Belonolaimus longicaudatus (sting nematode)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
- Growth Stages
- Symptoms
- List of Symptoms/Signs
- Biology and Ecology
- Natural enemies
- Seedborne Aspects
- Pathway Vectors
- Plant Trade
- Impact
- Detection and Inspection
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Distribution Maps
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Generate reportIdentity
Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Belonolaimus longicaudatus Rau, 1958
Preferred Common Name
- sting nematode
EPPO code
- BELOLO (Belonolaimus longicaudatus)
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Metazoa
- Phylum: Nematoda
- Family: Belonolaimidae
- Genus: Belonolaimus
- Species: Belonolaimus longicaudatus
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageDescription
Top of pageFemale (n=53): L=2.0-3.0 mm; a=55-75; b=7.2-12.6; c=13-21; c'=3.5-6.0; V=46-54; spear=100-140 µm; tail length=115-183 µm; phasmid to terminus=79-129 µm; spear length divided by tail length=0.67-1.14.
Male (n=50): L=2.0-3.0 mm; a=54-76; b=6.3-8.1; c=13-17; spear=107-132 µm; tail length=100-157 µm; phasmid to terminus=74-129 µm; spear length divided by tail length=0.76-1.19; spicule length along chord=38-49 µm; gubernaculum=15-18 µm.
Female (n=136) (after Rau, 1963): L=2.509 (1.986-3.012) mm; V=49 (46-54); spear=127 (115-140) µm; conus=93 (84-102) µm; shaft=34 (28-39) µm; tail length=154 (115-189) µm.
Description (after Orton Williams, 1974)
Female
Lip region hemispherical, divided by lateral, dorsal and ventral grooves into four main lobes, each bearing six or more horizontal striations. Lip region generally set off from body by a deep constriction, although this may be less well marked in some populations. Lateral fields marked by a single incisure extending from the base of the lip region to near the tail terminus. Spear 110-140 µm long, thin, flexible with rounded knobs. When retracted the anterior oesophagus is convoluted. Median bulb well developed with prominent valve plates. Excretory pore posterior to median bulb with hemizonid just anterior to it. Oesophageal glands lobe-like and extending over anterior portion of intestine. Vulva a transverse slit, lips not protruding and located in the mid-region of the body. Vagina with opposing pairs of cuticularized pieces in lateral view. Genital tract amphididelphic, outstretched. Spermathecae present. Tail 115-189 µm long, about five times anal body width long and subcylindroid with a rounded terminus. Hyaline portion 5.9 (4.2-7.8) µm long. Phasmids inconspicuous. Intestine extending almost to tail terminus. Serpentine canals present.
Male
Lip region more flattened at the sides than in the female. Spicules arcuate with ventral flanges; distal ends pointed with small apical notches. Gubernaculum well developed. Bursa enveloping tail.
Distribution
Top of pageDistribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 25 Feb 2021Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Asia |
|||||||
India | |||||||
-Punjab | Present | ||||||
Pakistan | Present | ||||||
Saudi Arabia | Present | ||||||
Turkey | Present | ||||||
North America |
|||||||
Bahamas | Present | ||||||
Bermuda | Present | ||||||
Costa Rica | Present | ||||||
Mexico | Present | ||||||
Puerto Rico | Present | ||||||
United States | Present | ||||||
-Alabama | Present | ||||||
-Arkansas | Present | ||||||
-California | Present | ||||||
-Connecticut | Present, Localized | ||||||
-Delaware | Present | ||||||
-Florida | Present | ||||||
-Georgia | Present | ||||||
-Kansas | Present | ||||||
-Louisiana | Present, Localized | ||||||
-Mississippi | Present | ||||||
-Missouri | Present | ||||||
-Nebraska | Present | ||||||
-New Jersey | Present | ||||||
-North Carolina | Present | ||||||
-Oklahoma | Present, Localized | ||||||
-South Carolina | Present | ||||||
-Texas | Present | ||||||
-Virginia | Present |
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageHabitat
Top of pageHosts/Species Affected
Top of pageHost Plants and Other Plants Affected
Top of pageSymptoms
Top of pageList of Symptoms/Signs
Top of pageSign | Life Stages | Type |
---|---|---|
Leaves / abnormal colours | ||
Roots / galls at tip | ||
Roots / reduced root system | ||
Roots / stubby roots | ||
Whole plant / dwarfing |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageThe existence of physiological races has been demonstrated and these have differing host ranges (Smart and Nguyen, 1991). The presence of the nematode may overcome resistance to Fusarium wilt [Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. vasinfectum] in cotton leading to high crop losses in the field.
