Averrhoa carambola (carambola)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Soil Tolerances
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Impact: Environmental
- Impact: Social
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- References
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pageIdentity
Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Averrhoa carambola L.
Preferred Common Name
- carambola
Other Scientific Names
- Averrhoa acutangula Stokes
- Sarcotheca philippica (Villar) Hallier f.
International Common Names
- English: carambola; carambola tree; carambold; Chinese gooseberry; Coromandel gooseberry; cucumber tree; five-corner; star fruit tree; starfruit
- Spanish: carambolo
- French: carambolier; carambolier vrai
- Chinese: ma fen; yang-táo
Local Common Names
- Australia: five corner
- Brazil: camerunga; caramboleiro; limas de Cayena
- Cambodia: spo; spu
- Costa Rica: tiriguro
- Dominican Republic: vinagrillo
- El Salvador: pepino de la India
- Finland: karambola
- French West Indies: cornichon
- Germany: Karambolabaum; karambole; Sternfrucht
- Guam: bilimbin; bilimbines
- Guyana: five fingers
- Haiti: bimblin longue; blinblin longue; carambolier; conichon du pays; zibeline; zibeline longue; zibline; zimbline
- India: kamaranga; kamrakh; kamruk
- Indonesia: belimbing manis
- Laos: fuang; nak fuang
- Malaysia: belimbing batu; belimbing besi; belimbing manis; belimbing pessegi; belimbing saji; belimbing sayur; blinbing manis; caramba; carambola tree; kambola
- Mexico: árbol de pepino; caramboler; carambolera
- Myanmar: mak-hpung; zaung-yar
- Nicaragua: melocotón
- Pakistan: kamrak; kamranga
- Palau: kemim; ouderteboteb
- Panama: mamoncillo chino
- Philippines: balimbin; balimbing; balingbing; daligan; dalihan; galangan; galuran; garahan; garulan; malimbin; sirinate
- Puerto Rico: carambold; jalea; star pickle
- Sri Lanka: kamaranga; kamruk
- Suriname: blimbing legi; fransman-birambi
- Sweden: karambola
- Thailand: ma fu’ang; ma fueang
- Tonga: tapanima
- Trinidad and Tobago: coolie tamarind
- Venezuela: tamarindo chino; tamarindo dulce
- Vietnam: khe; khe ta
EPPO code
- AVRCA (Averrhoa carambola)
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageA. carambola is a small, fruit-bearing tree possibly native to the Old World tropics that has been widely cultivated for its edible fruits. Despite being reported as ‘extinct in the wild’ (Missouri Botanical Garden, 2015), A. carambola is also listed in the Global Compendium of Weeds as “cultivation escape, naturalised, weed” (Randall, 2012), was included in a list of potential invasive species threats in the Caribbean Region (Kairo et al., 2003), and is naturalized in Puerto Rico, Belize, Micronesia, and Paraguay (Liogier and Martorell, 2000; Randall, 2012). Although currently a low risk species, further evaluation of the invasive potential of A. carambola may be necessary in the future, especially for areas surrounding fields and gardens where the species is grown.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Geraniales
- Family: Oxalidaceae
- Genus: Averrhoa
- Species: Averrhoa carambola
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageOxalidaceae, sometimes called the ‘wood sorrel’ family, includes over 800 species of herbs, shrubs, and trees, mostly of neotropical origin. The genus name Averrhoa is in honour of the famous twelth-century philosopher Averrhoes from Andalusia (Macfadyen, 1837). The species name carambola is its vernacular name used in most of the Old World and Neotropics. Several of the common names of the plant are associated with the shape of the fruit in cross-section, which resembles a 5-pointed star.
