Avena sterilis (winter wild oat)

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Inflorescences

A. sterilis inflorescences above a wheat crop in Jordan.

©Chris Parker/Bristol, UK

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Avena sterilis L.

Preferred Common Name

winter wild oat

Other Scientific Names

Avena ludoviciana Durieu
Avena macrocarpa Moench
Avena sterilis subsp. sterilis

International Common Names

English: animated oat; sterile oat; wild oat
Spanish: avena caballuna; avena estéril; avena loca
French: avione animee; avione sterile
Portuguese: balanco-maior

Local Common Names

Germany: Schmuck-Hafer; Traub Hafer; Winter Flughafer
Italy: avena sterile
Netherlands: haver, loop-
South Africa: groot wildehawer; red wild oats; rooiwildehawer; tall wild oats; wild oats; wildehawer

EPPO code

AVEST (Avena sterilis)

Summary of Invasiveness

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A. sterilis is highly invasive in cultivated and disturbed ground and has probably already invaded many suitable regions of the world. A crop mimic in Avena (oat) crops, it produces prolific seeds that are difficult to separate from grain. Its' life cycle mirrors many annual crops, and chemical control during periods of crop growth is difficult since it is a grass. There is probably still some potential for invasion of temperate, subtropical or semi arid regions where it is currently rare or absent.

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Spermatophyta
Subphylum: Angiospermae
Class: Monocotyledonae
Order: Cyperales
Family: Poaceae
Genus: Avena
Species: Avena sterilis

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

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A number of Avena species, including both weeds and crops, have a similar ecology and morphology and occur in temperate, arid and sub-tropical regions. The genus includes cultivated oats (Avena sativa). A. sterilis itself contains several widely-distributed sub-species, including A. sterilis subsp. sterilis, A. sterilis subsp. ludoviciana, A. sterilis subsp. atherantha, and A. sterilis subsp. macrocarpa (Garcia-Baudin et al. 1981; Scholz, 1991). A. sterilis subsp. trichophylla is possibly endemic to Corsica (Jeanmonod and Burdet, 1998).

Garcia-Baudin et al. (1981) recognized six distinct morphological groups within A. sterilis but did not describe them as sub-species.

Common names often refer to movement of the plant and panicle in the wind: for example, avoine animée ('animated oat' in French), and avena loca ('crazy oat' in Spanish).

Description

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A. sterilis is a stout broad-leaved annual grass resembling cultivated oats in general appearance (Ivens, 1989).

Stem to 1.5 m height, tufted, erect, rarely geniculate, not branching, not rooting at the nodes, nodes sometimes hairy. Leaf blades 60 cm long, 6-14 mm wide, 30-40 times as long as wide, linear, not hairy. Ligule 2 mm long, membranous, truncate, sheath often on lower leaves. Inflorescence an equilateral or slightly one-sided panicle, 15-45 cm long, 8-25 cm wide. Spikelets with 2-5 florets of which only the lowest has a basal scar, pedicelled, disarticulating above the glumes, but not between the florets. Glumes equal, 30-50 mm long, 9-11 nerved. Lemmas 15-40 mm long, 7 nerved, bidentate, the uppermost awnless, the lower two with a 5-8 cm long bent and twisted dorsal awn (Hafliger and Scholz, 1981; Ivens, 1989; Stace, 1997).

The sub-species sterilis differs from sub-species ludoviciana by the larger size of some reproductive parts (spikelets with 3-5 florets; longer glume 32-45 mm; lemmas 25-33 mm; ligule greater than 5 mm) (Stace, 1997).

Plant Type

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Annual
Grass / sedge
Seed propagated

Distribution

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A. sterilis is widely distributed within suitable climatic zones, being found in: parts of the USA; Central and South America; southern, eastern and northern Africa; the Iberian Peninsula; central and southeastern Europe; the Middle East; the Indian subcontinent; the Mediterranean region (Floc'h, 1991); the Caucasus (Soldatov and Loskutov, 1991); and the Himalayas (Pandey et al., 1998).

