Banana streak disease

Pictures

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Picture

Title

Caption

Copyright

Symptoms on leaf

Chlorotic streak symptoms of BSV in leaf of cultivar Mysore.

©David Jones

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Banana streak disease

Other Scientific Names

banana streak badnavirus
Banana streak GF virus
Banana streak Mysore virus
Banana streak OL virus

International Common Names

French: mosaïque en tirets du bananier

English acronym

BSGFV
BSMyV
BSOLV

EPPO code

BSV000 (Banana streak badnavirus)

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Virus
Group: "DNA and RNA reverse transcribing viruses"
Family: Caulimoviridae
Genus: Badnavirus
Species: Banana streak disease

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

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Banana streak disease (BSD) was for 20 years or so considered to be caused by variable isolates of a single virus, designated Banana streak virus (Lockhart, 1986). However, it has been known for over a decade that some 'isolates' that cause the disease differ biologically, serologically and genomically (e.g., Lockhart and Olszewski, 1993; Geering et al., 2000; Harper et al., 2004). More recently it has been demonstrated that 15 such isolates in Uganda differ sufficiently in genome sequence to justify their recognition as distinct virus species (Harper et al., 2005). The International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses has so far recognized Banana streak GF virus (BSGFV), Banana streak Mysore virus (BSMyV) and Banana streak OL virus (BSOLV) as distinct viruses (Geering et al., 2005; Hull et al., 2005). This is a complex disease situation; this description, therefore, refers to all the related viruses that induce BSD. All are species of the Badnavirus genus, one of six genera included in the Caulimoviridae family (Hull et al., 2005). The name of the genus is an acronym of BAcilliform DNA VIRUSes.

Description

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Viruses causing banana streak disease (BSD) have non-enveloped, bacilliform particles measuring ca 130-150 x 30 nm and containing a circular dsDNA genome of 7.4 kb (Lockhart, 1986). The particles occur in vivo randomly or in large groups in cytoplasm, but not in inclusion bodies or in membrane-bound structures. A number of serologically and phenotypically distinct, naturally occurring virus isolates that caused BSD were previously identified, and some of these have recently been shown to be similar but distinct viruses and named Banana streak GF virus, Banana streak Mysore virus and Banana streak OL virus (Geering et al., 2005; Hull et al., 2005).

Distribution

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Banana Streak Disease (BSD) has a very wide geographical distribution; its cause was for long unrecognized as its symptoms were often mistaken for those of Cucumber mosaic virus and the causal viruses were not recognized until the first was purified and characterized by Lockhart (1986). As banana has long been cultivated in all countries in which BSD occurs, and the disease has probably occurred for much longer than 50 years (Wardlaw, 1961), the causal viruses are now probably best considered as native to these countries.

In Taiwan, Su (1997) first reported the disease on cv. Mysore in the greenhouse of the Taiwan Banana Research Institute. The disease had spread in the nearby area and The Bureau of Animal and Plant Health Inspection and Quarantine (BAPHIQ) responded by eradicating infected plants between 1997 and 1999. The disease has not been found in banana plantations in Taiwan since the eradication through a monitoring programme conducted by Dr Su.

