Cissus verticillata (possum grape vine)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
- Growth Stages
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Rainfall Regime
- Soil Tolerances
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Economic Impact
- Environmental Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Cissus verticillata (L.) Nicolson & C.E.Jarvis
Preferred Common Name
- possum grape vine
Other Scientific Names
- Cissus albonitens Linden & André
- Cissus andraeana Planch.
- Cissus argentea Linden
- Cissus blumeana Steud.
- Cissus canescens Lam.
- Cissus compressicaulis Ruiz & Pav.
- Cissus cordifolia L.
- Cissus digitinervis Ram.Goyena
- Cissus elliptica Schltdl. & Cham.
- Cissus endresii H.J.Veitch
- Cissus glauca Thwaites
- Cissus gonavensis Urb. & Ekman
- Cissus haitiensis Urb. & Ekman
- Cissus lamarckiana Schult. & Schult.f.
- Cissus latifolia Descourt.
- Cissus lindenii André
- Cissus nitida Vell.
- Cissus obscura DC.
- Cissus obtusata Benth.
- Cissus officinalis Klotzsch
- Cissus ovata Lam.
- Cissus oxyodon Planch.
- Cissus plumeri Planch.
- Cissus puncticulosa Rich.
- Cissus reticulata Willd. ex Roem. & Schult.
- Cissus sicyoides L.
- Cissus smilacina Kunth
- Cissus tamoides Cambess.
- Cissus tucumana Suess.
- Cissus umbrosa Kunth
- Cissus venatorum Descourt.
- Irsiola sicyoides (L.) Raf.
- Phoradendron verticillatum (L.) Druce
- Spondylantha aphylla C. Presl
- Viscum verticillatum L.
- Vitis albonitens (Linden & André) G. Nicholson
- Vitis elliptica (Schltdl. & Cham.) Hemsl.
- Vitis lindenii (André) G. Nicholson
- Vitis sicyoides (L.) Miq.
International Common Names
- English: curtain ivy; millionaire vine; princess vine; season vine; tropical grape vine
- Spanish: bejuco de agua; bejuco loco; bejuco picamano; come mano; pica pica; picamano; sanalo todo; uvita
Local Common Names
- Argentina: cortina del cielo
- Costa Rica: bejuco yazú
- Dominican Republic: vinagrillo; bejuco caro; bejuco de parra; caro
- Haiti: feuilles cotaire; herbe à ulcéres; liane minguet; liane molle
- Lesser Antilles: godmort; liane-à-chasseurs; lianeà-eau; liane-brulante; liane-corde; liane-douce; liane-molle; pudding bush; snake vine
- Mexico: tripa de vaca; tripa de zopilote
- Peru: uvilla de culebra
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageCissus verticillata is a large, climbing species cultivated as an ornamental and medicinal plant around the world. It is native to Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean. Once established, C. verticillata grows climbing over the top of the canopy and supporting itself by means of coiled tendrils, or scrambling over the ground. It is common to find this species engulfing entire trees. If the plant is cut, the remaining branches and stems can develop aerial roots that will find their way to the ground, regenerating new. C. verticillata is regarded as a weed in areas within and outside its native distribution range. It was reported in the Lower Rio Grande Valley in Texas in 2003 and may pose a potential weed problem in the citrus groves there and in Florida.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Rhamnales
- Family: Vitaceae
- Genus: Cissus
- Species: Cissus verticillata
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageThe family Vitaceae comprises 17 genera and about 955 species of lianas, vines, and rarely shrubs distributed in tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate regions of the world. Within the Vitaceae, the genus Cissus is the most diverse with about 350 species (Lombardi, 2017; Stevens, 2017). Cissus verticillata is a highly variable species and classifications recognizing up to 4 subspecies based on differences among size and form of the leaves and the inflorescences have been proposed (Lombardi, 2000; Lombardi, 2015). Some of the information cited here is for the species C. sicyoides; although some authors still maintain C. sicyoides as a distinct species, the majority of more recent works treat it as a synonym of C. verticillata (Useful Tropical Plants, 2020).