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 21 Jul 2022

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	First Reported	Reference	Notes
Africa
Algeria	Present, Localized	Native		Holm et al. (1979) Fenni et al. (2001) EPPO (2022)
Egypt	Present, Localized	Native		Holm et al. (1979) EPPO (2022)
Ethiopia	Present, Localized	Native		Holm et al. (1979) EPPO (2022)
Kenya	Present, Localized	Native		Holm et al. (1979) Ivens (1989) EPPO (2022)
Morocco	Present, Localized	Native		Holm et al. (1979) Tanji (1997) Abbad Andaloussi and Bachikh (2001) EPPO (2022) CABI (Undated)
Tanzania	Present			Ivens (1989)
Tunisia	Present, Localized	Native		Holm et al. (1979) EPPO (2022)
Zimbabwe	Present	Introduced	1959	Seebens et al. (2017)
Asia
Afghanistan	Present, Localized	Native		Holm et al. (1979) EPPO (2022)
Azerbaijan	Present	Native		Soldatov and Loskutov (1991)
China	Present	Introduced	2007	Seebens et al. (2017) Zhang ShaoMing et al. (1999)
India	Present	Native		Sahadeva Singh (2001)
-Odisha	Present			Panda and Patnaik (1996)
-Punjab	Present			Tahira and Khan (2017)
Iran	Present	Native		Beer et al. (1993)
Iraq	Present	Native		Beer et al. (1993)
Israel	Present, Localized	Native		Holm et al. (1979) Leonard et al. (2004) Tsror et al. (2019) EPPO (2022)
Japan	Present	Native		Zhang ShaoMing et al. (1999)
Jordan	Present	Native		Qasem (1996)
Lebanon	Present, Localized	Native		Holm et al. (1979) EPPO (2022)
Pakistan	Present, Localized	Native		Holm et al. (1979) Tahira and Khan (2017) EPPO (2022)
Saudi Arabia	Present			Holm et al. (1979)
Syria	Present	Native		Beer et al. (1993)
Turkey	Present	Native		Pala (2020) CABI (Undated)
Turkmenistan	Present			CABI (Undated b)
Europe
Austria	Present	Introduced	1859	Seebens et al. (2017)
Belgium	Present	Introduced	1811	Seebens et al. (2017)
Bulgaria	Present	Native		Delipavlov (1999)
Czechia	Present	Introduced	1965	Seebens et al. (2017)
Estonia	Present	Introduced	1923	Seebens et al. (2017)
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia	Present	Native		Shala (1987) CABI (Undated)
France	Present, Localized	Native		Holm et al. (1979) EPPO (2022) CABI (Undated)
Greece	Present, Localized	Native		Holm et al. (1979) EPPO (2022) CABI (Undated)
Italy	Present	Native		CABI (Undated)
Norway	Present	Introduced	1905	Seebens et al. (2017)
Poland	Present	Introduced	1910	Seebens et al. (2017)
Portugal	Present, Widespread	Native		Holm et al. (1979) Costa (1988) Caiado et al. (1992) EPPO (2022)
-Azores	Present	Introduced	1842	Seebens et al. (2017)
Russia	Present, Localized	Native		Holm et al. (1979) EPPO (2022)
Spain	Present	Native		Recasens et al. (1990)
United Kingdom	Present, Localized	Native		Holm et al. (1979) Seebens et al. (2017) EPPO (2022) CABI (Undated)
North America
Mexico	Present			CABI (Undated b)
Saint Kitts and Nevis	Present, Localized			EPPO (2022)
United States	Present			CABI (Undated b)
-California	Present			USDA-NRCS (2002)
-New Jersey	Present			USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Oregon	Present			USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Pennsylvania	Present			USDA-NRCS (2002)
Oceania
Australia	Present, Localized	Native		Holm et al. (1979) O'Donnell et al. (2002) Seebens et al. (2017) EPPO (2022) CABI (Undated)
New Zealand	Present			Edgar (1980)
South America
Argentina	Present, Localized	Native		Holm et al. (1979) EPPO (2022) CABI (Undated)
Bolivia	Present			CABI (Undated b)
Brazil	Present			CABI (Undated a)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Rio Grande do Sul	Present			Dillenburg (1984)
Chile	Present	Introduced	1958	Seebens et al. (2017)
Ecuador	Present			CABI (Undated b)
Peru	Present, Localized	Native		Holm et al. (1979) EPPO (2022) CABI (Undated)