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 12 May 2022

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	Invasive	Reference	Notes
Africa
Benin	Present	Native	Invasive	Diekmann and Putter (1996)
Cabo Verde	Present	Native	Invasive	Diekmann and Putter (1996)
Cameroon	Present	Native	Invasive	Diekmann and Putter (1996) Gauhl et al. (1999)
Côte d'Ivoire	Present, Widespread	Native	Invasive	Diekmann and Putter (1996) EPPO (2022) CABI (Undated)
Egypt	Present, Localized			EPPO (2022)
Ghana	Present	Native	Invasive	Diekmann and Putter (1996)
Guinea	Present	Native	Invasive	Diekmann and Putter (1996)
Kenya	Present	Native	Invasive	Diekmann and Putter (1996)
Madagascar	Present	Native	Invasive	Diekmann and Putter (1996)
Malawi	Present	Native	Invasive	Diekmann and Putter (1996)
Mauritius	Present	Native	Invasive	Diekmann and Putter (1996)
Morocco	Present, Widespread	Native	Invasive	Diekmann and Putter (1996) EPPO (2022)
Nigeria	Present	Native	Invasive	Diekmann and Putter (1996) Dahal et al. (2000) Dahal et al. (2000a) Agindotan et al. (2003)
Rwanda	Present, Widespread	Native	Invasive	Diekmann and Putter (1996) EPPO (2022)
South Africa	Present	Native	Invasive	Diekmann and Putter (1996) Dahal et al. (2000a)
Tanzania	Present, Localized	Native	Invasive	Sebasigari and Stover (1988) Diekmann and Putter (1996) EPPO (2022)
-Zanzibar Island	Present, Localized			Sebasigari and Stover (1988)
Uganda	Present	Native	Invasive	Diekmann and Putter (1996) Kubiriba et al. (2001) Harper et al. (2002) Harper et al. (2004)
Asia
China	Present	Native	Invasive	Diekmann and Putter (1996) Rao XueQin et al. (2005)
India	Present	Native	Invasive	Diekmann and Putter (1996)
-Karnataka	Present			Cherian et al. (2004)
-Kerala	Present			Cherian et al. (2004)
Indonesia	Present			Diekmann and Putter (1996) Davis et al. (2000) Furuya et al. (2012)
Jordan	Present, Widespread			EPPO (2022)
Malaysia	Present	Native	Invasive	Diekmann and Putter (1996)
Philippines	Present	Native	Invasive	Diekmann and Putter (1996)
Sri Lanka	Present	Native	Invasive	Diekmann and Putter (1996)
Taiwan	Absent, Eradicated			Su et al. (1997) EPPO (2022)
Thailand	Present	Native	Invasive	Diekmann and Putter (1996)
Europe
Portugal	Present			CABI (Undated a)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Madeira	Present	Native	Invasive	Diekmann and Putter (1996)
Spain	Absent, Unconfirmed presence record(s)			EPPO (2022)
-Canary Islands	Absent, Unconfirmed presence record(s)			Diekmann and Putter (1996) EPPO (2022)
North America
Costa Rica	Present	Native	Invasive	Diekmann and Putter (1996) Pasberg-Gauhl and Lockhart (2000)
Cuba	Present	Native	Invasive	Diekmann and Putter (1996) Hernández et al. (2002)
Grenada	Present	Native	Invasive	Diekmann and Putter (1996)
Guadeloupe	Present	Native	Invasive	Diekmann and Putter (1996)
Haiti	Present	Native	Invasive	Lockhart and Jones (1999)
Honduras	Present	Native	Invasive	Diekmann and Putter (1996)
Jamaica	Present	Native	Invasive	Diekmann and Putter (1996)
Nicaragua	Present	Native	Invasive	Lockhart and Jones (1999)
Puerto Rico	Present	Native	Invasive	Lockhart and Jones (1999)
Saint Lucia	Present	Native	Invasive	Lockhart and Jones (1999)
Trinidad and Tobago	Present	Native	Invasive	Diekmann and Putter (1996)
U.S. Virgin Islands	Present	Native	Invasive	Diekmann and Putter (1996)
United States	Present			CABI (Undated a) EPPO (2022)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Florida	Present			Diekmann and Putter (1996)
-Georgia	Present			Waliullah et al. (2020) EPPO (2022)
Oceania
Australia	Present	Native	Invasive	Thomas et al. (1994) Diekmann and Putter (1996) Geering et al. (2000) Daniells et al. (2001)
New Caledonia	Present	Native	Invasive	Diekmann and Putter (1996)
Papua New Guinea	Present	Native	Invasive	Diekmann and Putter (1996) Davis et al. (2000)
Samoa	Present	Native	Invasive	Thomas et al. (1994) Diekmann and Putter (1996) EPPO (2022)
Tonga	Present			Thomas et al. (1994) Lockhart and Jones (1999)
South America
Brazil	Present	Native	Invasive	Diekmann and Putter (1996) Brioso et al. (2000)
Colombia	Present	Native	Invasive	Diekmann and Putter (1996)
Ecuador	Present	Native	Invasive	Diekmann and Putter (1996)
Peru	Present			Pasberg-Gauhl et al. (2007)
Venezuela	Present	Native	Invasive	Diekmann and Putter (1996) Garrido et al. (2004) Garrido et al. (2005)

