan 2005).

Goats were domesticated 10,000 years ago in the highlands of western Iran (Zeder and Hesse 2000, in Campbell and Donlan 2005). Goats are used for their fur and meat as well as for milk and cheese production. Goat meat is the most highly consumed meat source in the world. More goat’s milk is consumed than cow’s milk. Angora goats have long soft fur which is utilised to produce a soft silk-like fabric called mohair. In New Zealand, mohair prices are strong (2006) and farm gate returns are good. Although little is known of optimum farm management systems, it is considered that the farming of angora goats could contribute to the positive growth of the economy (Mohair NZ Business Plan 2006). The French are well known for utilising goat products for economic purposes; making cheese and other goat milk products (Canus Undated). Some cosmetic products have claimed to help eczema sufferers (Johnson 2006).

Uses List

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Human food and beverage

Fresh meat
Milk and dairy products

Materials

Skins/leather/fur

Prevention and Control

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Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Management Information

Original text compiled by IUCN SSC Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG)

Goats have been eradicated from approximately 120 islands and there is hope that native communities will recover rapidly (Hamann 1979, 1993, in Campbell and Donlan 2005). The largest islands on which substantial goat populations have been removed are: Lanai Island (Hawaii), San Clemente (USA), Pinta Island and Santiago Island (Galapagos Islands, Ecuador) and Raoul Island (New Zealand) (Campbell and Donlan 2005; Cruz et al., 2009). In general, goat eradication management for islands larger than 500 hectares requires detailed planning and the use of specialised technology, equipment and personnel. Securing funds for eradication programmes may be an obstacle to goat control (Campbell and Donlan 2005). The recent eradication of feral goats from Santiago Island (58,465 ha) in <5 years cost US$6.1 million, and was achieved with a combination of techniques and technologies (Cruz et al. 2009).

The introduction of modern eradication technology has greatly improved the effectiveness of goat control programmes, making goat eradication more likely. Some control methods include the employment of aerial hunting (helicopter), specially trained goat-hunting dogs, Global Positioning Systems and Geographic Information System techniques as well as sterilised goats marked with radiotelemetry collars, called “Judas goats”, which gravitate to, and therefore detect, wild goat herds. Judas goats are used to find wild herds and are especially suitable for finding the last few survivors or to detect the presence of wild goats when it is uncertain whether they have been eradicated. Hunting dogs are particularly useful in situations when goat density is low and vegetation density is high. Aerial hunting is appropriate in situations where there is less ground cover and a higher density of goats. Eradication is always the better option when compared to short-term control. If short-term control is chosen, goats should be kept at low densities.

Although effective eradication technology is available, Benjamin et al. (2011) demonstrate the potential of strategic water management as a non-lethal technique to protect biodiversity from the impacts of feral goats. In the study area in New South Wales, feral goats were found to remain in close proximity to artificial water points. However, they were able to access and impact upon areas of conservation importance which were nearby to these water points. However, by using fencing, the distance the goats needed to travel from the water points to gain access to conservation areas was increased – this protected biodiversity without eradicating the goat population (although the population was locally reduced). This solution was favourable with local landholders some of whom harvest the feral goats.

Guidelines for managing the impact of feral goats have been developed under the Vertebrate Pest Program (VPP) Australia administered by the Bureau of Resource Sciences (BRS). The purpose of these guidelines is to assist in the development of cost-effective strategies to reduce the damage feral goats cause to production and conservation. Management techniques and strategies for feral goat management are recommended and illustrated by case studies. Deficiencies in knowledge, management and legislation are identified. Please follow this link to view and download Parkes, J., R Henzell & G Pickles, 1995. Managing Vertebrate Pests: Feral Goats

