Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm)

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Oviposition

Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm); oviposition - females laying eggs on a wounded steer.

Adults mating

Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm); pair copulating.

Oviposition

Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm); females ovipositing on wounded steer.

Early stage of myiasis

Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm); wound myiasis - early stage of myiasis, with second and early third instar larvae of C.bezziana in a feeding aggregation.

Third instar larvae

Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm); mature third instar larvae in a bovine wound.

Final instar larvae

Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm); larvae evacuating the wound after completing feeding.

Myiais

Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm); myiais of navel of new-born buffalo calf. Papua New Guinea.

Myiasis

Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm); myiasis of bovine scrotum following castration. Papua New Guinea.

Myiasis

Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm); myiasis of sheep's rectum. Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea.

Myiasis

Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm); myiasis of sheep's vulva. Papua New Guinea.

Myiasis

Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm); myiasis of dog. Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea.

Myiasis

Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm); myiasis of a cat (Felis catus). Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea.

Myiasis

Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm); myiasis in human eye orbit.

Infested sheep

Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm); imported Australian sheep with C.bezziana myiasis. Muscat, Sultanate of Oman.

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Chrysomya bezziana Villeneuve, 1914

Preferred Common Name

Old World screw-worm

International Common Names

English: Old World screwworm; Old World Screw-worm fly; screw worm

English acronym

OWS
OWSWF

Summary of Invasiveness

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The first specimens of Chrysomya bezziana were recovered from myiases on cattle hosts in the Congo, Central Africa in 1909 (Rovère, 1910). The endemic distribution of C. bezziana includes much of central Africa from Sierra Leone in the west to Kenya in the east and to northern South Africa, and probably widespread in Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa. In the Middle East, C. bezziana is endemic to Saudi Arabia, Iran, United Arab Emirates and Sultanate of Oman (Spradbery and Kirk, 1992; Spradbery et al., 1992) and has been accidentally introduced to Yemen, as well as Bahrain and Kuwait, the latter two countries through shipments of livestock passing the Gulf of Oman en route to ports in the Persian Gulf (Kloft et al., 1981). In 1996, a major outbreak occurred in Iraq, exacerbated by a lack of veterinary response due to United Nations sanctions on the country prevailing at that time. The only live incursion into Australia by C. bezziana was recorded in 1988, when a number of adult flies were recovered in an electrocutor trap aboard a livestock vessel that had just returned from delivering live cattle to Brunei (Rajapaksa and Spradbery, 1989).

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Metazoa
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: Uniramia
Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera
Family: Calliphoridae
Genus: Chrysomya
Species: Chrysomya bezziana

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

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Globally, there are two Screw-worm fly species, the Old World SWF (OWS) (Chrysomya bezziana) and the New World SWF (NWS) (Cochliomyia hominivorax) (Spradbery, 1994). The genus Chrysomya contains 11 described species, many of which are important in forensic and medical criminal taxonomy (James, 1947). C. bezziana is the only species in the genus of primary medical importance and is distributed in sub-Saharan Africa, Middle East, Indian subcontinent, SE Asia and New Guinea, where the larvae parasitize warm-blooded animals including livestock and humans. Chrysomya bezziana was first described by Professor Mario Bezzi of Turin, based on material collected from cattle in the Belgian Congo (now CDR) who identified them as Chrysomya megacephala, but later they were correctly identified as a new species by Joseph Villeneuve de Janti, and named Chrysomya bezziana, in honour of Professor Bezzi (Villeneuve, 1914).