Risk of Introduction

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BSV has been found in many banana-producing countries. However, in some, such as Ecuador, it seems to be spreading and causing considerable damage, whereas in others it is rarely seen and then only in one or two cultivars. Differences may be related to the causal virus isolate or vector activity or both. Until more is known about the viruses causing BSD, it would be prudent to prevent movement of the virus between countries in Musa germplasm. Such viruses can be carried in tissue culture without symptoms so extreme care must be taken. Only tissue cultures derived from meristems from quarantined and indexed plants should be permitted to move across borders. Even then, because stresses caused by tissue culturing may initiate episomal virus, care must be taken.

Research is being conducted at the University of Gembloux in Belgium to find methods of eradicating virus from infected banana clones.

Hosts/Species Affected

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Banana cultivars derived from M. acuminata and banana and plantain cultivars derived from crosses between M. acuminata and M. balbisiana are the main hosts of Banana streak viruses (BSV). Isolates of Sugarcane bacilliform virus, which is very closely related serologically to that infecting banana (Lockhart and Autry, 1988), will infect banana and induce symptoms of banana streak, but the virus froim banana has not been successfully transferred from banana to sugarcane (Lockhart, 1995).

Ensete has been infected with BSV (Diekmann and Putter, 1996). A badnavirus causing streak symptoms in Ensete ventricosum (enset) in Ethiopia (Tessera and Quimio, 1999) is also probably a strain of BSV (Lockhart and Jones, 1999).

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

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Plant name	Family	Context	References
Heliconia	Heliconiaceae	Unknown
Musa (banana)	Musaceae	Main	Pasberg-Gauhl et al. (2007)

Growth Stages

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Flowering stage, Fruiting stage, Vegetative growing stage

Symptoms

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Symptom expression varies depending on the isolate of the pathogen, the host cultivar and the environment and can vary from an inconspicuous flecking to lethal necrosis. However, the most common symptoms are narrow, discontinuous and sometimes continuous chlorotic or yellow streaks that run from the leaf midrib to the margin. In some cases, spindle or eye-shaped patterns are present. Yellow blotches have also been associated with banana streak. Symptoms can be sparse or concentrated. Sometimes the lamina can be distorted. Streaks later darken to orange and often become brown or black. Necrosis has also been seen on the midrib and petiole. Necrosis occurs more under low temperature, short-day conditions (Lockhart and Jones, 1999).

A characteristic of infection is the periodicity of symptom expression in leaves. Plants may not show streak symptoms in all leaves and, for several months at a time, emerging leaves may be symptomless or show only slight symptoms. Symptom expression seems to be associated with the change of seasons and fluctuating temperatures may play a role (Dahal et al., 1998a, 2000a,b). The intensity of symptoms has been associated with the concentration of virus in the tissue; the higher the virus concentration, the more severe the symptoms (Dahal et al., 1998b). Plants with BSD may appear symptomless at some stage in their growth cycle as leaves with symptoms are shed and new leaves appear without symptoms due to factors discussed above. Some infected land races show no symptoms even under fluctuating environmental conditions (Dahal et al., 1998a).