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US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010. Verbesina dissita (Big-leaved crownbeard). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Verbesina dissita (Big-leaved crownbeard). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.38 pp. https://ecos.fws.gov/docs/five_year_review/doc3559.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011. 5-Year Review, Short Form Summary: Species Reviewed: Pritchardia aylmer-robinsonii (wahane). In: 5-Year Review, Short Form Summary: Species Reviewed: Pritchardia aylmer-robinsonii (wahane) : US Fish and Wildlife Service.9 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011. 5-Year Review, Short Form Summary: Species Reviewed: Pritchardia munroi (lo'ulu). In: 5-Year Review, Short Form Summary: Species Reviewed: Pritchardia munroi (lo'ulu) : US Fish and Wildlife Service.11 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011. 5-Year Review, Short Form Summary: Vigna o-wahuensis (no common name). In: 5-Year Review, Short Form Summary: Vigna o-wahuensis (no common name) : US Fish and Wildlife Service.10 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Listing 23 Species on Oahu as Endangered and Designating Critical Habitat for 124 Species. In: Federal Register , 76(148) : US Fish and Wildlife Service.46362-46593. http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2011-08-02/pdf/2011-17162.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011. Hawaiian Dark-rumped Petrel (Pterodroma phaeopygia sandwichensis). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Hawaiian Dark-rumped Petrel (Pterodroma phaeopygia sandwichensis). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.16 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011. Isodendrion longifolium (aupaka). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Isodendrion longifolium (aupaka). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.28 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/five_year_review/doc3809.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011. Panicum fauriei var. carteri (no common name). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Panicum fauriei var. carteri (no common name). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.17 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011. Phyllostegia mannii (no common name). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Phyllostegia mannii (no common name). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.14 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011. Schiedea haleakalensis (no common name). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Schiedea haleakalensis (no common name). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.17 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011. Schiedea hookeri (no common name). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Schiedea hookeri (no common name). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.20 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011. Schiedea lydgatei (no common name). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Schiedea lydgatei (no common name). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.17 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011. Schiedea sarmentosa (no common name). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Schiedea sarmentosa (no common name). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.14 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011. Urera kaalae (opuhe). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Urera kaalae (opuhe). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation : US Fish and Wildlife Service.19 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2012. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Endangered Status for 23 Species on Oahu and Designation of Critical Habitat for 124 Species; Final Rule. In: Federal Register , 77(181) : US Fish and Wildlife Service.57648-57862. https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2012-09-18/pdf/2012-19561.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2012. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Synthliboramphus hypoleucus. In: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Synthliboramphus hypoleucus : US Fish and Wildlife Service.24 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/candidate/assessments/2012/r8/B098_V01.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Determination of Endangered Species Status for 15 Species on Hawaii Island; Final Rule. In: Federal Register , 78(209) : US Fish and Wildlife Service.64638-64690. https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2013-10-29/pdf/2013-24103.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Determination of Endangered Status for 38 Species on Molokai, Lanai, and Maui; Final Rule. In: Federal Register , 78(102) : US Fish and Wildlife Service.32014-32065. https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2013-05-28/pdf/2013-12105.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Review of Native Species That are Candidates for Listing as Endangered or Threatened; Annual Notice of Findings on Resubmitted Petitions; Annual Description of Progress on Listing Actions. In: Federal Register , 78(226) : US Fish and Wildlife Service.70104-70162. https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2013-11-22/pdf/2013-27391.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Gardenia remyi. In: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Gardenia remyi : US Fish and Wildlife Service.17 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/candidate/assessments/2014/r1/Q33N_P01.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Huperzia (= Phlegmariurus) stemmermanniae. In: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Huperzia (= Phlegmariurus) stemmermanniae : US Fish and Wildlife Service.14 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/candidate/assessments/2014/r1/S02B_P01.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Hylaeus assimulans. In: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Hylaeus assimulans : US Fish and Wildlife Service.33 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/candidate/assessments/2014/r1/I0GQ_I01.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Hylaeus facilis. In: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Hylaeus facilis : US Fish and Wildlife Service.32 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/candidate/assessments/2014/r1/I0GY_I01.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Hylaeus hilaris. In: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Hylaeus hilaris : US Fish and Wildlife Service.31 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/candidate/assessments/2014/r1/I0HT_I01.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Hylaeus kuakea. In: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Hylaeus kuakea : US Fish and Wildlife Service.29 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/candidate/assessments/2014/r1/I0VM_I01.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Hylaeus longiceps. In: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Hylaeus longiceps : US Fish and Wildlife Service.33 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/candidate/assessments/2014/r1/I0HC_I01.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Hylaeus mana. In: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Hylaeus mana : US Fish and Wildlife Service.30 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/candidate/assessments/2014/r1/I0VL_I01.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Joinvillea ascendens ascendens. In: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Joinvillea ascendens ascendens : US Fish and Wildlife Service.22 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/candidate/assessments/2014/r1/Q1XN_P01.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Ochrosia haleakalae. In: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Ochrosia haleakalae : US Fish and Wildlife Service.17 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/candidate/assessments/2014/r1/Q3ES_P01.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. molokaiense. In: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. molokaiense : US Fish and Wildlife Service.13 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/candidate/assessments/2014/r1/Q1WN_P01.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Ranunculus hawaiensis. In: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Ranunculus hawaiensis : US Fish and Wildlife Service.16 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/candidate/assessments/2014/r1/Q38H_P01.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Schiedea pubescens. In: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Schiedea pubescens : US Fish and Wildlife Service.14 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/candidate/assessments/2014/r1/Q2VZ_P01.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Streptanthus bracteatus. In: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species assessment and listing priority assignment form: Streptanthus bracteatus : US Fish and Wildlife Service.24 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/candidate/assessments/2014/r2/Q1R7_P01.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2015. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Endangered Status for 16 Species and Threatened Status for 7 Species in Micronesia. In: Federal Register , 80(190) : US Fish and Wildlife Service.59424-59497. https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2015-10-01/pdf/2015-24443.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2015. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Endangered Status for 49 Species From the Hawaiian Islands. In: Federal Register , 80(189) : US Fish and Wildlife Service.58820-58909. https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2015-09-30/pdf/2015-24305.pdf