Diseases Table

Top of page Chrysomya bezziana infestation

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	First Reported	Invasive	Reference	Notes
Asia
Bahrain	Present, few occurrences	Introduced		Invasive	Kloft et al., 1981; Hall et al., 2001
Bangladesh	Present				James, 1947
Cambodia	Present	Native		Invasive	James, 1947
-Fujian	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Hong Kong	Present	Introduced	2000	Invasive	Wardhana et al., 2012b; Ng et al., 2003; Ready et al., 2009
India	Present	Native		Invasive	James, 1947; Norris and Murray, 1964
-Andhra Pradesh	Present	Native		Invasive	Norris and Murray, 1964
-Chhattisgarh	Present	Native		Invasive	Norris and Murray, 1964
-Dadra and Nagar Haveli	Present	Native		Invasive	Norris and Murray, 1964
-Delhi	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Goa	Present	Native		Invasive	J.P. Spradbery, personal observation, 1994
-Haryana	Present				CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Karnataka	Present	Native		Invasive	Norris and Murray, 1964
-Kerala	Present	Native		Invasive	Norris and Murray, 1964
-Madhya Pradesh	Present	Native		Invasive	Norris and Murray, 1964
-Maharashtra	Present	Native			Norris and Murray, 1964
-Odisha	Present	Native		Invasive	Norris and Murray, 1964
-Rajasthan	Present	Native		Invasive	J.P. Spradbery, personal observation, 1994
-Tamil Nadu	Present	Native		Invasive	Norris and Murray, 1964
-West Bengal	Present	Native		Invasive	Norris and Murray, 1964
Indonesia	Present	Native		Invasive	Wardhana et al., 2012b; Norris and Murray, 1964; Wardhana et al., 2014
-Irian Jaya	Present	Native		Invasive	Wardhana et al., 2012b; Norris and Murray, 1964; Wardhana et al., 2014
-Java	Present	Native		Invasive	Wardhana et al., 2012b; Norris and Murray, 1964; Wardhana et al., 2014
-Kalimantan	Present	Native		Invasive	Wardhana et al., 2012b; Wardhana et al., 2014
-Nusa Tenggara	Present	Native		Invasive	Wardhana et al., 2012b; Wardhana et al., 2014
-Sulawesi	Present	Native		Invasive	Wardhana et al., 2012b; Norris and Murray, 1964; Wardhana et al., 2014
-Sumatra	Present	Native		Invasive	Wardhana et al., 2012b; Norris and Murray, 1964; Wardhana et al., 2014
Iran	Present	Native		Invasive	Wardhana et al., 2012b; Hall et al., 2001	Boushehr and Hormozoan Provinces
Iraq	Present	Native		Invasive	Wardhana et al., 2012b; Hall et al., 2001	Basrah, Karbala and Diayala Provinces
Kuwait	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Rajapaksa and Spradbery, 1989; Hall et al., 2001
Laos	Present	Native		Invasive	James, 1947
Malaysia	Present	Native		Invasive	Wardhana et al., 2012b; Norris and Murray, 1964
-Peninsular Malaysia	Present	Native		Invasive	Norris and Murray, 1964
Myanmar	Present	Native		Invasive	James, 1947; Norris and Murray, 1964; Hall et al., 2001
Oman	Present	Native		Invasive	Wardhana et al., 2012b; Spradbery et al., 1992; Hall et al., 2009	Al-Batina, Al-Shargiah and Interior Districts
Pakistan	Present	Native		Invasive	James, 1947; Hall et al., 2001
Philippines	Present	Native		Invasive	James, 1947
Qatar	Present	Native		Invasive	Rajapaksa and Spradbery, 1989
Saudi Arabia	Present			Invasive	Wardhana et al., 2012b; Ansari and Oertley, 1982; Hall et al., 2009	Al-Khari, Al-Muzahimiyah, Al-Ehsaa
Sri Lanka	Present	Native		Invasive	James, 1947
Taiwan	Present	Native		Invasive	Norris and Murray, 1964
Thailand	Present	Native		Invasive	James, 1947
United Arab Emirates	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Spradbery and Kirk, 1992; Hall et al., 2001
Vietnam	Present	Native		Invasive	James, 1947
Yemen	Localised	Introduced		Invasive	Wardhana et al., 2012b; Robinson et al., 2009
Africa
Cameroon	Present	Native		Invasive	Hall et al., 2001
Chad	Present				Hall et al., 2001
Congo	Present	Native		Invasive	James, 1947
Congo Democratic Republic	Present	Native		Invasive	Rovere, 1910; Hall et al., 2014
Côte d'Ivoire	Present	Native		Invasive	James, 1947
Equatorial Guinea	Present	Native		Invasive	James, 1947
Ethiopia	Present	Native		Invasive	Hall et al., 2001	Two localities: Gondar, Yabello
Gambia	Present	Native		Invasive	James, 1947
Guinea	Present	Native		Invasive	James, 1947
Guinea-Bissau	Present	Native		Invasive	Norris and Murray, 1964
Kenya	Present	Native		Invasive	James, 1947
Senegal	Present	Native		Invasive	Norris and Murray, 1964
South Africa	Present	Native		Invasive	Wardhana et al., 2012b; Baker et al., 1968; Hall et al., 2014	East Cape Province
Sudan	Present	Native		Invasive	Hall et al., 2014
Swaziland	Present	Native		Invasive	James, 1947
Tanzania	Present	Native		Invasive	Norris and Murray, 1964; Hall et al., 2014
-Zanzibar	Present	Native		Invasive	James, 1947
Uganda	Present	Native		Invasive	James, 1947
Zambia	Present	Native		Invasive	James, 1947
Zimbabwe	Present	Native		Invasive	Wardhana et al., 2012b; Cuthbertson, 1933; Hall et al., 2001; Hall et al., 2014
Oceania
Australia
-Australian Northern Territory	Absent, intercepted only			Not invasive	Rajapaksa and Spradbery, 1989	Port Darwin,1988
Papua New Guinea	Present	Native			Norris and Murray, 1964; Hall et al., 2001; Spradbery and Tozer, 2013