History of Introduction and Spread

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A. sterilis is native to southern Europe and the Mediterranean region, and has been introduced into central and northern Europe and many other regions via seed contamination of wool and grain (Stace, 1997).

Turkey is a centre of isoenzyme diversity in A. sterilis (Phillips et al., 1993). It has also been suggested that the Caucasus, particularly Azerbaijan, is one of the main centres of distribution and diversity of wild and weedy species of the genus Avena, in a study including A. sterilis (Soldatov and Loskutov, 1991).

Habitat

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The native habitat of A. sterilis is disturbed ground, arable areas and roadsides, originally in southern Europe and the Mediterranean region (Stace, 1997). The plant is now found in these habitats world-wide in temperate, subtropical and semiarid regions (Das and Yaduraju, 2002; Fenni et al., 2002; O'Donnell et al., 2002).

In western Europe, A. sterilis usually occurs on heavier soils, replacing the similar species A. fatua on this soil type (Stace, 1997).

Habitat List

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Category	Sub-Category	Habitat	Presence	Status
Terrestrial	Managed	Cultivated / agricultural land	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Managed forests, plantations and orchards	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Disturbed areas	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)

Hosts/Species Affected

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A. sterilis is principally a weed of arable crops, particularly cereals.

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

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Plant name	Family	Context	References
Allium cepa (onion)	Liliaceae	Unknown	Tahira and Khan (2017)
cereals		Other
Hordeum spp.	Poaceae	Other
Solanum tuberosum (potato)	Solanaceae	Unknown	Tsror et al. (2019)
Triticum spp.	Poaceae	Main
Vicia faba (faba bean)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Abbad and Bachikh (2001)

Growth Stages

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Post-harvest, Seedling stage, Vegetative growing stage

Biology and Ecology

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Genetics

Chromosome number: 2n=42 (Stace, 1997).

In addition to crosses between A. sterilis subspecies, A. sterilis hybridizes with other Avena species such as A. sativa (Sereno-Tavares et al.,1995; Mariot et al., 1999) and A. nuda (Yu et al., 1998).

Physiology and Phenology

Seeds can lie dormant for up to 5 years under soil (Terry, 1984), although Sanchez del Arco et al. (1995) reported that viability in soil of a naturally-occurring infestation at Alcala de Henares, Spain, was for a maximum of 23-24 months. High temperature and soil water stress during seed maturation markedly reduce seed dormancy. Straw burning and cultivation can also lead to reduced dormancy, while plants which survive late applications of benzoylprop-ethyl or flamprop-isopropyl herbicides are also shown to produce less seed of lower viability and reduced dormancy (Peters and Wilson, 1980).

Smoke stimulates germination in A. sterilis (Adkins et al., 2000). Germination temperature ranges from a minimum of 2°C to a maximum of 30°C, with an optimum of 10° (Üremis and Uyagur, 1999). Other authors have reported optimum germination temperatures of 15°C (Mennan and Uygur, 1996) and 25°C (Hassanein et al., 1996). Differences in optima may reflect adaptation to local conditions throughout the wide range of this species.

Gibberellic acid and potassium nitrate increase the percentage germination, whereas 2,4-D causes a decrease (Mennan and Uygur, 1996).