Description
Top of page
The following description is taken from Flora of China Editorial Committee (2015):
Plants 3-12(-15) m tall, densely branched, young parts finely pubescent or glabrous. Leaves 7-25 cm; petiole 2-8 cm; leaflets (3-)5-13; petiolules 1-2.5 mm; leaflet blades ovate to elliptic, 3-8 × 1.5-4.5 cm, abaxially pubescent to nearly glabrous, base obliquely rounded, apex acute to acuminate. Inflorescences axillary or rameal, panicles or cymes, branches and flower buds crimson. Flowers numerous, small. Sepals narrowly elliptic, 3-5 mm, base sparingly pubescent. Petals white with purple markings or pink to red with darker markings, 6-9 × 3-4 mm. Shorter stamens sterile, occasionally 1 or 2 fertile. Ovary pubescent. Berry yellow to yellow-brown, oblong, 7-13 × 5-8 cm, deeply (3-)5(or 6)-ribbed, stellate in cross section, very fleshy. Seeds numerous, blackish brown.
Distribution
Top of pageA. carambola is considered native to Malesia, although it has also been speculated to be a tropical American species introduced to Asia by the Spanish galleons (Merrill, 1904; Quisumbing, 1951; Samson, 1991; Bircher and Bircher, 2000). It is now widely cultivated in both the Old World and New World tropics.
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Asia | ||||||||
Cambodia | Present | Morton, 1987 | ||||||
China | Present | Native | Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2015; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2015; Flora of Pakistan, 2015 | |||||
-Fujian | Present only in captivity/cultivation | Morton, 1987; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2015 | ‘commonly grown’ | |||||
-Guangdong | Present | Morton, 1987; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2015 | ‘commonly grown’ | |||||
-Guangxi | Present | Morton, 1987; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2015 | ‘commonly grown’ | |||||
-Hainan | Present | Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2015 | ||||||
-Sichuan | Present | Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2015 | ||||||
-Yunnan | Present | Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2015 | ||||||
India | Present | Morton, 1987; Flora of Pakistan, 2015; Missouri Botanical Garden, 2015 | ‘commonly grown’ | |||||
Indonesia | Present | Native | Missouri Botanical Garden, 2015 | |||||
-Java | Present | Morton, 1987; USDA-ARS, 2015 | ||||||
-Moluccas | Present | Native | Morton, 1987 | |||||
Israel | Present only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | 1935 | Morton, 1987 | Rehovoth Research Station | |||
Malaysia | Present | Morton, 1987; Bircher and Bircher, 2000; Flora Mesoamericana, 2014 | Cultivated for many centuries | |||||
Myanmar | Present | Kress et al., 2003; Flora of Pakistan, 2015 | ||||||
Pakistan | Present | Flora of Pakistan, 2015 | Cultivated | |||||
Philippines | Present | Introduced | Merrill, 1904; Quisumbing, 1951; Samson, 1991 | Introduced from S. America | ||||
Singapore | Present | Introduced | Chong et al., 2009 | Casual alien | ||||
Sri Lanka | Present | Native | Morton, 1987; Missouri Botanical Garden, 2015 | |||||
Taiwan | Present only in captivity/cultivation | Morton, 1987; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2015 | ‘commonly grown’ | |||||
Thailand | Present | Morton, 1987; Hanelt et al., 2001 | ||||||
Vietnam | Present | Morton, 1987 | ||||||
Africa | ||||||||
Madagascar | Present | Flora of Pakistan, 2015 | Cultivated | |||||
Tanzania | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | ||||||
-Zanzibar | Present | Morton, 1987 | ||||||
North America | ||||||||
Mexico | Present | Flora Mesoamericana, 2014 | Yucatan. Grown in Mesoamerica | |||||
USA | Present | Introduced | Randall, 2012 | Naturalised | ||||
