Averrhoa carambola
(carambola)

Pictures

Picture	Title	Caption	Copyright
Title Fruits and foliage Caption Averrhoa carambola (carambola or starfruit); fruits and foliage. Maui Meadows Kihei, Maui, Hawaii, USA. August 2009. Copyright ©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0	Fruits and foliage	Averrhoa carambola (carambola or starfruit); fruits and foliage. Maui Meadows Kihei, Maui, Hawaii, USA. August 2009.	©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0
Title Habit Caption Averrhoa carambola (carambola or starfruit); fruiting habit. Maui Meadows Kihei, Maui, Hawaii, USA. August 2009. Copyright ©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0	Habit	Averrhoa carambola (carambola or starfruit); fruiting habit. Maui Meadows Kihei, Maui, Hawaii, USA. August 2009.	©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0
Title Leaves Caption Averrhoa carambola (carambola or starfruit); leaves. Kula Ace Hardware and Nursery, Maui, Hawaii, USA. September 2007. Copyright ©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0	Leaves	Averrhoa carambola (carambola or starfruit); leaves. Kula Ace Hardware and Nursery, Maui, Hawaii, USA. September 2007.	©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0
Title Flowers Caption Averrhoa carambola (carambola or starfruit); flowers and leaves. Napili, Maui, Hawaii, USA. July Copyright ©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0	Flowers	Averrhoa carambola (carambola or starfruit); flowers and leaves. Napili, Maui, Hawaii, USA. July	©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0

Identity

Preferred Scientific Name

• Averrhoa carambola L.

Preferred Common Name

• carambola

Other Scientific Names

• Averrhoa acutangula Stokes
• Sarcotheca philippica (Villar) Hallier f.

International Common Names

• English: carambola; carambola tree; carambold; Chinese gooseberry; Coromandel gooseberry; cucumber tree; five-corner; star fruit tree; starfruit
• Spanish: carambolo
• French: carambolier; carambolier vrai
• Chinese: ma fen; yang-táo

Local Common Names

• Australia: five corner
• Brazil: camerunga; caramboleiro; limas de Cayena
• Cambodia: spo; spu
• Costa Rica: tiriguro
• Dominican Republic: vinagrillo
• El Salvador: pepino de la India
• Finland: karambola
• French West Indies: cornichon
• Germany: Karambolabaum; karambole; Sternfrucht
• Guam: bilimbin; bilimbines
• Guyana: five fingers
• Haiti: bimblin longue; blinblin longue; carambolier; conichon du pays; zibeline; zibeline longue; zibline; zimbline
• India: kamaranga; kamrakh; kamruk
• Indonesia: belimbing manis
• Laos: fuang; nak fuang
• Malaysia: belimbing batu; belimbing besi; belimbing manis; belimbing pessegi; belimbing saji; belimbing sayur; blinbing manis; caramba; carambola tree; kambola
• Mexico: árbol de pepino; caramboler; carambolera
• Myanmar: mak-hpung; zaung-yar
• Nicaragua: melocotón
• Pakistan: kamrak; kamranga
• Palau: kemim; ouderteboteb
• Panama: mamoncillo chino
• Philippines: balimbin; balimbing; balingbing; daligan; dalihan; galangan; galuran; garahan; garulan; malimbin; sirinate
• Puerto Rico: carambold; jalea; star pickle
• Sri Lanka: kamaranga; kamruk
• Suriname: blimbing legi; fransman-birambi
• Sweden: karambola
• Thailand: ma fu’ang; ma fueang
• Tonga: tapanima
• Trinidad and Tobago: coolie tamarind
• Venezuela: tamarindo chino; tamarindo dulce
• Vietnam: khe; khe ta

EPPO code

• AVRCA (Averrhoa carambola)

Summary of Invasiveness

A. carambola is a small, fruit-bearing tree possibly native to the Old World tropics that has been widely cultivated for its edible fruits. Despite being reported as ‘extinct in the wild’ (Missouri Botanical Garden, 2015), A. carambola is also listed in the Global Compendium of Weeds as “cultivation escape, naturalised, weed” (Randall, 2012), was included in a list of potential invasive species threats in the Caribbean Region (Kairo et al., 2003), and is naturalized in Puerto Rico, Belize, Micronesia, and Paraguay (Liogier and Martorell, 2000; Randall, 2012). Although currently a low risk species, further evaluation of the invasive potential of A. carambola may be necessary in the future, especially for areas surrounding fields and gardens where the species is grown. 