Germination in A sterilis is inhibited by low osmotic potential more than germination of related species such as A. fatua (Fernandez-Quintanilla et al., 1990).

Reproductive Biology

Reproduction of A. sterilis is by seed. Each plant can produce up to 200 seeds, although Fernandez-Quintanilla et al. (1986) reported that average adult fecundity of a natural population in central Spain varied from 13 to 21 seeds/plant. Sanchez del Arco et al. (1995) reported a weed population of 298 panicles/m² giving a total seed production of 2828 seeds/m².

Environmental Requirements

Suitable climates include temperate climates with winter or summer rainfall, and sub-tropical climate with mainly summer rainfall (Wells et al., 1986).

Latitude/Altitude Ranges

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Latitude North (°N)	Latitude South (°S)	Altitude Lower (m)	Altitude Upper (m)
0	0	0	0

Rainfall

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Parameter	Lower limit	Upper limit	Description
Mean annual rainfall	0	0	mm; lower/upper limits

Rainfall Regime

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Winter

Soil Tolerances

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Soil drainage

free
impeded
seasonally waterlogged

Soil texture

heavy
medium

Notes on Natural Enemies

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A. sterilis shows variable susceptibility to barley yellow dwarf virus (BYDV), with resistant lines more prevalent in certain countries or areas within a country (Comeau, 1982). It is a host for Sclerophthora macrospora (Singh and Bedi, 1991). It is also susceptible to crown rust (Puccinia coronata f.sp. avenae) and stem rust (caused by Puccinia graminis f. sp. avenae), which are considered the most widespread and damaging diseases of Avena spp. (Niekerk et al., 2001).

A. sterilis is a host for Ditylenchus dipsaci (Nematoda) a pest of vegetable crops in the Mediterranean region (Abbad Andaloussi and Bachikh, 2001). It is also susceptible to Pratylenchus neglectus and a possible fallow/rotation host for this pest (Vanstone and Russ, 2001).

Means of Movement and Dispersal

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Natural Dispersal (Non-biotic)

Wind is of little significance in dispersal of A. sterilis (Terry, 1984).

Vector Transmission (Biotic)

Birds and other animals collect, store and drop A. sterilis seeds (Terry, 1984).

Accidental Introduction

Anthropogenic dispersal is of great significance: A. sterilis has spread in Europe as a seed and wool contaminant (Stace, 1997). There is likely to be much international movement of the weed seed as a grain contaminant; it has been detected in imported wheat in India (Singh, 2001). Terry (1984) also lists contamination of machinery, grain sacks, straw, hay, fodder grain and livestock with the seeds of this species as likely mechanisms of transmission.

Pathway Vectors

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Vector	Notes	Long Distance	Local	References
Containers and packaging - wood	Grain sack contaminant	Yes
Plants or parts of plants	Wheat grain contaminant	Yes

Plant Trade

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Plant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transport	Pest stages	Borne internally	Borne externally	Visibility of pest or symptoms
Flowers/Inflorescences/Cones/Calyx	weeds/seeds
Fruits (inc. pods)	weeds/seeds
Growing medium accompanying plants	weeds/seeds
Leaves	weeds/seeds
Seedlings/Micropropagated plants	weeds/whole plants
Stems (above ground)/Shoots/Trunks/Branches	weeds/seeds
True seeds (inc. grain)	weeds/seeds

Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport
Bark
Bulbs/Tubers/Corms/Rhizomes
Roots
Wood

Impact Summary

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Category	Impact
Animal/plant collections	None
Animal/plant products	None
Biodiversity (generally)	None
Crop production	Negative
Environment (generally)	None
Fisheries / aquaculture	None
Forestry production	None
Human health	None
Livestock production	None
Native fauna	None
Native flora	None
Rare/protected species	None
Tourism	None
Trade/international relations	None
Transport/travel	None

Impact

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A. sterilis is a contaminant of cereal grain and seeds (Malik et al., 1985). It competes with and reduces yield in arable crops, and is a principal arable weed in many areas of the world.