History of Introduction and Spread

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Chrysomya bezziana was first described from adults reared from larvae collected in cattle myiases in Kitoboli and Dolo, Belgian Congo (now CDR) by Joseph Rovère, a doctor and veterinarian (Villeneuve, 1914). The endemic distribution of C. bezziana includes much of tropical Africa, Arabia and the Middle East, the Indian subcontinent and SE Asia as far east as New Guinea. Introductions are made possible by the movement of host animals. For example, live sheep exports from Australia to Middle East ports resulted in sheep becoming infested at the port of Muscat in the Sultanate of Oman when unloading animals, followed by their subsequent offloading in Bahrain and Kuwait (Kloftet al., 1981). C. bezziana has been recorded in Australia on one occasion when a returning livestock vessel docked at Darwin after delivering cattle to Brunei. An electrocutor trap was set up on board the vessel after it had cleared customs and quarantine and 7 adult C. bezziana were subsequently captured (Rajapaksa and Spradbery, 1989). A passenger aboard a commercial flight from Sri Lanka to Kuala Lumpur in Malaysia was found to have a C. bezziana infestation (Pillai and Ramalingan, 1984). The accidental introduction of C. bezziana to Iraq in 1996 (Abdul Rassoul et al., 1996; Al-Izzi et al., 1999; Hall et al., 2001; Siddig et al., 2005) resulted in its rapid dispersal throughout the Tigris and Euphrates river systems with approximately 60,000 cases reported in livestock and humans within 2 years, with a mortality rate of 1 per cent in livestock (Spradbery and El-Dessouky, 1998).

Introductions

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Introduced to	Introduced from	Year	Reason	Introduced by	Established in wild through		References	Notes
Introduced to	Introduced from	Year	Reason	Introduced by	Natural reproduction	Continuous restocking	References	Notes
Bahrain	Oman	1970s	Animal production (pathway cause)		Yes		Kloft et al. (1981)	Via live sheep exports to Gulf ports from Australia via Oman
Iraq		1996			Yes		Hall et al. (2001); Siddig et al. (2005)
Kuwait	Oman	1970s	Animal production (pathway cause)		Yes		Kloft et al. (1981)	Via live sheep exports to Gulf ports from Australia via Oman
Qatar	Oman	1970s	Animal production (pathway cause)		Yes		Kloft et al. (1981)	Via live sheep exports to Gulf ports from Australia via Oman
Yemen		2007			Yes		Robinson et al. (2009)