-Florida | Present | Introduced | before 1887 | Morton, 1987 | ||||
-Hawaii | Present | Morton, 1987 | ||||||
Central America and Caribbean | ||||||||
Belize | Present | Introduced | Randall, 2012 | Naturalised | ||||
Costa Rica | Present | Burger, 1991; Flora Mesoamericana, 2014 | ‘widely planted’ | |||||
Cuba | Present | Introduced | Acevedo-Rodriguez and Strong, 2012 | Cultivated | ||||
Dominican Republic | Present | Introduced | Acevedo-Rodriguez and Strong, 2012 | Cultivated | ||||
El Salvador | Present | Flora Mesoamericana, 2014 | ||||||
Haiti | Present | Introduced | Acevedo-Rodriguez and Strong, 2012 | Cultivated | ||||
Honduras | Present | Flora Mesoamericana, 2014 | ||||||
Jamaica | Present | Morton, 1987; Acevedo-Rodriguez and Strong, 2012 | Reported food use | |||||
Nicaragua | Present | Flora Mesoamericana, 2014; Flora of Nicaragua, 2015 | ||||||
Panama | Present | Panama Checklist, 2014 | Canal Area, Colón, Panamá, Veraguas, San Blas | |||||
Puerto Rico | Present | Introduced | Acevedo-Rodriguez and Strong, 2012 | Cultivated | ||||
Trinidad and Tobago | Present | Encyclopedia of Life, 2015 | Cultivated | |||||
South America | ||||||||
Bolivia | Present | Bolivia Checklist, 2015 | Beni, Santa Cruz, , Cochabamba | |||||
Brazil | Present | Introduced | Forzza et al., 2012 | Subspontaneous, not endemic. Amazônia, Caatinga, Cerrado, Mata Atlântica | ||||
-Acre | Present | Introduced | Forzza et al., 2012 | Subspontaneous, not endemic | ||||
-Alagoas | Present | Introduced | Forzza et al., 2012 | Subspontaneous, not endemic | ||||
-Goias | Present | Introduced | Forzza et al., 2012 | Subspontaneous, not endemic | ||||
-Pernambuco | Present | Introduced | Forzza et al., 2012 | Subspontaneous, not endemic | ||||
-Piaui | Present | Introduced | Forzza et al., 2012 | Subspontaneous, not endemic | ||||
-Rio Grande do Norte | Present | Introduced | Forzza et al., 2012 | Subspontaneous, not endemic | ||||
-Santa Catarina | Present | Introduced | Forzza et al., 2012 | Subspontaneous, not endemic | ||||
Colombia | Present | Introduced | Vascular Plants of Antioquia, 2015 | Apartadó, Medellín, Turbo | ||||
Ecuador | Present | Introduced | Vascular Plants of Ecuador, 2015 | Los Ríos | ||||
Guyana | Present | Morton, 1987 | ||||||
Paraguay | Present | Introduced | Randall, 2012 | Naturalised | ||||
Peru | Present only in captivity/cultivation | Peru Checklist, 2015 | Cultivated. Loreto | |||||
Suriname | Present | Morton, 1987 | ||||||
Venezuela | Present | Morton, 1987 | ||||||
Oceania | ||||||||
Australia | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | ||||||
-Queensland | Present | Morton, 1987 | ‘popular’ | |||||
French Polynesia | Present | Morton, 1987; Wagner and Lorence, 2015 | Tahiti | |||||
Guam | Present | Wagner et al., 2015 | ||||||
Micronesia, Federated states of | Present | Introduced | Randall, 2012; Wagner et al., 2015 | Naturalised | ||||
New Caledonia | Present | Morton, 1987 | ||||||
Northern Mariana Islands | Present | Wagner et al., 2015 | Pagan, Rota, Tinian | |||||
Tonga | Present | Hanelt et al., 2001 |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageA. carambola, like A. bilimbi, is generally thought to have originated in tropical Southeast Asia, perhaps Sri Lanka and the Moluccas (Morton, 1987). It is also speculated by some to be native to the Neotropics, which has led to uncertainty over its true origin, especially since it has been cultivated across the Old World tropics for centuries. In the Philippines, for example, Merrill (1904) and Quisumbing (1951) report both A. bilimbi and A. carambola as having been introduced via the galleon trade to the Philippines from tropical America during the Spanish colonial period.