A. sterilis is increasing in importance in Italy (Speranza et al., 1990) and is an important weed in Spain (Recasens et al., 1996), and in vineyards in Lagoa (Portugal) (Caiado, 1992). Walia et al. (2001) recorded wheat losses of between 1.06 and 15% with 3 wild oat plants/m², up to 30-40% loss with 10 wild oat plants/m² and nearly 50% loss with 30 wild oat plants/m². In another experiment, A. sterilis competition caused an average wheat yield loss of 35% in India (Walia and Brar, 2001).

A. sterilis is the most common and dense weed in wheat fields of Cukurova, Turkey (Kadiolu et al., 1998), and a locally important weed in Diyarbakir province, Turkey (Demir and Tepe, 2001). It is also considered a major weed of arable crops in the NW Himalayas by Pandey et al. (1998).

Ninety-eight out of 121 paddocks sampled by O'Donnell et al. (2002) in the northern grain-growing region of Australia were dominated by A. sterilis. Terry (1984) reports that 30-40,000 hectares of cereal-growing land in E. Africa are infested with wild oats (including both A. sterilis and A. fatua) and that this species is one of the most serious threats to wheat and barley production in East Africa.

Risk and Impact Factors

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Invasiveness

Invasive in its native range
Proved invasive outside its native range
Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
Has high reproductive potential
Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year

Impact outcomes

Negatively impacts agriculture

Impact mechanisms

Competition - monopolizing resources

Likelihood of entry/control

Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Difficult/costly to control

Uses

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A. sterilis has been used to increase resistance of a cultivated oat strain to Puccinia coronata through introgression (Brinkman et al., 1989).

The possible use of A. sterilis and other weeds for vegetation renovation in degraded semi-arid pasture has been investigated (Ichizen et al., 1993).

Uses List

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Genetic importance

Gene source for disease resistance
Gene source for high yields

Materials

Poisonous to mammals

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

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A. sterilis is broadly similar in morphology and habitats to A. fatua. Both species have rachilla disarticulating at maturity at least above the glumes, often also between florets, hence at least the lowest floret has a basal scar; lemmas with long, strongly-bent awns, usually pubescent. In A. sterilis, the rachilla disarticulates at maturity above the glumes only, releasing 2-3-fruited disseminules, hence only the lowest floret has a (ovate) basal scar. However, in A. fatua the rachilla disarticulates at maturity between the florets, releasing 1-fruited disseminules each with an ovate basal scar. The longer glume in A. sterilis is mostly 25-30 mm, compared with 18-25 mm in A. fatua (Stace, 1997).

Also morphologically similar is A. insularis but this species can be distinguished by its smaller and more condensed panicle, less V-shaped dispersal unit, and oblong disarticulation scar (Ladizinsky, 1998).

Prevention and Control

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Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Cultural Control

A. sterilis can be controlled by strategic crop rotations, using summer crops to compress A. sterilis emergence and facilitate easier chemical control (Purvis, 1990).

Soil solarization completely controlled A. sterilis in arable fields in New Delhi, India (Yaduraju and Ahuja, 1996). Terry (1984) recommends early cultivation to promote a germination flush of Avena spp., with weed seedlings being destroyed by further cultivation before sowing crop seed. Hand-pulling of established plants can also be used.

Increasing the crop sowing rate can be used to reduce weed impact. Terry (1984) recommends doubling the sowing rate in areas infested with Avena spp.

Control via crop rotation is best achieved by a crop which allows maximum weed emergence followed by total elimination of seed shedding, such as cereals cut green for forage (Terry, 1984).

Mechanical Control

Hand-weeding to remove A. sterilis at 3 and 4 weeks after sowing the crop gave the highest crop yield in a study in India, but narrow row spacing (15 cm) and cross-sowing of rows also significantly reduced weed density (Sharma et al., 1989).