Other symptoms associated with BSD are stunting, cigar leaf necrosis, internal necrosis of the pseudostem, a reduction in bunch size, incomplete emergence of bunches and bunches emerging through the side of the pseudostem. Occasionally, dark streak symptoms may be visible on the pseudostem and fingers may be distorted (Lockhart and Jones, 1999).

In Australia, broad yellow lines in the leaf lamina parallel to the midrib, leaf twisting, grooves in the base of the pseudostem and an abnormal arrangement of leaves similar to the traveller's palm (Ravenala madagascariensis) have also been associated with banana streak disease in 'Williams' (AAA, Cavendish subgroup) (Daniells et al., 1998).

Three phases of symptom expression have been recognized in commercial Cavendish plantations in Ecuador. The first is the appearance of chlorotic streaks in leaves, the second is the appearance of dark blotches on the pseudostem and midrib and the third is the splitting of the outer leaf sheaths of the pseudostem sometimes as far up as the petiole. This allows entry of a bacterium that cause a soft rot of the base of the pseudostem. If the plant produces a bunch, peel splitting and necrotic spot and streak symptoms can appear on fruit. Similar symptoms have been seen on 'Grand Nain' (AAA, Cavendish subgroup) in Costa Rica (Lockhart and Jones, 1999).

In the state of Tamil Nadu in India, leaf and aberrant bunch formation symptoms are common on 'Poovan' and seem to increase in severity with the number of crop cycles (DR Jones, Montpellier, France, 1995, personal communication; Thiribhuvanamala and Sabitha Doraisamy, 2001).

List of Symptoms/Signs

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Sign	Life Stages	Type
Fruit / abnormal shape
Fruit / discoloration
Fruit / lesions: black or brown
Fruit / reduced size
Leaves / abnormal colours
Leaves / abnormal forms
Leaves / necrotic areas
Stems / dieback
Stems / internal discoloration
Whole plant / dwarfing

Biology and Ecology

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Before it was shown that virus isolates causing BSD were better considered as separate virus species (Geering et al., 2005; Hull et al., 2005), it was known that they differed biologically, serologically and genomically (Lockhart and Olszewski, 1993; Lockhart and Jones, 1999; Geering et al., 2000). The range of isolates or species that induce BSD has in the past created practical problems for reliable detection and diagnosis.

It has been shown that genomic sequences are integrated into the genomic DNA of Musa and Ensete. Virus-related sequences have been found in more than 400 Musa genotypes by PCR amplification (LaFleur et al., 1996; Geering et al., 2001; Harper et al., 2002). While all Musa genotypes appear to contain integrated viral sequences, the nature of these sequences is variable. Of two such integrated sequences that have been characterized, one is incapable of giving rise to episomal BSV infection. There is good evidence, however, that a second integrated sequence is the source of de novo episomal BSV infection in banana including a significant number of tetraploid hybrids which have been bred for improved yield and disease resistance. The development of episomal infection from integrated viral sequences is linked to in vitro propagation and possibly other stress factors (Krikorian et al., 1999; Ndowora et al., 1999).

Expressible virus integrants have been found in Musa balbisiana and some AAB, ABB and AAAB clones. However, they were not been found in AA or AAA clones tested indicating that de novo synthesis may only occur in cultivars/bred hybrids with the B genome (BEL Lockhart, Minnesota, USA, 1999, personal communication). A distinct virus or strain which was first isolated and characterized from an IITA plantain hybrid ('TMPx 4698') bred in Nigeria (Harper and Hull, 1998), is believed to be the product of these expressible virus integrants (BEL Lockhart, Minnesota, USA, 1999, personal communication).

Means of Movement and Dispersal

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Transmission

Attempts to transmit the causal viruses by mechanical inoculation using abrasives have been unsuccessful. The virus, therefore, is unlikely to be transmitted on cutting tools or during cultural operations. It is also not soil-borne (Lockhart and Jones, 1999).