The species is reported to have been introduced into southern Florida, USA, before 1887 (Morton, 1987). Largely viewed as “a curiosity” initially, a variety selected in Florida from seeds introduced from Hawaii was vegetatively propagated during the 1940's and 1950's and, in late 1965, was officially released under the name 'Golden Star' and distributed to growers” (Morton, 1987).
Date of introduction to the West Indies is uncertain. While its close relation A. bilimbi was listed as present in Jamaica by the 1830’s (Macfadyen, 1837), A. carambola was reportedly present by 1851 (Britton and Wilson, 1924) but was not included in Bello’s (1881; 1883) work on Puerto Rico, Britton’s (1918) flora of Bermuda, or Britton’s (1920) work on the Bahamas, suggesting it was not considered a major species during this time. It was, however, in Britton and Wilson’s (1924) flora of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, in which it was reportedly already present in St. Thomas by 1851 and seen by the authors in Puerto Rico in 1915. The species was introduced to Puerto Rico for its fruit and has since become naturalized here, as well as in many other tropical and subtropical regions (Liogier and Martorell, 2000).
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageRisk of introduction for this species is low, but further evaluation may be required. As of 2010 the species was considered a non-invasive fruit tree recommended for gardens in Hawaii (Clifford and Kobayashi, 2010), but it was more recently listed in the Global Compendium of Weeds as a weed and cultivation escape (Randall, 2012) and was also on a 2003 list of potential invasive species threats in the Caribbean Region (Kairo et al., 2003). The species reported to be naturalized in Puerto Rico, Belize, Micronesia, and Paraguay (Liogier and Martorell, 2000; Randall, 2012). Its invasiveness is restricted by its slow growth rate, its inability to self-fertilize, limited seed production and limited viability of its seeds (Clifford and Kobayashi, 2010). However, its close relation A. bilimbi is currently flagged for further evaluation by a PIER risk assessment (2015), and it may be possible that A. carambola will need the same treatment in the future.
Habitat
Top of pageA. carambola occurs in humid premontane forests and humid-to-very humid tropical forests of Colombia (Vascular Plants of Antioquia, 2015), rainforests as well as savannas in Bolivia (Bolivia Checklist, 2015), in disturbed areas of Peru (Peru Checklist, 2015), and in coastal areas of Ecuador (Vascular Plants of Ecuador, 2015). In China, the species occurs in cultivated areas and, as a cultivation escape, along roadsides and in secondary forests (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2015).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | ||||
Terrestrial – Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural | |
Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural | ||
Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Natural | ||
Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural | ||
Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Natural | ||
Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Natural | |
Natural forests | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural | ||
Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | |||
Littoral | ||||
Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Natural | ||
Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageReproductive Biology
The heterostylus self-incompatibility (SI) system is a feature of both A. bilimbi and A. carambola. Members of these species have various style lengths such that the stigmas in each morph more or less correspond to the positions of the anthers in the other morphs; this requires multiple morphs of the species, and ensures that trees are not inbred (Knight, 1965; Ganders, 1979; Wong et al., 1994). A. carambola is distylous, with two morphs, and A. bilimbi is tristylous, with three morphs, so when cultivating either species all morphs of that species should be planted to ensure fruit yield (Ganders, 1979; Staples and Herbst, 2005).
Environmental Requirements
Both Averrhoa species - A. bilimbi and A. carambola - prefer a climate with a dry season, but can also adapt to hot humid conditions and wetter climates (FAO EcoCrop, 2015). A. carambola has a wider climate range than fellow genus member A. bilimbi; it is capable of growing within the latitudinal range from 32°N-30°S and can withstand growing in both hot humid tropics and subtropical countries including Egypt and Israel, and can tolerate short periods of freezing temperatures as low as -3 C (Samson, 1991; Bircher and Bircher, 2000). A. carambola prefers well-drained soils ideally between pH 5.5-6.5 but can tolerate pH between 5 and 8.5 (FAO EcoCrop, 2015). It cannot tolerate drought, flooding, or salinity (Samson, 1991; Bircher and Bircher, 2000; FAO EcoCrop, 2015).