Chemical Control

Pre-crop-emergence applications of herbicide may not be effective, since A. sterilis may establish later than the crop but thereafter exhibit a faster rate of growth (Thomas and Yaduraju, 2000).

Correct timing and rate of herbicide application is critical to maximize control of partially resistant wild oats. Full rates applied to early growth stages (2-3 leaves) have been shown to be capable of good control. Later applications give poorer control (Moss et al., 2001).

Effective compounds

Atrazine, barban, chlorfenprop, difenzoquat, EPTC, glyphosate, linuron, metribuzin, metoxuron and monolinuron give control or suppression of Avena spp. (Terry, 1984). Imazamethabenz gives good to complete control of emerged A. sterilis in various cropping systems including barley (Navarrete and Fernandez-Quintanilla, 1990).

Isoproturon provides satisfactory control of A. sterilis (Balyan, 2001), and no resistance to this herbicide has been detected (Moss et al., 2001). There has also been no resistance found to tri-allate or difenzoquat (Moss et al., 2001).

Sulfosulfuron is safe to apply to bread wheat and gave an effective level of control (87%) of A. sterilis (Hamal et al., 2000). Applying trifluralin and fluchloralin gave an effective level of control of a range of weeds including A. sterilis at Ludhiana, India (Sandhu et al., 1998).

Less effective compounds

Effective control by the 'fop' (aryloxyphenoxypropionate) compounds was reported in the 1990s for herbicides such as fluazifop-p, haloxyfop, fenoxaprop and diclofop-methyl (Terry, 1984; Singh and Singh, 1998; Singh and Yadav, 1998; Fenni et al., 2001b) but a number of other reports indicate resistance and advise against sole use of fops for controlling A. sterilis (Mansooji et al., 1992; Moss et al., 2001; Sattin et al., 2001).

Of the 'dim' (cyclohexanedione) compounds, cycloxydim gave effective control of A. sterilis in durum wheat crops in Italy (Tallevi et al., 1998). However, Mansooji et al. (1992) detected low levels of resistance to sethoxydim, tralkoxydim and cycloxydim, and more recently Moss et al. (2001) recommended the avoidance of sole use of 'dims' to prevent the spread of resistance.

Integrated Control

Jones and Medd (1997) provide evidence that integrated management of A. sterilis, aimed at minimizing the size of the soil seed bank, is the most economically rational approach to its control.

Milling of animal feed before distribution, use of clean seed for planting, avoidance of straw/hay from contaminated areas, and thorough cleaning of machinery after use is likely to prevent the spread of A. sterilis (Terry, 1984).

References

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_remis IU; Uyagur FN, 1999. Cukurova b÷lgesindeki ÷nemli bazi yabanci ot tohumlarinin minimum, optimum ve maksimum cimlenme sicakliklari. (Minimum, optimum and maximum germination temperatures of some important weed species in the Cukurova Region of Turkey). Tnrkiye Herboloji Dergisi, 2(2):1-12.

Abbad Andaloussi, F., Bachikh, J., 2001. Studies on the host range of Ditylenchus dipsaci in Morocco. Nematologia Mediterranea, 29(1), 51-57.

Abbad Andaloussi; Bachikh; J, 2001. Studies on the host range of Ditylenchus dipsaci in Morocco. Nematologia Mediterranea, 29(1):51-57.

Adkins SW; Davidson PJ; Matthew L; Navie SC; Wills DA; Taylor IN; Bellairs SM, 2000. Smoke and germination of arable and rangeland weeds. In: Black M, Bradford KJ, Vazquez-Ramos J, eds. Seed biology: advances and applications. Proceedings of the Sixth International Workshop on Seeds, Merida, Mexico, 1999, 347-359.