However, like some other badnaviruses, those causing BSD are transmitted from infected to healthy plants by mealybugs (Hemiptera; Pseudococcidae). The virus is transmitted in a semi-persistent manner from banana to banana by the citrus mealybug (Planococcus citri) and an unidentified Pseudococcus sp. (Lockhart and Jones, 1999), and, in screenhouse experiments, by the pineapple mealybug (Dysmicoccus brevipes) and the pink sugarcane mealybug (Saccharicoccus sacchari) (Kubiriba et al., 2001 a,b). The virus does not multiply in the insect vectors and is not transmitted transovarially. Banana and plantain are hosts of a range of mealybug species (Watson and Kubiriba, 2005). Although all possible vectors have not yet been determined, 20 species and 14 genera of mealybugs infest banana and plantain in Africa and probably elsewhere (Watson and Kubiriba, 2005); it is possible that other mealybug species, such as Planococcus musae in Nigeria and Pseudococcus comstocki in Ecuador may also be vectors. The pink sugarcane mealybug, S. sacchari, transmits Sugarcane bacilliform virus from sugarcane to banana (Lockhart and Autry, 1991). In many tropical areas, such as Tamil Nadu in India, sugarcane is grown in close proximity to banana and transmission from the former to the latter may occasionally occur in nature. The pattern of field spread of BSD in Uganda has been reported by Kuririba et al. (2001b).

Observations in many countries suggest that the spread of the causal virus from plant to plant by mealybug vectors may be limited in occurrence. However, mealybugs are common on banana in some locations, such as in Ecuador where the high incidence of infection in commercial plantations may be a result of vector dissemination (Lockhart and Jones, 1999).

Seedborne spread

Studies in Australia with Banana streak Mysore virus have shown that the virus is seedborne (Daniells et al., 1995). Other viruses that induce BSD may also be so transmitted.

Long distance dissemination

The principal means of long-distance dissemination is in vegetative planting material, such as suckers or tissue cultures. Viruses inducing BSD cause systemic infection. All tissue cultures derived from meristems excised from diseased plants have been found to carry BSV (Lockhart and Jones, 1999).

Seedborne Aspects

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Pathogen Transmission

Studies in Australia with Banana streak Mysore virus (BSMyV) have shown that the virus is seedborne (Daniells et al., 1995). Interestingly, leaf striping in plants of the subgroup Mysore was originally thought to be a genetic trait because the symptom was transferred to progeny in breeding experiments in Trinidad (Wardlaw, 1961). However, it is now known that many clones in the Mysore subgroup are infected with BSMyV because stripe symptoms typical of the virus are often seen in this cultivar. Therefore, the most logical explanation for the above report is that the virus was carried through seed to the progeny.

Vectors and Intermediate Hosts

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Vector	Source	Reference	Group	Distribution
Planococcus citri			Insect

Impact

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In Côte d'Ivoire, yield losses in 'Poyo' (AAA, Cavendish subgroup) over two cycles varied between 7% on plants with mild BSD symptoms to 90% on plants with severe symptoms (Lassoudière, 1974). The intensity of symptoms may be related to virus concentrations in plants; if concentrations are high at the time of flowering and fruit filling, yield losses can be expected to be high (BEL Lockhart, Minneapolis, USA, 1994, personal communication).

In Nigeria and Rwanda, internal necrosis results in plant death. BSD symptoms have been seen on plants in just over half the villages surveyed in southern Nigeria and southern Cameroon with incidence ranging from 0.5 to 17% (Gauhl et al., 1999a, b).

In India, yield losses from infected 'Poovan' (AAB, syn. 'Mysore') are thought to be very high in the third crop cycle when bunches can 'choke' on emergence or emerge through the side of the pseudostem. As a consequence, 'Poovan' plantations need to be replanted every 3 years.