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Arthrobotrys amerospora | Predator | |||||
Myrothecium verrucaria | Pathogen | |||||
Pasteuria penetrans | Pathogen |
Plant Trade
Top of pagePlant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transport | Pest stages | Borne internally | Borne externally | Visibility of pest or symptoms |
---|---|---|---|---|
Growing medium accompanying plants | nematodes/adults; nematodes/eggs; nematodes/juveniles | Yes | Pest or symptoms not visible to the naked eye but usually visible under light microscope | |
Roots | nematodes/adults; nematodes/eggs; nematodes/juveniles | Yes | Pest or symptoms not visible to the naked eye but usually visible under light microscope | |
Seedlings/Micropropagated plants | nematodes/adults; nematodes/eggs; nematodes/juveniles | Yes | Pest or symptoms not visible to the naked eye but usually visible under light microscope |
Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport |
---|
Bark |
Bulbs/Tubers/Corms/Rhizomes |
Flowers/Inflorescences/Cones/Calyx |
Fruits (inc. pods) |
Leaves |
Stems (above ground)/Shoots/Trunks/Branches |
True seeds (inc. grain) |
Wood |
Impact
Top of pageDetection and Inspection
Top of pageSimilarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pagePrevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Chemical treatment of soil using liquid or granular nematicides is usually highly effective due to the porous nature of the sandy soils that the nematode favours.
Various non-hosts have been used as cover crops or in rotation to reduce populations of the nematode (Smart and Nguyen, 1991) and organic soil amendments may also have a beneficial effect. Soil solarization has also been tested in strawberry fields (Overman et al., 1987).
Biological control has been attempted: Pasteuria penetrans suppressed B. longicaudatus populations after 1 year (Giblin-Davis, 1990).
References
Top of pageChristie JR, 1959. Plant Nematodes. Their Bionomics and Control. Gainesville, Florida: Agricultural Experimental Station, University of Florida.
Graham TW, 1952. Nematodes as ectoparasites on tobacco, cotton and other plants. Phytopathology, 42:9.
Holdeman QL, 1955. The present known distribution of the sting nematode, Belonolaimus gracilis, in the coastal plain of the southeastern United States. Plant Disease Reporter, 39:5-8.
Hutchinson MT; Reed JB, 1956. The sting nematode, Belonolaimus gracilis, found in New Jersey. Plant Disease Reporter, 40:1049.
Miller LI, 1972. The influence of soil texture on the survival of Belonolaimus longicaudatus. Phytopathology, 62:670-671.
Owens JV, 1950. Sting nematode found hostile toward Virginia peanuts. Peanut J. Nut World, 30:31.
Owens JV, 1951. The pathological effects of Belonolaimus gracilis on peanuts in Virginia. Phytopathology, 41:29.
Perry VG; Rhoades HL, 1982. The genus Belonolaimus. In: Riggs RD, ed. Nematology in the Southern Region of the United States. Southern Cooperative Series Bulletin 276. Fayetville, USA: Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Arkansas, 144-149.
Rau GJ, 1958. A new species of sting nematode. Proceedings of the Helminthological Society of Washington, 25:95-98.
Rau GJ, 1961. Amended description of Belonolaimus gracilis Steiner, 1949 and B. longicaudatus Rau, 1958 (Nematoda: Tylenchida). Proceedings of the Helminthological Society of Washington, 28:198-200.
Rau GJ, 1963. Three new species of Belonolaimus (Nematoda: Tylenchida) with additional data on B. longicaudatus and B. gracilis. Proceedings of the Helminthological Society of Washington, 30:119-128.
Riggs RD, 1961. Sting nematodes in Arkansas. Plant Disease Reporter, 45:392.
Russell CC; Sturgeon RV, 1969. Occurrence of Belonolaimus longicaudatus and Ditylenchus dipsaci in Oklahoma. Phytopathology, 59:118.
Thorne G, 1961. Principles of Nematology. London, UK: McGraw Hill.
Distribution References
CABI, Undated. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Christie JR, 1959. Plant Nematodes. Their Bionomics and Control., Gainesville, Florida, Agricultural Experimental Station, University of Florida.
Graham T W, 1952. Nematodes as ectoparasites on tobacco, cotton and other plants. Phytopathology. 9.
Owens J V, 1950. Sting nematode found hostile toward Virginia peanuts. Peanut J. Nut World. 31.
Perry VG, Rhoades HL, 1982. The genus Belonolaimus. In: Nematology in the Southern Region of the United States. Southern Cooperative Series Bulletin, 276 [ed. by Riggs RD]. Fayetville, USA: Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Arkansas. 144-149.
Riggs RD, 1961. Sting nematodes in Arkansas. In: Plant Disease Reporter, 45 392.
Russell CC, Sturgeon RV, 1969. Occurrence of Belonolaimus longicaudatus and Ditylenchus dipsaci in Oklahoma. In: Phytopathology, 59 118.
Distribution Maps
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