Taxonomic Tree

• Domain: Eukaryota
•     Kingdom: Plantae
•         Phylum: Spermatophyta
•             Subphylum: Angiospermae
•                 Class: Dicotyledonae
•                     Order: Geraniales
•                         Family: Oxalidaceae
•                             Genus: Averrhoa
•                                 Species: Averrhoa carambola

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Oxalidaceae, sometimes called the ‘wood sorrel’ family, includes over 800 species of herbs, shrubs, and trees, mostly of neotropical origin. The genus name Averrhoa is in honour of the famous twelth-century philosopher Averrhoes from Andalusia (Macfadyen, 1837). The species name carambola is its vernacular name used in most of the Old World and Neotropics. Several of the common names of the plant are associated with the shape of the fruit in cross-section, which resembles a 5-pointed star.

Description

The following description is taken from Flora of China Editorial Committee (2015):

Plants 3-12(-15) m tall, densely branched, young parts finely pubescent or glabrous. Leaves 7-25 cm; petiole 2-8 cm; leaflets (3-)5-13; petiolules 1-2.5 mm; leaflet blades ovate to elliptic, 3-8 × 1.5-4.5 cm, abaxially pubescent to nearly glabrous, base obliquely rounded, apex acute to acuminate. Inflorescences axillary or rameal, panicles or cymes, branches and flower buds crimson. Flowers numerous, small. Sepals narrowly elliptic, 3-5 mm, base sparingly pubescent. Petals white with purple markings or pink to red with darker markings, 6-9 × 3-4 mm. Shorter stamens sterile, occasionally 1 or 2 fertile. Ovary pubescent. Berry yellow to yellow-brown, oblong, 7-13 × 5-8 cm, deeply (3-)5(or 6)-ribbed, stellate in cross section, very fleshy. Seeds numerous, blackish brown.

Plant Type

Distribution

A. carambola is considered native to Malesia, although it has also been speculated to be a tropical American species introduced to Asia by the Spanish galleons (Merrill, 1904; Quisumbing, 1951; Samson, 1991; Bircher and Bircher, 2000). It is now widely cultivated in both the Old World and New World tropics. 

Distribution Table

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

History of Introduction and Spread

A. carambola, like A. bilimbi, is generally thought to have originated in tropical Southeast Asia, perhaps Sri Lanka and the Moluccas (Morton, 1987). It is also speculated by some to be native to the Neotropics, which has led to uncertainty over its true origin, especially since it has been cultivated across the Old World tropics for centuries. In the Philippines, for example, Merrill (1904) and Quisumbing (1951) report both A. bilimbi and A. carambola as having been introduced via the galleon trade to the Philippines from tropical America during the Spanish colonial period.

The species is reported to have been introduced into southern Florida, USA, before 1887 (Morton, 1987). Largely viewed as “a curiosity” initially, a variety selected in Florida from seeds introduced from Hawaii was vegetatively propagated during the 1940's and 1950's and, in late 1965, was officially released under the name 'Golden Star' and distributed to growers” (Morton, 1987).

Date of introduction to the West Indies is uncertain. While its close relation A. bilimbi was listed as present in Jamaica by the 1830’s (Macfadyen, 1837), A. carambola was reportedly present by 1851 (Britton and Wilson, 1924) but was not included in Bello’s (1881; 1883) work on Puerto Rico, Britton’s (1918) flora of Bermuda, or Britton’s (1920) work on the Bahamas, suggesting it was not considered a major species during this time. It was, however, in Britton and Wilson’s (1924) flora of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, in which it was reportedly already present in St. Thomas by 1851 and seen by the authors in Puerto Rico in 1915. The species was introduced to Puerto Rico for its fruit and has since become naturalized here, as well as in many other tropical and subtropical regions (Liogier and Martorell, 2000).

Risk of Introduction

Risk of introduction for this species is low, but further evaluation may be required. As of 2010 the species was considered a non-invasive fruit tree recommended for gardens in Hawaii (Clifford and Kobayashi, 2010), but it was more recently listed in the Global Compendium of Weeds as a weed and cultivation escape (Randall, 2012) and was also on a 2003 list of potential invasive species threats in the Caribbean Region (Kairo et al., 2003). The species reported to be naturalized in Puerto Rico, Belize, Micronesia, and Paraguay (Liogier and Martorell, 2000; Randall, 2012). Its invasiveness is restricted by its slow growth rate, its inability to self-fertilize, limited seed production and limited viability of its seeds (Clifford and Kobayashi, 2010). However, its close relation A. bilimbi is currently flagged for further evaluation by a PIER risk assessment (2015), and it may be possible that A. carambola will need the same treatment in the future.