In plantations of Cavendish cultivars in Costa Rica and Ecuador, BSD results in severe symptoms on fruit, which makes them unmarketable. In addition, the virus causes the pseudostem to split resulting in a bacterial infection that eventually kills the plant. Drastic methods, which can include the destruction of all plants in a 50 m², are sometimes taken in an effort to control the disease in export plantations in Ecuador (Lockhart and Jones, 1999).

Actual yield losses in some banana and plantain cultvars will be difficult to assess because clones seem to be universally affected. Symptoms of BSD can be seen at some time on almost all 'Mysore' and 'Cuerno' (AAB, Plantain subgroup) plants. Most accessions of plantain in the in vitro germplasm collection at the INIBAP Transit Centre at Leuven, Belgium, have indexed positive for a virus causing BSD (I Van den Houwe, Leuven, Belgium, 1999, personal communication). This may reflect the widespread occurrence of BSV in plantain cultivars. In Australia, infection can result in an 18 day delay in harvest and a 6% loss of yield annually (Daniells et al., 2001).

Diagnosis

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The detection of BSD by symptoms alone is unreliable as symptomless infections can occur (Dahal et al., 1998, 2000a,b) and any of several viruses may be involved (see Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature). Tests need to be undertaken to determine if plants are infected and to identify the causal virus.

The ability of several viruses to cause BSD, has posed the most serious obstacle to the reliable detection of the virus in infected tissue. Serological heterogeneity has made it difficult to develop routine virus indexing protocols capable of detecting the complete range of virus isolates (Lockhart and Olszewski, 1993). A significant improvement in detection by ELISA was achieved by developing assay protocols using polyclonal antibodies produced in two different animal species (Ndowora, 1998), or using monoclonal antibodies in assays (Agindotan et al., 2003). In spite of marked improvements in the reliability of virus detection by ELISA, there remain isolates or viruses that are detected weakly or not at all if heterologous antisera are used. However, these and all other strains or viruses can be detected by immunosorbent electron microscopy (ISEM) using partially purified leaf-tissue extracts (Bouhida et al., 1993; Ndowora and Lockhart, 2000; Garrido et al., 2005). Unfortunately, this is expensive and laborious and requires specialised equipment and skills (Lockhart and Jones, 1999).

Genome-based methods of virus detection (EG nucleic acid hybridization, PCR amplification), which are potentially highly sensitive, are seriously compromised by both genomic heterogeneity among viruses inducing BSD and the occurrence of integrated virus sequences in the Musa genome (LaFleur et al., 1996; Ndowora et al., 1999). However, the use of IC-PCR (Thottapilly et al., 1997; Harper et al., 1999, 2002b; Cherian et al., 2004; Garrido et al., 2005; Rao et al., 2005) avoids false positives due to integrated viral sequences and is a potential tool in diagnosing infection.

Detection and Inspection

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If possible, plants should be grown under cool or fluctuating temperatures. The leaves should be inspected for chlorotic or necrotic streak or fleck symptoms. Not all leaves may show symptoms; often streaks are only seen on one or two leaves on an infected plant. Incomplete bunch emergence or bunches emerging through the pseudostem also suggest that the plant may be virus infected.

Plants may be symptomless (see Symptoms) and tests need to be undertaken to determine if the virus is present or absent (see Diagnostic Methods).

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

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Chlorotic and yellow streak symptoms of BSD can easily be mistaken for those induced by Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV). However, whereas CMV symptoms occur on the leaf midrib, this is not the case with BSV. Discontinuous or continuous necrotic streaks in leaves, where found, usually indicate that the disease is caused by a BSV, although some strains of CMV can also cause leaf necrosis. Internal necrosis of the pseudostem can be caused by a BSV or by severe strains of CMV.

Many isolates of BSV and Sugarcane bacilliform virus are serologically related (Lockhart and Olszewski, 1993).