The species generally occurs at low elevations. It has been reported in Nicaragua between 0-100 m (Flora of Nicaragua, 2015), up to 500 m in Peru (Peru Checklist, 2015), between 0-500 and 1000-1500 m in Colombia (Vascular Plants of Antioquia, 2015), and at 0-1000 m in Bolivia (Bolivia Checklist, 2015).
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Preferred | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Tolerated | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
32 | 30 |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Mean annual rainfall | 600 | 3000 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageNatural Dispersal
It is possible that the seeds of A. carambola could be dispersed by water, as the species is known to grow in the coastal areas of Ecuador (Vascular Plants of Ecuador, 2015), but there are no confirmed reports of seed dispersal through this vector.
Vector Transmission (Biotic)
Seeds might be carried or eaten by animals who feed on the fleshy fruit encapsulating the seeds, but there are no confirmed reports of seed dispersal through this vector.
Intentional Introduction
A. carambola has been intentionally introduced in tropical regions around the world for human cultivation, as it is used in food and medicine. It has been the subject of breeding programs and has been proposed as a potential agroforestry species (Morton, 1987; FAO EcoCrop, 2015).
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Breeding and propagation | Has been the subject of breeding programs and has been proposed as a potential agroforestry species | Yes | Yes | FAO EcoCrop, 2015; Morton, 1987; Samson, 1991 |
Escape from confinement or garden escape | Yes | Yes | Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2015; Liogier and Martorell, 2000; Randall, 2012 | |
Food | Fruits are sold in local markets. | Yes | Yes | Morton, 1987; Quisumbing, 1951; Samson, 1991 |
Garden waste disposal | Yes | Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2015; Liogier and Martorell, 2000; Randall, 2012 | ||
Medicinal use | Yes | Yes | Morton, 1987; Quisumbing, 1951; Samson, 1991 | |
Ornamental purposes | Yes | Yes | Burger, 1991 |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Debris and waste associated with human activities | Seeds are encapsulated in fleshy, edible fruit which is a food crop | Yes | Yes | FAO EcoCrop, 2015; Samson, 1991 |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Environment (generally) | Negative |
Human health | Positive and negative |
Impact: Environmental
Top of pageA. carambola is known to be a cultivation escape, naturalized, and weedy (Liogier and Martorell, 2000; Randall, 2012), but the extent of its potential environmental damage requires further evaluation.
Impact: Social
Top of pageOutside of cultivation, increased populations of A. carambola could positively impact livelihoods of communities, particularly those who rely on local foraging and can harvest fruits of this species for food and sale. However, there is mounting clinical evidence for the toxicity of consuming the fruits, as they contain high levels of oxalic acid which can cause renal failure in humans (Neto et al., 2003).
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page Invasiveness- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Tolerant of shade
- Negatively impacts human health
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Uses
Top of pageStarfruit is normally consumed fresh as a dessert fruit. Dessert fruit and minimally processed slices should preferably have a high sugar to acid ratio. Tart fruit are preferred in Taiwan for processing into juice. Starfruit can be consumed as jams, preserves, pickles, candy, juice and liquor. Green fruit are sometimes consumed as a vegetable. Sliced fruit can be added to salads (Janick & Paull, 2008).
Fruits of acid cultivars have been used to clean and polish brass, and the juice used to bleach rust stains from cloth. The wood of A. carambola is white, though older wood is reddish. It is close grained and medium hard, and has been used for furniture and in construction (Morton, 1987).