Description
Top of pageThe following is based on the description by Acevedo-Rodríguez (2005): Large vine, that climbs by means of tendrils and attains more than 10 m in length. Stems fleshy, with abundant watery latex, cylindrical when young, flattened when mature, attaining 5 cm in diameter, the nodes swollen. Leaves alternate, coriaceous, ovate, 5-12 × 3.8-6.5 cm, the apex acute or rounded, the base cordiform, the margins revolute, denticulate; upper surface green, shiny; lower surface green, dull, with prominent venation; petioles 2-5 cm long, sulcate; stipules 2.5-3.5 mm long, auriculate; tendrils opposite the leaves, simple or bifurcate, up to 25 cm long, twisting in the form of a spiral. Inflorescences of compound cymes that are borne opposite the leaves; pedicels ca. 3 mm long, yellowish green or reddish. Calyx yellowish green or reddish, 0.7-1 mm long; petals 4, yellowish or pink, oblong-lanceolate, 2-2.5 mm long, deciduous; disc annular, yellow, 0.5-0.8 mm high. Fruits globose, fleshy, 0.7-1 cm in diameter, shiny, dark violet or black, with one or two seeds inside.
Distribution
Top of pageCissus verticillata is native to the Americas, from Florida and Mexico to Argentina and Chile including the West Indies (Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2012; USDA-ARS, 2020). It has been introduced and can be found naturalized in Bangladesh, Texas, Hawaii and the Cook Islands (French et al., 2003; PIER, 2020; POWO, 2020). In the Bahamas, this species is listed as both native (Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2012) and an alien invasive (Smith, 2010).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 17 Dec 2021Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Asia |
|||||||
Bangladesh | Present | Introduced | |||||
North America |
|||||||
Anguilla | Present | Native | |||||
Antigua and Barbuda | Present | Native | |||||
Aruba | Present | Native | |||||
Bahamas | Present | Sources differ as to whether it is native or introduced. Cited as Cissus sicyoides where listed as introduced and invasive | |||||
Barbados | Present | Native | |||||
Belize | Present | Native | |||||
Bermuda | Present | Native | Listed as Cissus sicyoides | ||||
Bonaire, Saint Eustatius and Saba | |||||||
-Bonaire | Present | Native | |||||
-Saba | Present | Native | |||||
-Sint Eustatius | Present | Native | |||||
British Virgin Islands | Present | Native | Anegada, Guana, Tortola, Virgin Gorda | ||||
Cayman Islands | Present | Native | |||||
Costa Rica | Present | Native | |||||
Cuba | Present | Native | Listed (as Cissus sicyoides) as a weed in citrus groves | ||||
Curaçao | Present | Native | |||||
Dominica | Present | Native | |||||
Dominican Republic | Present | Native | |||||
El Salvador | Present | Native | |||||
Grenada | Present | Native | |||||
Guadeloupe | Present | Native | |||||
Guatemala | Present | Native | |||||
Haiti | Present | Native | |||||
Honduras | Present | Native | |||||
Jamaica | Present | Native | |||||
Martinique | Present | Native | |||||
Mexico | Present | Native | San Luis Potosi, Sinaloa, Sonora, Tamaulipas, Campeche, Chiapas, Colima, Guerrero, Hidalgo, Jalisco, Mexico, Michoacan, Morelos, Nayarit, Oaxaca, Puebla, Veracruz, Yucatan | ||||
Montserrat | Present | Native | |||||
Netherlands Antilles | Present | Native | |||||
Nicaragua | Present | Native | |||||
Panama | Present | Native | |||||
Puerto Rico | Present | Native | |||||
Saint Kitts and Nevis | Present | Native | |||||
Saint Lucia | Present | Native | |||||
Saint Martin | Present | Native | |||||
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | Present | Native | |||||
Sint Maarten | Present | Native | |||||
Trinidad and Tobago | Present | Native | |||||
U.S. Virgin Islands | Present | Native | |||||