Prevention and Control

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Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Infected plants should be destroyed and replaced with virus-tested plants. Although such plants are usually obtained by meristem tip culture (e.g., Helliot et al., 2001; Hernandez et al., 2002; Rao et al., 2005), they are also obtainable by using cryopreservation (Helliot et al., 2002) or by treating micro-plants with acyclic nucleoside phosphonate analogues such as adefovir or tenovir (Helliot et al., 2003a). Only tissue cultures derived from meristems from virus-tested plants should move internationally and be mass multiplied. Even then, care must be taken because of the possible de novo synthesis of the virus in tissue culture.

Mealybug vectors should be controlled if virus incidence is high and the disease appears to be spreading from plant to plant. The virus is unlikely to be spread on cutting tools or by mechanical means.

In Ecuador, where banana streak is a serious problem in some commercial Cavendish plantations, plants with symptoms are quickly destroyed after spraying with insecticide in an effort to contain the outbreak. If 10 plants with symptoms are seen in a 50 m² area, then all plants in that area are destroyed. However, these practices have failed to stop spread and more drastic action is being considered (Lockhart and Jones, 1999).

References

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Agindotan BO; Thottappilly G; Uwaifo A; Winter S, 2003. Production of monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies against a Nigerian isolate of banana streak virus. African Journal of Biotechnology, 2(7): 171-178.

Bouhida M; Lockhart BEL; Olszewski NE, 1993. An analysis of the complete sequence of a sugarcane bacilliform virus genome infectious to banana and rice. Journal of General Virology, 74(1):15-22

Brioso PST; Cordeiro ZJM; Rezende JAM; Kitajima EW; Pimentel JP; Figueiredo AR, 2000. Mixed infection by cucumber mosaic (CMV) and banana streak (BSV) viruses in banana in Brazil. Summa Phytopathologica, 26(2):254-257; 19 ref.

Cherian AK; Baranwal VK; Malathi VG; Pant RP; Ahlawat YS, 2004. Banana streak virus from India and its detection by polymerase chain reaction. Indian Journal of Biotechnology, 3(3): 409-413.

Dahal G; Hughes Jd'A; Gauhl F; Pasberg-Gauhl C; Nokoe KS, 2000. Symptomatology and development of banana streak, a disease caused by banana streak badnavirus, under natural conditions in Ibadan, Nigeria. Acta Horticulturae, No. 540:361-375; 18 ref.

Dahal G; Hughes Jd'A; Thottappilly G; Lockhart BEL, 1998. Effect of temperature on symptom expression and reliability of banana streak badnavirus detection in naturally infected plantain and banana (Musa spp.). Plant Disease, 82(1):16-21; 24 ref.

Dahal G; Ortiz R; Tenkouano A; Hughes Jd'A; Thottappilly G; Vuylsteke D; Lockhart BEL, 2000. Relationship between natural occurrence of banana streak badnavirus and symptom expression, relative concentration of viral antigen, and yield characteristics of some micropropagated Musa spp. Plant Pathology, 49(1):68-79; 51 ref.

Dahal G; Pasberg-Gauhl C; Gauhl F; Thottappilly G; Hughes Jd'A, 1998. Studies on a Nigerian isolate of banana streak badnavirus: II. Effect of intraplant variation on virus accumulation and reliability of diagnosis by ELISA. Annals of Applied Biology, 132(2):263-275; 19 ref.

Daniells J; Geering A; Thomas J, 1998. Bananstreak virus investigations in Australia. Infomusa, 7(2):20-21.

Daniells J; Thomas JE; Smith M, 1995. Seed transmission of banana streak virus confirmed. Infomusa, 4(1):7

Daniells JW; Geering ADW; Bryde NJ; Thomas JE, 2001. The effect of Banana streak virus on the growth and yield of dessert bananas in tropical Australia. Annals of Applied Biology, 139(1):51-60; 21 ref.

Davis RI; Geering ADW; Thomas JE; Gunua TG; Rahamma S, 2000. First records of banana streak virus on the island of New Guinea. Australasian Plant Pathology, 29(4):281; 3 ref.