Risk of Introduction

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The most likely route for an incursion of Chrysomya bezziana to a new location is via an infested host animal, be it livestock or human. However, adult flies have been intercepted in passenger aircraft and returning livestock vessels arriving in Australian ports (Rajapaksa and Spradbery, 1989). C. bezziana remains present in Bahrain, Kuwait, Iraq and Yemen where it was accidentally introduced, but no further countries have experienced incursions resulting in successful colonization. Australia maintains an official state of awareness and preparedness with respect to a potential C. bezziana incursion (Animal Health Australia AUSVETPLAN, 2007).

Pathogen Characteristics

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Detailed descriptions of life stages and their morphology in C. bezziana and associated species are given in Spradbery (2002a) and geographical races of C. bezziana are described in Wardhana et al. (2012a).

Eggs: The egg is white, 1.25 mm long and 0.26 mm in diameter with a cylindrical shape, rounded at both ends with the anterior end more tapered. The eggs are laid in a mass of three or more layers thick, glued together in parallel, giving the appearance of a shingled roof.

Larvae: 1^st, 2^nd and 3^rd instar larvae are white to cream coloured 1.6 mm, 3.5-5.5 mm and 6.1-15.7 mm long, respectively, with characteristic bands of spines on most segments. The thorn-like spines are black with a single point. Prominent mouth hooks and heavily sclerotized peritreme surrounding the posterior spiracles with three slit-like openings.

Pupae: Colour changes from deep pink to dark brown as the larval skin changes into the puparium shell through sclerotization. Puparia are characterized by their barrel-shape and retaining many of the external morphological characters of the final stage larva such as spines and spiracles.

Adult fly: The adult fly is 8-12 mm in length and green to blue in colour.

Host Animals

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Animal name	Context	Life stage
Bos indicus (zebu)	Domesticated host, Wild host	Cattle & Buffaloes: All Stages
Bos taurus (cattle)	Domesticated host, Wild host	Cattle & Buffaloes: All Stages
Bubalus bubalis (Asian water buffalo)	Domesticated host, Wild host	Cattle & Buffaloes: All Stages
Canis familiaris (dogs)	Domesticated host, Wild host
Capra hircus (goats)	Domesticated host, Wild host	Sheep & Goats: All Stages
Cervidae	Wild host
Elephas maximus
Gallus gallus domesticus (chickens)	Domesticated host	Poultry: Young poultry\|Poultry/Mature female\|Poultry/Cockerel\|Poultry/Mature male
Homo sapiens
Loxodonta africana
Ovis aries (sheep)	Domesticated host, Wild host	Sheep & Goats: All Stages
Panthera leo (lion)
Sus scrofa (pigs)	Domesticated host, Wild host	Pigs: All Stages

List of Symptoms/Signs

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Sign	Life Stages	Type
General Signs / Cyanosis, blue skin or membranes		Sign
General Signs / Inability to stand, downer, prostration		Sign
General Signs / Swelling mass penis, prepuce, testes, scrotum		Sign
Nervous Signs / Dullness, depression, lethargy, depressed, lethargic, listless		Sign
Pain / Discomfort Signs / Skin pain		Sign
Reproductive Signs / Paraphimosis or priapism, inability to retract penis		Sign
Reproductive Signs / Phimosis		Sign
Skin / Integumentary Signs / Alopecia, thinning, shedding, easily epilated, loss of, hair		Sign
Skin / Integumentary Signs / Foul odor skin, smell		Sign
Skin / Integumentary Signs / Parasite visible, skin, hair, feathers		Sign
Skin / Integumentary Signs / Skin erythema, inflammation, redness		Sign
Skin / Integumentary Signs / Skin necrosis, sloughing, gangrene		Sign
Skin / Integumentary Signs / Skin ulcer, erosion, excoriation		Sign
Urinary Signs / Dysuria, difficult urination, stranguria		Sign