Uses List
Top of pageHuman food and beverage
- Beverage base
- Food additive
- Fruits
Materials
- Dyestuffs
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
- Traditional/folklore
References
Top of pageAcevedo-Rodríguez P, Strong MT, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, 98:1192 pp. Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm
Bello D, 1883. [English title not available]. (Apuntes para la flora de Puerto Rico. Segunda parte. Monoclamídeas.) Anales de la Sociedad Española de Historia Natural, 12:103-130.
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Bolivia Checklist, 2015. Catalogue of the Vascular Plants of Bolivia, Tropicos website. St. Louis, MO, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://tropicos.org/Project/BC
Britton NL, 1918. Flora of Bermuda. New York, USA: Charles Scribner's Sons. 585 pp.
Britton NL, 1924. Botany of Porto Rico and Virgin Islands. Scientific Survey of Porto Rico and Virgin Islands. New York, USA: New York Academy of Sciences, 200 pp.
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Chong KY, Tan HTW, Corlett RT, 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species. Singapore: Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore, 273 pp. http://lkcnhm.nus.edu.sg/nus/pdf/PUBLICATION/LKCNH%20Museum%20Books/LKCNHM%20Books/flora_of_singapore_tc.pdf
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Duke J, 2015. Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases online resource. Beltsville, USA: Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN), National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/
Encyclopedia of Life, 2015. Encyclopedia of Life. www.eol.org
FAO EcoCrop, 2015. Averrhoa carambola. Eco-Crop Online Database. Land and Water Development Division, Food and Agricultural Organization of the UN (FAO). http://ecocrop.fao.org/ecocrop/srv/en/cropView?id=483
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Forzza RC, Leitman PM, Costa AF, Carvalho Jr AA, et al. , 2012. List of species of the Flora of Brazil (Lista de espécies Flora do Brasil). Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Rio de Janeiro Botanic Garden. http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/2012/
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Liogier HA, Martorell LF, 2000. Flora of Puerto Rico and adjacent islands: a systematic synopsis, 2nd edition revised. San Juan, Puerto Rico: La Editorial, University of Puerto Rico, 382 pp.
MacFadyen J, 1837. The flora of Jamaica: A description of the plants of that island. London, UK: Longman, Orme, Brown, Green & Longman, 351 pp.
Merrill ED, 1904. New or noteworthy Philippine plants: II. The American element in the Philippine flora. Manila, Philippines: Bureau of Public Print.
Missouri Botanical Garden, 2015. Missouri Botanical Garden Plant Finder. St. Louis, MO, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/plantfinder/plantfindersearch.aspx
Morton, J. F., 1987. Fruits of warm climates.:517 pp.
Morton, J., 1987. Carambola. In: Fruits of warm climates [ed. by Morton, J. F.]. Miami, FL, USA: Julia F. Morton, 125-128.
Neto MM, Costa JAda, Garcia-Cairasco N, Netto JC, Nakagawa B, Dantas M, 2003. Intoxication by star fruit (Averrhoa carambola) in 32 uraemic patients: treatment and outcome. Nephrology, Dialysis, Transplantation, 18(1):120-125.
Oliveira, E. S. M. de, Aguiar, A. S. de, 2015. Why eating star fruit is prohibited for patients with chronic kidney disease?, Jornal Brasileiro de Nefrologia , 37(2):241-247
Oliveira, E. S. M. de, Aquiar, A. S. de, 2015. Why eating star fruit is prohibited for patients with chronic kidney disease?, Jornal Brasileiro de Nefrologia , 37(2):241-247
Panama Checklist, 2014. Flora of Panama Checklist, Tropicos website. St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://tropicos.org/Project/PAC
Peru Checklist, 2015. The Catalogue of the Flowering Plants and Gymnosperms of Peru. St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/Project/PEC
PIER, 2015. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Quisumbing E, 1951. Medicinal plants of the Philippines. Department of Agriculture and Commerce, Philippine Islands Technical Bulletin, 16:1-1234.
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Contributors
Top of page17/03/2015 Original text by:
Marianne Jennifer Datiles, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
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