Diekmann M; Putter CAJ, 1996. FAO/IPGRI technical guidelines for the safe movement of germplasm No. 15: Musa spp. FAO/IPGRI technical guidelines for the safe movement of germplasm No. 15: ^italic~Musa^roman~ spp., 26 pp.; many ref.

EPPO, 2014. PQR database. Paris, France: European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization. http://www.eppo.int/DATABASES/pqr/pqr.htm

Furuya N; Suastika G; Natsuaki KT, 2012. First report and molecular characterization of exogenous banana steak Mysore virus from banana in Indonesia. Asian Journal of Plant Pathology, 6(2):41-47. http://scialert.net/fulltext/?doi=ajppaj.2012.41.47&org=10

Garrido MJ; Ordosgoitti A; Lockhart BEL, 2004. Presence of banana streak virus ol in dessert bananas in Maracay, Venezuela. Journal of Plant Pathology, 86(3): 263.

Garrido MJ; Ordosgoitti A; Lockhart BEL, 2005. Occurrence of banana streak virus in Venezuela. Interciencia, 30(2): 97-101.

Gauhl F; Pasberg-Gauhl C; Bopda-Waffo A; Hughes Jd'A; Chen JS, 1999. Occurrence of banana streak badnavirus on plantain and banana in 45 villages in southern Cameroon, Central Africa. Zeitschrift fu^umlaut~r Pflanzenkrankheiten und Pflanzenschutz, 106(2):174-180; 17 ref.

Gauhl F; Pasberg-Gauhl C; Lockhart BEL; Hughes J d'A; Dahal G, 1999. Incidence and distribution of banana streak badnavirus in the plantain production region of southern Nigeria. International Journal of Pest Management, 44:167-171.

Geering A DW; Olszewski NE; Harper G; Lockhart BEL; Hull R; Thomas JE, 2005. Banana contains a diverse array of endogenous badnaviruses. Journal of General Virology, 86(2): 511-520.

Geering ADW; McMichael LA; Dietzgen RG; Thomas JE, 2000. Genetic diversity among banana streak virus isolates from Australia. Phytopathology, 90(8):921-927; 35 ref.

Geering ADW; Olszewski NE; Dahal G; Thomas JE; Lockhart BEL, 2001. Analysis of the distribution and structure of integrated Banana streak virus DNA in a range of Musa cultivars. Molecular Plant Pathology, 2(4):207-213; 18 ref.

Harper G; Dahal G; Thottappilly G; Hull R, 1999. Detection of episomal banana streak badnavirus by IC-PCR. Journal of Virological Methods, 79(1):1-8; 28 ref.

Harper G; Hart D; Moult S; Hull R, 2002. Detection of banana streak virus in field samples of bananas from Uganda. Annals of Applied Biology, 141(3):247-257; 36 ref.

Harper G; Hart D; Moult S; Hull R, 2004. Banana streak virus is very diverse in Uganda. Virus Research, 100(1): 51-56.

Harper G; Hart D; Moult S; Hull R; Geering A; Thomas J, 2005. The diversity of banana streak virus isolates in Uganda. Archives of Virology, 150: 2407-2420.

Harper G; Hull R, 1998. Cloning and sequence analysis of banana streak virus DNA. Virus Genes, 17(3):271-278; 27 ref.

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Distribution References

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Thomas JE, McMichael LA, Dietzgen RG, Searle C, Matalevea S, Osasa A, 1994. Banana strak virus in Australia, Western Samoa and Tonga. In: International Society of Sugar Cane Technologists, 4th Sugar Cane Pathology Workshop, Brisbane, Australia, 40.

Waliullah S, Fonsah E G, Ji P, Ali M E, 2020. First report of banana streak virus infecting bananas (Musa spp.) in Georgia, U.S.A. Plant Disease. 104 (4), 1261-1261. DOI:10.1094/PDIS-09-19-1931-PDN

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