Climate

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Climate	Status	Description
A - Tropical/Megathermal climate	Preferred	Average temp. of coolest month > 18°C, > 1500mm precipitation annually
Af - Tropical rainforest climate	Preferred	> 60mm precipitation per month
Am - Tropical monsoon climate	Preferred	Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25]))
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer	Preferred	< 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25])
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate	Preferred	< 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25])
B - Dry (arid and semi-arid)	Tolerated	< 860mm precipitation annually
C - Temperate/Mesothermal climate	Tolerated	Average temp. of coldest month > 0°C and < 18°C, mean warmest month > 10°C

Latitude/Altitude Ranges

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Latitude North (°N)	Latitude South (°S)	Altitude Lower (m)	Altitude Upper (m)
35	27

Notes on Natural Enemies

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A species of Syrphophagus (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), a generalist parasitoid of fly puparia, was accidentally introduced to laboratory cultures of Chrysomya bezziana in Papua New Guinea in 1975 (Spradbery, unpublished observations). No other parasitoids of C. bezziana have been reported. General insect predators such as birds may take adult C. bezziana in the field but no observations have been reported. Rats have been recorded feeding on mature C. bezziana larvae after they dropped from infested cattle (Spradbery, unpublished observations).

Pathway Causes

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Cause	Notes	Long Distance	Local	References
Animal production	Movements of infested humans, stock or wildlife	Yes	Yes	Spradbery, 1994

Pathway Vectors

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Vector	Notes	Long Distance	Local	References
Aircraft	Adults	Yes		Rajapaksa and Spradbery, 1989
Livestock	OWS Larvae via live sheep trade; OWS Adults via returning, empty livestock ships	Yes	Yes	Kloft et al., 1981; Rajapaksa and Spradbery, 1989

Economic Impact

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In Zimbabwe (Rhodesia) Chrysomya bezziana is, with the exception of the tsetse fly, Glossina morsitans, the most important insect pest of cattle, horses, dogs and other domestic animals (Cuthbertson, 1933). When the tick control programme broke down during the 1973-1978 guerilla war in Rhodesia, more than 300,000 livestock were lost, the majority due to C. bezziana infestations (Norval, 1978). C. bezziana is considered a major obstacle to large-scale beef production in Malaysia (Basset and Kadir 1982). The economic impact of the 1996 Iraq incursion included an estimated FAO/AOAD budget at the time of US$8,555,000 to counter the invasion (Spradbery and El-Dessouky, 1998). The cost of a C. bezziana incursion resulting in the establishment of the pest in Australia was estimated as high as $AUD900 million per annum a decade ago (Kwabena Anaman in Spradbery, 2002b). The social impact of livestock production losses is matched by the misery of human infestations caused by C. bezziana, especially among children and the aged and infirm. The adverse impacts on wildlife would also be considerable.

Environmental Impact

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Impact on Habitats

Generally low, if any, measureable adverse impacts on habitat.

Impact on Biodiversity

Because of its wide host range, Chrysomya bezziana is unlikely to have a major impact on biodiversity although, in the United States, the New World Screw-worm fly species killed 80 per cent of fawns of one species of deer, the white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus texanus) in some years (Fuller, 1962). The introduction of livestock breeds naïve for screw-worm fly into endemic areas such as Antipodean sheep to India and Papua New Guinea can be catastrophic for the new arrivals (Basset and Kadir, 1982; Spradbery, unpublished observations).