Aujas C; Darmency H, 1984. The concept of species in wild oats: Avena fatua L. and A. sterilis L. Comptes rendu du 7eme colloque international sur l'ecologie, la biologie et la systematique des mauvaises herbes Paris, France; COLUMA/EWRS, Vol. 1:219-227

Balyan RS, 2001. Evaluation of new herbicides against mixed weed flora in wheat. Indian Journal of Weed Science, 33(3/4):104-106; 4 ref.

Beer SC; Goffreda J; Phillips TD; Murphy JP; Sorrells ME, 1993. Assessment of genetic variation in Avena sterilis using morphological traits, isozymes, and RFLPs. Crop Science, 33(6):1386-1393

Brinkman MA; McDaniel ME; Shands; HL; Burnette DC; Weaver SH, 1989. Breeding oat cultivars suitable for production in developing countries - 1988. Madison, USA: University of Wisconsin. 84 pp.

Caiado V; Espirito-Santo MD; Moreira I, 1992. Principal weeds of vineyards in the Lagoa region (Portugal). Proceedings of the 1992 Congress of the Spanish Weed Science Society Madrid, Spain; Sociedad Espanola de Malherbologia, 119-123

Comeau A, 1982. Geographic distribution of resistance to barley yellow dwarf virus in Avena sterilis. Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology, 4(2):147-151

Costa JC, 1988. Morphological study of wild oats in Portugal. VIIIe Colloque International sur la Biologie, l'Ecologie et la Systematique des Mauvaises Herbes Paris, France; A.N.P.P., Vol. 2:315-323

Damanak ME, 1982. Survey of grass weeds in wheat fields in central Greece. Zizaniologia 1(1): 23-27.

Delipavlov D, 1999. Genus Avena L. (oats) in the flora of Bulgaria. Thaiszia - Journal of Botany, 9(1):19-26; 18 ref.

Demir A; Tepe I, 2001. Distribution and density of weeds in chickpea cultivation areas in Diyarbakir province in Turkey. Tu^umlaut~rkiye Herboloji Dergisi, 4(1):21-29; 15 ref.

Dhima KV; Eleftherohorinos IG; Vasilakoglou IB, 2000. Interference between Avena sterilis, Phalaris minor and five barley cultivars. Weed Research (Oxford), 40(6):549-559; 16 ref.

Dillenburg CR, 1984. Identification of Avena species (Graminep) collected in the State of Rio Grande do Sul (Brazil). Anuario Tecnico do Instituto de Pesquisas Zootecnicas 'Francisco Osorio', 11:65-102

Edgar E, 1980. The identification of oats growing wild in New Zealand. Proceedings of the 33rd New Zealand Weed and Pest Control Conference, 1980., 230-236

EPPO, 2014. PQR database. Paris, France: European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization. http://www.eppo.int/DATABASES/pqr/pqr.htm

Fenni M; Maillet J; Shakir AN, 2001. Floristic and agronomic aspects of cereal weeds in the Constantine high plains. Mededelingen - Faculteit Landbouwkundige en Toegepaste Biologische Wetenschappen, Universiteit Gent, 66(2b):797-801; 12 ref.

Fenni M; Shakir AN; Maillet J, 2001. Comparative efficacy of five herbicides on winter cereal weeds in semi-arid region of Algeria. Mededelingen - Faculteit Landbouwkundige en Toegepaste Biologische Wetenschappen, Universiteit Gent, 66(2b):791-795; 6 ref.

Fernandez-Quintanilla C; Gonzalez Andujar JL; Appleby AP, 1990. Characterization of the germination and emergence response to temperature and soil moisture of Avena fatua and A. sterilis. Weed Research (Oxford), 30(4):289-295

Fernandez-Quintanilla C; Navarrete L; Andujar JLG; Fernandez A; Sanchez MJ, 1986. Seedling recruitment and age-specific survivorship and reproduction in populations of Avena sterilis L. ssp. ludoviciana (Durieu) Nyman. Journal of Applied Ecology, 23(3):945-955

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