Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm)

Pictures

Picture	Title	Caption	Copyright
Title Oviposition Caption Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm); oviposition - females laying eggs on a wounded steer. Copyright ©Dr J. Philip Spradbery-All Rights Reserved	Oviposition	Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm); oviposition - females laying eggs on a wounded steer.	©Dr J. Philip Spradbery-All Rights Reserved
Title Adults mating Caption Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm); pair copulating. Copyright ©Dr J. Philip Spradbery-All Rights Reserved	Adults mating	Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm); pair copulating.	©Dr J. Philip Spradbery-All Rights Reserved
Title Oviposition Caption Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm); females ovipositing on wounded steer. Copyright ©Dr J. Philip Spradbery-All Rights Reserved	Oviposition	Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm); females ovipositing on wounded steer.	©Dr J. Philip Spradbery-All Rights Reserved
Title Early stage of myiasis Caption Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm); wound myiasis - early stage of myiasis, with second and early third instar larvae of C.bezziana in a feeding aggregation. Copyright ©Dr J. Philip Spradbery-All Rights Reserved	Early stage of myiasis	Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm); wound myiasis - early stage of myiasis, with second and early third instar larvae of C.bezziana in a feeding aggregation.	©Dr J. Philip Spradbery-All Rights Reserved
Title Third instar larvae Caption Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm); mature third instar larvae in a bovine wound. Copyright ©Dr J. Philip Spradbery-All Rights Reserved	Third instar larvae	Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm); mature third instar larvae in a bovine wound.	©Dr J. Philip Spradbery-All Rights Reserved
Title Final instar larvae Caption Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm); larvae evacuating the wound after completing feeding. Copyright ©DrJ. Philip Spradbery-All Rights Reserved	Final instar larvae	Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm); larvae evacuating the wound after completing feeding.	©DrJ. Philip Spradbery-All Rights Reserved
Title Myiais Caption Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm); myiais of navel of new-born buffalo calf. Papua New Guinea. Copyright ©Dr J. Philip Spradbery-All Rights Reserved	Myiais	Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm); myiais of navel of new-born buffalo calf. Papua New Guinea.	©Dr J. Philip Spradbery-All Rights Reserved
Title Myiasis Caption Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm); myiasis of bovine scrotum following castration. Papua New Guinea. Copyright ©Dr J. Philip Spradbery-All Rights Reserved	Myiasis	Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm); myiasis of bovine scrotum following castration. Papua New Guinea.	©Dr J. Philip Spradbery-All Rights Reserved
Title Myiasis Caption Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm); myiasis of sheep's rectum. Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea. Copyright ©Dr J. Philip Spradbery-All Rights Reserved	Myiasis	Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm); myiasis of sheep's rectum. Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea.	©Dr J. Philip Spradbery-All Rights Reserved
Title Myiasis Caption Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm); myiasis of sheep's vulva. Papua New Guinea. Copyright ©Dr J. Philip Spradbery-All Rights Reserved	Myiasis	Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm); myiasis of sheep's vulva. Papua New Guinea.	©Dr J. Philip Spradbery-All Rights Reserved
Title Myiasis Caption Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm); myiasis of dog. Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea. Copyright ©Dr D.P.A. Sands-All Rights Reserved	Myiasis	Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm); myiasis of dog. Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea.	©Dr D.P.A. Sands-All Rights Reserved
Title Myiasis Caption Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm); myiasis of a cat (Felis catus). Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea. Copyright ©Dr J. Philip Spradbery-All Rights Reserved	Myiasis	Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm); myiasis of a cat (Felis catus). Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea.	©Dr J. Philip Spradbery-All Rights Reserved
Title Myiasis Caption Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm); myiasis in human eye orbit. Copyright ©Dr John Niblett-All Rights Reserved	Myiasis	Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm); myiasis in human eye orbit.	©Dr John Niblett-All Rights Reserved
Title Infested sheep Caption Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm); imported Australian sheep with C.bezziana myiasis. Muscat, Sultanate of Oman. Copyright ©Dr J. Philip Spradbery-All Rights Reserved	Infested sheep	Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screw-worm); imported Australian sheep with C.bezziana myiasis. Muscat, Sultanate of Oman.	©Dr J. Philip Spradbery-All Rights Reserved