Risk and Impact Factors

Top of page Invasiveness

Invasive in its native range
Proved invasive outside its native range
Has a broad native range
Is a habitat generalist
Tolerant of shade
Capable of securing and ingesting a wide range of food
Highly mobile locally
Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
Fast growing
Has high reproductive potential

Impact outcomes

Host damage
Negatively impacts agriculture
Negatively impacts human health
Negatively impacts animal health
Negatively impacts livelihoods
Transportation disruption

Impact mechanisms

Parasitism (incl. parasitoid)
Pathogenic

Likelihood of entry/control

Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
Difficult/costly to control

References

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Abdul Rassoul MS; Ali HA; Jassim FA, 1996. Notes on Chrysomya bezziana Villeneuve (Diptera: Calliphoridae), first recorded from Iraq. Bulletin of the Iraq Natural History Museum, 8:113-115.

Al-Izzi MAJ; Al-Taweel AA; Jassim FA, 1999. Epidemiology and rearing of Old World screwworm, Chrysomya bezziana Villeneuve (Diptera: Calliphoridae) in Iraq. Iraqi Journal of Agriculture, 4:153-160.

Animal Health Australia, 2007. Disease Strategy: Screw-worm fly (Version 3). Australian Veterinary Emergency Plan (AUSVETPLAN), Edition 3. Canberra, ACT, Australia: Primary Industries Ministerial Council, 60 pp.

Ansari MA; Oertley RE, 1982. Nasal myiasis due to Bezzi's blowfly (screw worm): case report. Saudi Medical Journal, 3(4):275-278.

Baker JAF; Mchardy WM; Thorburn JA; Thompson GE, 1968. Chrysomya bezziana Villeneuve-some observations on its occurrence and activity in the Eastern Cape Province. South African Veterinary Medical Association, 39:3-11.

Basset CR; Kadir SBA, 1982. The screw-worm fly (Chrysomya bezziana): an obstacle to large-scale beef production in Malaysia. In: Animal production and health in the tropics. Proceedings of the First Asian-Australasian Animal Science Congress, Serdang, 2nd-5th September 1980 [ed. by M.R. Jainudeen\A.R. Omar]. Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia: Universiti Pertanian, 133-135.

Beckett S; Spradbery JP; Urech R; James; P; Green P; Welch M, 2014. Old World Screw-worm Fly: Risk of Entry into Australia and Surveillance Requirements. Report for Animal Health Australia. Canberra, Australia: Animal Health Australia, 192 pp.

Cuthbertson A, 1933. The Habits and Life Histories of some Díptera in Southern Rhodesia. Proceedings and Transactions of the Rhodesia Scientific Association, 32:81-111 pp.

Fuller G, 1962. How screwworm eradication will affect wildlife. The Cattleman, 48:82-84.

Hall MJR; Edge W; Testa JM; Adams ZJO; Ready PD, 2001. Old World screwworm fly, Chrysomya bezziana, occurs as two geographical races. Medical and Veterinary Entomology, 15(4):393-402.

Hall MJR; MacLeod N; Wardhana AH, 2014. Use of wing morphometrics to identify populations of the Old World screwworm fly, Chrysomya bezziana (Diptera: Calliphoridae): a preliminary study of the utility of museum specimens. Acta Tropica, 138(Suppl.):S49-S55. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/0001706X

Hall MJR; Wardhana AH; Shahhosseini G; Adams ZJO; Ready PD, 2009. Genetic diversity of populations of Old World screwworm fly, Chrysomya bezziana, causing traumatic myiasis of livestock in the Gulf region and implications for control by sterile insect technique. Medical and Veterinary Entomology, 23(s1):51-58. http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/loi/mve

Humphrey JD; Spradbery JP; Tozer RS, 1980. Chrysomya bezziana: pathology of old world screw-worm fly infestations in cattle. Experimental Parasitology, 49(3):381-397.

James MT, 1947. The Flies that cause Myiasis in Man. Miscellaneous Publications. United States Department of Agriculture, 631. Washington, D.C., 175 pp.

James P; Wardhana A; Brown G; Urech R, 2014. Chemical containment and eradication of screw-worm incursions in Australia. Report to Meat and Livestock Australia. Sydney, Australia: Meat and Livestock Australia, 37 pp.