United States | Present | ||||||
-Florida | Present | Native | |||||
-Hawaii | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Texas | Present | Introduced | Cited as Cissus sicyoides. Listed as a potentially exotic pest | ||||
Oceania |
|||||||
Cook Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
South America |
|||||||
Argentina | Present | Native | |||||
Bolivia | Present | Native | |||||
Brazil | Present | Native | |||||
-Acre | Present | Native | |||||
-Alagoas | Present | Native | |||||
-Amapa | Present | Native | |||||
-Amazonas | Present | Native | |||||
-Bahia | Present | Native | |||||
-Ceara | Present | Native | |||||
-Distrito Federal | Present | Native | |||||
-Espirito Santo | Present | Native | |||||
-Goias | Present | Native | |||||
-Maranhao | Present | Native | |||||
-Mato Grosso | Present | Native | |||||
-Mato Grosso do Sul | Present | Native | |||||
-Minas Gerais | Present | Native | |||||
-Para | Present | Native | |||||
-Paraiba | Present | Native | |||||
-Parana | Present | Native | |||||
-Pernambuco | Present | Native | |||||
-Piaui | Present | Native | |||||
-Rio de Janeiro | Present | Native | |||||
-Rio Grande do Norte | Present | Native | |||||
-Rio Grande do Sul | Present | Native | |||||
-Rondonia | Present | Native | |||||
-Roraima | Present | Native | |||||
-Santa Catarina | Present | Native | |||||
-Sao Paulo | Present | Native | |||||
-Sergipe | Present | Native | |||||
-Tocantins | Present | Native | |||||
Chile | Present | Native | |||||
Colombia | Present | Native | |||||
Ecuador | Present | Native | |||||
French Guiana | Present | Native | |||||
Guyana | Present | Native | |||||
Paraguay | Present | Native | |||||
Peru | Present | Native | |||||
Suriname | Present | Native | |||||
Venezuela | Present | Native |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageThe roots of C. verticillata have been imported into Europe since the 16th century for medicinal use. Ethno-pharmacological usage of this species appears in texts dating back to 1582 and 1829 (Drobnik and de Oliveira, 2015). In Hawaii, it was introduced in the 1970s (PIER, 2020; USDA-NRCS, 2020).
Habitat
Top of pageCissus verticillata grows in disturbed areas, pastures and roadsides, dry to wet thickets, moist forests and coastal thickets (Acevedo-Rodríguez, 2005; Useful Tropical Plants, 2020). It can be found climbing over shrubs, trees, fences, old buildings and electricity poles (Smith, 2010). Cut vines in the canopy are able to send long root tendrils down to the ground to re-root (Pettit, 2016).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Natural |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Hosts/Species Affected
Top of pageCissus verticillata is listed as a weed in orchards, pineapple plantations and in grapefruit and orange groves (Acuña, 1974; Futch and Hall, 2003; French et al., 2003; Brenes-Prendas and Agüero-Alvarado, 2007; Vibrans, 2009; Randall, 2017).
Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
Top of pagePlant name | Family | Context | References |
---|---|---|---|
Ananas comosus (pineapple) | Bromeliaceae | Main | |
Citrus spp. | Main |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
The chromosome number reported for C. verticillata is 2n = 48 (Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2018)
Physiology and Phenology
In the West Indies, C. verticillata has been reported flowering and fruiting throughout the year (Acevedo-Rodríguez, 2005)
Longevity
Cissus verticillata is a perennial fast-growing vine (Acevedo-Rodríguez, 2005).
Environmental Requirements
Cissus verticillata grows in a wide range of climates and soil types at elevations from near sea level up to 1800 m (Lombardi, 2000; Acevedo, 2005; Vibrans, 2009).