Identity

Preferred Scientific Name

• Chrysomya bezziana Villeneuve, 1914

Preferred Common Name

• Old World screw-worm

International Common Names

• English: Old World screwworm; Old World Screw-worm fly; screw worm

English acronym

• OWS
• OWSWF

Summary of Invasiveness

The first specimens of Chrysomya bezziana were recovered from myiases on cattle hosts in the Congo, Central Africa in 1909 (Rovère, 1910). The endemic distribution of C. bezziana includes much of central Africa from Sierra Leone in the west to Kenya in the east and to northern South Africa, and probably widespread in Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa. In the Middle East, C. bezziana is endemic to Saudi Arabia, Iran, United Arab Emirates and Sultanate of Oman (Spradbery and Kirk, 1992; Spradbery et al., 1992) and has been accidentally introduced to Yemen, as well as Bahrain and Kuwait, the latter two countries through shipments of livestock passing the Gulf of Oman en route to ports in the Persian Gulf (Kloft et al., 1981). In 1996, a major outbreak occurred in Iraq, exacerbated by a lack of veterinary response due to United Nations sanctions on the country prevailing at that time. The only live incursion into Australia by C. bezziana was recorded in 1988, when a number of adult flies were recovered in an electrocutor trap aboard a livestock vessel that had just returned from delivering live cattle to Brunei (Rajapaksa and Spradbery, 1989).

Taxonomic Tree

• Domain: Eukaryota
•     Kingdom: Metazoa
•         Phylum: Arthropoda
•             Subphylum: Uniramia
•                 Class: Insecta
•                     Order: Diptera
•                         Family: Calliphoridae
•                             Genus: Chrysomya
•                                 Species: Chrysomya bezziana

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Globally, there are two Screw-worm fly species, the Old World SWF (OWS) (Chrysomya bezziana) and the New World SWF (NWS) (Cochliomyia hominivorax) (Spradbery, 1994). The genus Chrysomya contains 11 described species, many of which are important in forensic and medical criminal taxonomy (James, 1947). C. bezziana is the only species in the genus of primary medical importance and is distributed in sub-Saharan Africa, Middle East, Indian subcontinent, SE Asia and New Guinea, where the larvae parasitize warm-blooded animals including livestock and humans. Chrysomya bezziana was first described by Professor Mario Bezzi of Turin, based on material collected from cattle in the Belgian Congo (now CDR) who identified them as Chrysomya megacephala, but later they were correctly identified as a new species by Joseph Villeneuve de Janti, and named Chrysomya bezziana, in honour of Professor Bezzi (Villeneuve, 1914).

Diseases Table

Distribution Table

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

History of Introduction and Spread

Chrysomya bezziana was first described from adults reared from larvae collected in cattle myiases in Kitoboli and Dolo, Belgian Congo (now CDR) by Joseph Rovère, a doctor and veterinarian (Villeneuve, 1914). The endemic distribution of C. bezziana includes much of tropical Africa, Arabia and the Middle East, the Indian subcontinent and SE Asia as far east as New Guinea. Introductions are made possible by the movement of host animals. For example, live sheep exports from Australia to Middle East ports resulted in sheep becoming infested at the port of Muscat in the Sultanate of Oman when unloading animals, followed by their subsequent offloading in Bahrain and Kuwait (Kloftet al., 1981). C. bezziana has been recorded in Australia on one occasion when a returning livestock vessel docked at Darwin after delivering cattle to Brunei. An electrocutor trap was set up on board the vessel after it had cleared customs and quarantine and 7 adult C. bezziana were subsequently captured (Rajapaksa and Spradbery, 1989). A passenger aboard a commercial flight from Sri Lanka to Kuala Lumpur in Malaysia was found to have a C. bezziana infestation (Pillai and Ramalingan, 1984). The accidental introduction of C. bezziana to Iraq in 1996 (Abdul Rassoul et al., 1996; Al-Izzi et al., 1999; Hall et al., 2001; Siddig et al., 2005) resulted in its rapid dispersal throughout the Tigris and Euphrates river systems with approximately 60,000 cases reported in livestock and humans within 2 years, with a mortality rate of 1 per cent in livestock (Spradbery and El-Dessouky, 1998).

Introductions

Risk of Introduction

The most likely route for an incursion of Chrysomya bezziana to a new location is via an infested host animal, be it livestock or human. However, adult flies have been intercepted in passenger aircraft and returning livestock vessels arriving in Australian ports (Rajapaksa and Spradbery, 1989). C. bezziana remains present in Bahrain, Kuwait, Iraq and Yemen where it was accidentally introduced, but no further countries have experienced incursions resulting in successful colonization. Australia maintains an official state of awareness and preparedness with respect to a potential C. bezziana incursion (Animal Health Australia AUSVETPLAN, 2007).