James PJ; Green PE; Urech R; Spradbery JP, 2005. Chemicals for control of the Old World screw-worm fly Chrysomya bezziana in Australia. Report to Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry. Canberra, Australia: Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry, 40 pp.

Jarrett S; Morgan JAT; Wlodek BM; Brown GW; Urech R; Green PE; Lew-Tabor AE, 2010. Specific detection of the Old World screwworm fly, Chrysomya bezziana, in bulk fly trap catches using real-time PCR. Medical and Veterinary Entomology, 24(3):227-235. http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/loi/mve

Kloft WJ; Noll GF; Kloft ES, 1981. Introduction of Chrysomya bezziana Villeneuve (Dipt., Calliphoridae) into new geographical regions by "transit infestation". (Durch "Transitbefall" bewirkte Einschleppung von Chrysomya bezziana Villeneuve (Dipt., Calliphoridae) in neue geographische Regionen.) Mitteilungen der Deutschen Gesellschaft fur Allgemeine und Angewandte Entomologie, 3(1/3):151-154.

Mahon RJ, 2002. The Malaysian project - entomological report. In: Proceedings of the Screw-worm Fly Emergency Preparedness Conference, Canberra, Australia, November 2001., Australia: Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry - Australia, 140-151.

Ng KH; Yip KT; Choi CH; Yeung KH; Auyeung TW; Tsang AC; Chow L; Que TL, 2003. A case of oral myiasis due to Chrysomya bezziana. Hong Kong Medical Journal, 9:454-456.

Norris KR; Murray MD, 1964. Notes on the screw-worm fly Chrysomya bezziana (Diptera: Calliphoridae) as a pest of cattle in Papua New Guinea. CSIRO Division of Entomology Technical Paper No. 6. Melbourne, Australia: CSIRO, 26 pp.

Norval RAI, 1978. The effects of partial breakdown of dipping in African areas in Rhodesia. Rhodesian Veterinary Journal, 9(1/4):9-16.

OIE Handistatus, 2002. World Animal Health Publication and Handistatus II (dataset for 2001). Paris, France: Office International des Epizooties.

OIE Handistatus, 2003. World Animal Health Publication and Handistatus II (dataset for 2002). Paris, France: Office International des Epizooties.

OIE Handistatus, 2004. World Animal Health Publication and Handistatus II (data set for 2003). Paris, France: Office International des Epizooties.

OIE Handistatus, 2005. World Animal Health Publication and Handistatus II (data set for 2004). Paris, France: Office International des Epizooties.

OIE, 2009. World Animal Health Information Database - Version: 1.4. World Animal Health Information Database. Paris, France: World Organisation for Animal Health. http://www.oie.int

Pillai JS; Ramalingan S, 1984. Recent introductions of some medically important Diptera in the Northwest, Central, and South Pacific (including New Zealand). In: Commerce and the spread of pests and disease vectors [ed. by Laird, M.]. New York: Praeger Publishers, USA 81-101.

Rajapaksa N; Spradbery JP, 1989. Occurrence of the Old World screw-worm fly Chrysomya bezziana on livestock vessels and commercial aircraft. Australian Veterinary Journal, 66(3):94-96.

Ready PD; Testa JM; Wardhana AH; Al-Izzi M; Khalaj M; Hall MJR, 2009. Phylogeography and recent emergence of the Old World screwworm fly, Chrysomya bezziana, based on mitochondrial and nuclear gene sequences. Medical and Veterinary Entomology, 23(s1):43-50. http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/loi/mve

Robinson AS; Vreysen MJB; Hendrichs J; Feldmann U, 2009. Enabling technologies to improve area-wide integrated pest management programmes for the control of screwworms. Medical and Veterinary Entomology, 23(s1):1-7. http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/loi/mve

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21/07/15 Original text by:

Dr J. Philip Spradbery, XCS Consulting Pty Ltd, GPO Box 2566, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia.

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Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm)

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