Habitat

A. carambola occurs in humid premontane forests and humid-to-very humid tropical forests of Colombia (Vascular Plants of Antioquia, 2015), rainforests as well as savannas in Bolivia (Bolivia Checklist, 2015), in disturbed areas of Peru (Peru Checklist, 2015), and in coastal areas of Ecuador (Vascular Plants of Ecuador, 2015). In China, the species occurs in cultivated areas and, as a cultivation escape, along roadsides and in secondary forests (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2015).

Habitat List

Biology and Ecology

Reproductive Biology

The heterostylus self-incompatibility (SI) system is a feature of both A. bilimbi and A. carambola. Members of these species have various style lengths such that the stigmas in each morph more or less correspond to the positions of the anthers in the other morphs; this requires multiple morphs of the species, and ensures that trees are not inbred (Knight, 1965; Ganders, 1979; Wong et al., 1994). A. carambola is distylous, with two morphs, and A. bilimbi is tristylous, with three morphs, so when cultivating either species all morphs of that species should be planted to ensure fruit yield (Ganders, 1979; Staples and Herbst, 2005).

Environmental Requirements

Both Averrhoa species - A. bilimbi and A. carambola - prefer a climate with a dry season, but can also adapt to hot humid conditions and wetter climates (FAO EcoCrop, 2015). A. carambola has a wider climate range than fellow genus member A. bilimbi; it is capable of growing within the latitudinal range from 32°N-30°S and can withstand growing in both hot humid tropics and subtropical countries including Egypt and Israel, and can tolerate short periods of freezing temperatures as low as -3 C (Samson, 1991; Bircher and Bircher, 2000). A. carambola prefers well-drained soils ideally between pH 5.5-6.5 but can tolerate pH between 5 and 8.5 (FAO EcoCrop, 2015). It cannot tolerate drought, flooding, or salinity (Samson, 1991; Bircher and Bircher, 2000; FAO EcoCrop, 2015).

The species generally occurs at low elevations. It has been reported in Nicaragua between 0-100 m (Flora of Nicaragua, 2015), up to 500 m in Peru (Peru Checklist, 2015), between 0-500 and 1000-1500 m in Colombia (Vascular Plants of Antioquia, 2015), and at 0-1000 m in Bolivia (Bolivia Checklist, 2015).

Climate

Latitude/Altitude Ranges

Air Temperature

Rainfall

Soil Tolerances

Soil reaction

• acid
• alkaline
• neutral

Soil texture

• heavy
• light
• medium

Means of Movement and Dispersal

Natural Dispersal

It is possible that the seeds of A. carambola could be dispersed by water, as the species is known to grow in the coastal areas of Ecuador (Vascular Plants of Ecuador, 2015), but there are no confirmed reports of seed dispersal through this vector.

Vector Transmission (Biotic)

Seeds might be carried or eaten by animals who feed on the fleshy fruit encapsulating the seeds, but there are no confirmed reports of seed dispersal through this vector.

Intentional Introduction

A. carambola has been intentionally introduced in tropical regions around the world for human cultivation, as it is used in food and medicine. It has been the subject of breeding programs and has been proposed as a potential agroforestry species (Morton, 1987; FAO EcoCrop, 2015).

Pathway Causes

Pathway Vectors

Impact Summary

Impact: Environmental

A. carambola is known to be a cultivation escape, naturalized, and weedy (Liogier and Martorell, 2000; Randall, 2012), but the extent of its potential environmental damage requires further evaluation.

Impact: Social

Outside of cultivation, increased populations of A. carambola could positively impact livelihoods of communities, particularly those who rely on local foraging and can harvest fruits of this species for food and sale. However, there is mounting clinical evidence for the toxicity of consuming the fruits, as they contain high levels of oxalic acid which can cause renal failure in humans (Neto et al., 2003).

Risk and Impact Factors

• Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
• Pioneering in disturbed areas
• Tolerant of shade

• Negatively impacts human health

• Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately

Uses

Starfruit is normally consumed fresh as a dessert fruit. Dessert fruit and minimally processed slices should preferably have a high sugar to acid ratio. Tart fruit are preferred in Taiwan for processing into juice. Starfruit can be consumed as jams, preserves, pickles, candy, juice and liquor. Green fruit are sometimes consumed as a vegetable. Sliced fruit can be added to salads (Janick & Paull, 2008).

Fruits of acid cultivars have been used to clean and polish brass, and the juice used to bleach rust stains from cloth. The wood of A. carambola is white, though older wood is reddish. It is close grained and medium hard, and has been used for furniture and in construction (Morton, 1987).

Uses List

Human food and beverage

• Beverage base
• Food additive
• Fruits

Materials

• Dyestuffs

Medicinal, pharmaceutical

• Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
• Traditional/folklore

References

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Contributors

17/03/2015 Original text by:

Marianne Jennifer Datiles, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA

Distribution Maps