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
Af - Tropical rainforest climate | Preferred | > 60mm precipitation per month | |
Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Preferred | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Tolerated | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
35 | 40 |
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Maconellicoccus hirsutus | Herbivore | Fruits|pods; Plants|Growing point; Plants|Leaves | not specific |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageCissus verticillata plants are affected by the parasitic fungus Mycosyrinx cissi, which causes the inflorescences to become deformed, producing numerous sterile branches (Acevedo-Rodríguez, 2005). C. verticillata has been reported as a host for the pink hibiscus mealybug (PHMB) Maconellicoccus hirsutus, a serious economic threat to agriculture, forestry and the nursery industry in most tropical areas worldwide (Sagarra and Peterkin, 1999; Meyerdirk et al., 2001). In the Caribbean, biological control using the predatory beetle Cryptolaemus montrouzieri and the parasitoid Anagyrus kamali, was highly effective in bringing the PHMB populations under control (Sagarra and Peterkin, 1999).
In Florida, C. verticillata is the only verified host plant of the weevil Eurhinus magnificus which completes its entire life cycle within it; eggs are laid within the stem where the larvae hatch and feed. The larvae complete five instars within a gall formed at the site of oviposition before pupating. Adults emerge from the host plant gall to feed on C. verticillata, mate and oviposit (Ulmer et al., 2007).
In Trinidad, C. verticillata (as C. scyiodes) is listed as a food plant for the forest grasshopper Coscineuta virens (McComie, 1994).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageCissus verticillata spreads by seeds and vegetatively via rooting from stem fragments and broken offshoots. The fleshy fruits are dispersed mostly by birds (French et al., 2003; Smith, 2010).
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Disturbance | Common in disturbed areas, pastures, roadsides | Yes | Yes | Acevedo-Rodríguez (2005) |
Garden waste disposal | Stem fragments, fruits | Yes | Yes | Smith (2010) |
Horticulture | Cultivated as an ornamental | Yes | Yes | USDA-ARS (2020) |
Internet sales | Sold online | Yes | Yes | |
Medicinal use | Roots used in traditional medicine | Yes | Yes | Useful Tropical Plants (2020) |
Ornamental purposes | Cultivated as an ornamental | Yes | Yes | USDA-ARS (2020) |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Debris and waste associated with human activities | Stem fragments, fruits | Yes | Yes | Smith (2010) |
Sold online | Yes | Yes | ||
Host and vector organisms | Seeds dispersed by birds | Yes | Yes | Smith (2010) |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Cultural/amenity | Positive |
Economic/livelihood | Positive and negative |
Environment (generally) | Positive and negative |
Human health | Positive |
Economic Impact
Top of pageCissus verticillata is regarded as a weed in areas within and outside its native distribution range of the Americas (Acuña, 1974; Futch and Hall, 2003; Brenes-Prendas and Agüero-Alvarado, 2007; Smith, 2010; Randall, 2017; PIER, 2020). In the Lower Rio Grande Valley in Texas, C. verticillata was reported affecting agricultural crops such as citrus (grapefruits and oranges) by completely covering them (French et al., 2003).
Environmental Impact
Top of pageCissus verticillata is an invasive fast-growing vine that climbs and completely covers shrubs and trees, forming a thick canopy and blocking sunlight to the understorey native plants. This species has the potential to smother native vegetation by killing host trees, outcompeting understorey plants and negatively affecting the germination and establishment of native seedlings (French et al., 2003; Smith, 2010). C. verticillata is able to cover small trees with its foliage. Species affected in this way include Quercus virginiana (live oak), Salix nigra (black willow), Salix exigua (sandbar willow), Melia azedarach (Chinaberry), Sapium sebiferum (Chinese tallow) and Carica papaya (papaya) (French et al., 2003).
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Invasive in its native range
- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Abundant in its native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Is a habitat generalist
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Long lived
- Fast growing
- Reproduces asexually
- Host damage
- Negatively impacts agriculture
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Competition - shading
- Competition - smothering
- Competition - strangling
- Rapid growth
- Rooting
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
- Difficult to identify/detect in the field
Uses
Top of pageCissus verticillata is cultivated as an ornamental and medicinal plant. The stems and roots are used as cordage and to make baskets. The leaves are macerated in water and used as soap. Leaf decoctions are taken widely as a popular remedy for diabetes in Brazil, where its common name is “vegetal insulin”. Leaves, stems, sap and roots are used in traditional medicines and cultural rituals by indigenous people in the Americas (Lombardi, 2000; Pepato et al., 2003). In the Caribbean islands of Trinidad and Tobago, C. verticillata is used as an anti-diabetic agent and as a treatment for urinary problems (Lans, 2006).