Pathogen Characteristics

Detailed descriptions of life stages and their morphology in C. bezziana and associated species are given in Spradbery (2002a) and geographical races of C. bezziana are described in Wardhana et al. (2012a).

Eggs: The egg is white, 1.25 mm long and 0.26 mm in diameter with a cylindrical shape, rounded at both ends with the anterior end more tapered. The eggs are laid in a mass of three or more layers thick, glued together in parallel, giving the appearance of a shingled roof.

Larvae: 1^st, 2^nd and 3^rd instar larvae are white to cream coloured 1.6 mm, 3.5-5.5 mm and 6.1-15.7 mm long, respectively, with characteristic bands of spines on most segments. The thorn-like spines are black with a single point. Prominent mouth hooks and heavily sclerotized peritreme surrounding the posterior spiracles with three slit-like openings.

Pupae: Colour changes from deep pink to dark brown as the larval skin changes into the puparium shell through sclerotization. Puparia are characterized by their barrel-shape and retaining many of the external morphological characters of the final stage larva such as spines and spiracles.

Adult fly: The adult fly is 8-12 mm in length and green to blue in colour.

Host Animals

List of Symptoms/Signs

Climate

Latitude/Altitude Ranges

Notes on Natural Enemies

A species of Syrphophagus (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), a generalist parasitoid of fly puparia, was accidentally introduced to laboratory cultures of Chrysomya bezziana in Papua New Guinea in 1975 (Spradbery, unpublished observations). No other parasitoids of C. bezziana have been reported. General insect predators such as birds may take adult C. bezziana in the field but no observations have been reported. Rats have been recorded feeding on mature C. bezziana larvae after they dropped from infested cattle (Spradbery, unpublished observations).

Pathway Causes

Pathway Vectors

Economic Impact

In Zimbabwe (Rhodesia) Chrysomya bezziana is, with the exception of the tsetse fly, Glossina morsitans, the most important insect pest of cattle, horses, dogs and other domestic animals (Cuthbertson, 1933). When the tick control programme broke down during the 1973-1978 guerilla war in Rhodesia, more than 300,000 livestock were lost, the majority due to C. bezziana infestations (Norval, 1978). C. bezziana is considered a major obstacle to large-scale beef production in Malaysia (Basset and Kadir 1982). The economic impact of the 1996 Iraq incursion included an estimated FAO/AOAD budget at the time of US$8,555,000 to counter the invasion (Spradbery and El-Dessouky, 1998). The cost of a C. bezziana incursion resulting in the establishment of the pest in Australia was estimated as high as $AUD900 million per annum a decade ago (Kwabena Anaman in Spradbery, 2002b). The social impact of livestock production losses is matched by the misery of human infestations caused by C. bezziana, especially among children and the aged and infirm. The adverse impacts on wildlife would also be considerable.

Environmental Impact

Impact on Habitats

Generally low, if any, measureable adverse impacts on habitat.

Impact on Biodiversity

Because of its wide host range, Chrysomya bezziana is unlikely to have a major impact on biodiversity although, in the United States, the New World Screw-worm fly species killed 80 per cent of fawns of one species of deer, the white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus texanus) in some years (Fuller, 1962). The introduction of livestock breeds naïve for screw-worm fly into endemic areas such as Antipodean sheep to India and Papua New Guinea can be catastrophic for the new arrivals (Basset and Kadir, 1982; Spradbery, unpublished observations).

Risk and Impact Factors

• Invasive in its native range
• Proved invasive outside its native range
• Has a broad native range
• Is a habitat generalist
• Tolerant of shade
• Capable of securing and ingesting a wide range of food
• Highly mobile locally
• Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
• Fast growing
• Has high reproductive potential

• Host damage
• Negatively impacts agriculture
• Negatively impacts human health
• Negatively impacts animal health
• Negatively impacts livelihoods
• Transportation disruption

• Parasitism (incl. parasitoid)
• Pathogenic

• Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
• Difficult/costly to control

References

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Contributors

21/07/15 Original text by:

Dr J. Philip Spradbery, XCS Consulting Pty Ltd, GPO Box 2566, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia.

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