Distribution References

CABI Data Mining, 2001. CAB Abstracts Data Mining.,

CABI, Undated. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI

CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI

Daltry JC, 2009. The Status and Management of Saint Lucia's Forest Reptiles and Amphibians. In: SFA 2003/SLU/BIT-04/0711/EMF/LC, Finland: FCG Fauna & Flora. 80 pp. http://www.bananatrustslu.com/index.php?link=doccentre&project=sfa2003

Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG), 2011. Global Invasive Species Database (GISD). In: Global Invasive Species Database (GISD), Auckland, New Zealand: University of Auckland. http://www.issg.org/database

ISSG, 2012. Global Invasive Species Database (GISD). In: Global Invasive Species Database (GISD), Auckland, New Zealand: University of Auckland. http://www.issg.org/database

Seebens H, Blackburn T M, Dyer E E, Genovesi P, Hulme P E, Jeschke J M, Pagad S, Pyšek P, Winter M, Arianoutsou M, Bacher S, Blasius B, Brundu G, Capinha C, Celesti-Grapow L, Dawson W, Dullinger S, Fuentes N, Jäger H, Kartesz J, Kenis M, Kreft H, Kühn I, Lenzner B, Liebhold A, Mosena A (et al), 2017. No saturation in the accumulation of alien species worldwide. Nature Communications. 8 (2), 14435. http://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms14435

Links to Websites

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Website	URL	Comment
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway	https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6	Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list.
Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS)	http://griis.org/	Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list.

Principal Source

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Global Invasive Species Database

Contributors

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Reviewed by: Dr. Bruce Coblentz, Oregon State University, USA.

Compiled by:

Last Modified: Wednesday, September 15, 2010

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Capra hircus (goats)

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