Uses List
Top of pageEnvironmental
- Amenity
General
- Ritual uses
Materials
- Baskets
- Fibre
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Traditional/folklore
Ornamental
- garden plant
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Physical/Mechanical Control
As there are no known biological herbicides available for eradication or control of C. verticillata, plants have to be manually removed (French et al., 2003).
References
Top of pageFrench, JV, Lonard, RI, Everitt, JH, 2003. Cissus sicyoides C. Linnaeus (Vitaceae), a potential exotic pest in the Lower Rio Grande Valley, Texas. Subtropical Plant Sciences, 55, 72-74.
Futch SH, Hall DW, 2003. Identification of vine weeds in Florida citrus. #HS926. Gainesville, Florida, USA: Horticultural Sciences Department, UF/IFAS Extension.https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/HS/HS18500.pdf
Lombardi JA, 2000. Vitaceae: The genera Ampelocissus, Ampelopsis and Cissus. (Vitaceae: Gêneros Ampelocissus, Ampelopsis e Cissus). Flora Neotropica, 80, 1-250.
Lombardi JA, 2017. Vitaceae. Guide to the lianas and climbing plants of the Neotropics. https://naturalhistory.si.edu/research/botany/research/lianas-and-climbing-plants-neotropics/lianas-families
Lombardi, JA, 2015. Vitaceae. List of species of flora of Brazil. (Vitaceae. Lista de Espécies da Flora do Brasil). Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro.http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/jabot/floradobrasil/FB21572
McComie LD, 1994. A list of food plants and some implications of the feeding behaviour of the forest grasshopper, Coscineuta virens (Thunberg), in Trinidad. Living World Journal of The Trinidad & Tobago Field Naturalists' Club , 1993/1994, 8-13.
Meyerdirk DE, Warkentin R, Attavian B, Gersabeck E, Francis A, Adams M, Francis G, 2001. Biological control of pink Hibiscus mealybug project manual. Riverdale, Maryland, USA: United States Department of Agriculture-Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service.195 pp.
Pettit D, 2016. An illustrated guide for Bermuda’s indigenous and invasive plants. [ed. by Pettit D]. Flatts, Bermuda: Department of Environment and Natural Resources.207 pp. https://www.gov.bm/sites/default/files/plantfinder-april-2016.pdf
PIER, 2020. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii.http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Sagarra L, Peterkin D, 1999. Invasion of the Carribean by the hibiscus mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus Green [Homoptera: Pseudococcidae]. Phytoprotection, 80(2), 103-113. https://doi.org/10.7202/706185ar
Smith, R. L., 2010. Invasive Alien Plant Species of the Bahamas and Biodiversity Management. Thesis. Institute of Environmental Sciences, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, USA
Vibrans, H, 2009. Weeds of Mexico. Alphabetical list of species, ordered by genera. (Malezas de México. Listado alfabético de las especies, ordenadas por género). http://www.conabio.gob.mx/malezasdemexico/2inicio/paginas/lista-plantas-generos.htm
Distribution References
French JV, Lonard RI, Everitt JH, 2003. Cissus sicyoides C. Linnaeus (Vitaceae), a potential exotic pest in the Lower Rio Grande Valley, Texas. Subtropical Plant Sciences. 72-74.
Lombardi JA, 2015. Vitaceae. List of species of flora of Brazil. (Vitaceae. Lista de Espécies da Flora do Brasil)., Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro. http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/jabot/floradobrasil/FB21572
Naturalis Biodversity Center, 2017. Dutch Caribbean Species Register., Leiden, The Netherlands: Naturalis Biodversity Center. https://www.dutchcaribbeanspecies.org/
PIER, 2020. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Smith R L, 2010. Invasive Alien Plant Species of the Bahamas and Biodiversity Management. Thesis. Institute of Environmental Sciences, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, USA:
Contributors
Top of page11/02/2020 Original text by:
Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
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