Preferred Scientific Name
- leptospirosis
International Common Names
- English: leptospirosis in cattle; leptospirosis in sheep and goats; leptospirosis in swine; redwater of calves
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Generate reportLeptospires are motile bacteria with hook-shaped ends, and internal flagella. They can be found in aquatic environments and are sensitive to desiccation. They are Gram-negative, do not stain well, but can be visualized using dark-field microscopy. Leptospires in tissues can be detected by silver impregnation and immunological staining techniques. Leptospirosis can affect all domestic animals and humans, and can vary in severity from mild infections of the urinary or genital tract to serious systemic disease. They are usually excreted in urine. Leptospirosis is a serious zoonotic disease.
Leptospira has several pathogenic species, including Leptospira kirschneri, Leptospira interrogans, Leptospira noguchii, Leptospira borgpetersenii, Leptospira santarosai and Leptospira weilii. These species are divided into over 250 different serovars in 23 different serogroups. Serologically similar leptospires can belong to different species; for example, serovar hardjo belongs to two species interrogans and borgpetersenii, because common surface antigens are shared by the two species which are genetically separate.
Animal name | Context | Life stage | System |
---|---|---|---|
Bos indicus (zebu) | Domesticated host | ||
Bos taurus (cattle) | Domesticated host | ||
Camelus dromedarius (dromedary camel) | Domesticated host | ||
Canis familiaris (dogs) | Domesticated host | ||
Capra hircus (goats) | Domesticated host | ||
Equus | |||
Felis | |||
Homo sapiens | Wild host | ||
Lama glama (llamas) | Domesticated host | ||
Lama pacos (alpacas) | Domesticated host | ||
Ovis aries (sheep) | Domesticated host | ||
Phoca vitulina | |||
Sus scrofa (pigs) | Domesticated host |
In maintenance hosts the disease is often mild or latent, and there is prolonged excretion of the leptospires in urine. Other species that become infected are termed incidental hosts. Incidental hosts are usually less susceptible to infection, develop more severe disease, and are less efficient transmitters of the leptospire to other hosts. The following table shows the maintenance and incidental hosts for serovars of Leptospira interrogans:
Serovar | Maintenance hosts | Incidental hosts |
pomona | pigs, cattle | sheep, horses, dogs |
icterohaemorrhagiae | brown rat | humans, domestic animals |
hardjo | cattle | humans |
grippotyphosa | rodents | cattle, pigs, horses, dogs |
canicola | dogs | pigs, cattle |
bratislava | pigs, hedgehogs | horses, dogs |
The main causes of leptospirosis in pigs and ruminants are the following serovars of L. interrogans:
Serovar | Hosts | Clinical signs |
pomona | cattle, sheep | acute haemolytic disease in calves and lambs; abortion |
" | pigs | reproductive failure; septicaemia in piglets |
icterohaemorrhagiae | cattle, sheep, pigs | abortion; acute haemolytic disease in calves and lambs |
grippotyphosa | cattle, pigs | abortion; septicaemic disease in young animals |
canicola | pigs | abortion/stillbirth; kidney disease in young pigs |
bratislava | pigs | abortion, reproductive failure, stillbirth |
tarassovi | pigs | abortion, stillbirth, abortion |
hardjo* | cattle, sheep | abortion, stillbirth, agalactiae, mastitis |
* Serovar hardjo can be of Leptospira interrogans or Leptospira borgpetersenii. Some authors claim recently that Leptospira borgpetersenii serovar hardjo is the commonest cause of bovine leptospirosis, whereas earlier literature considers that Leptospira interrogans serovar hardjo is the commoner cause (Naiman et al., 2001).
The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 10 Jan 2020Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Botswana | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Central African Republic | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Comoros | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Congo, Democratic Republic of the | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Congo, Republic of the | Absent, Unconfirmed presence record(s) | ||||||
Côte d'Ivoire | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Djibouti | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Egypt | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Gabon | Present | ||||||
Ghana | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Kenya | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Lesotho | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Libya | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Madagascar | Present | ||||||
Malawi | Absent, Unconfirmed presence record(s) | ||||||
Mauritius | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Mozambique | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Namibia | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Réunion | Present | ||||||
Rwanda | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Seychelles | Present | ||||||
Sierra Leone | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
South Africa | Present | ||||||
Sudan | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Togo | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Tunisia | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Zimbabwe | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Asia |
|||||||
Armenia | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Azerbaijan | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Bahrain | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Bangladesh | Present | ||||||
Bhutan | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
India | Present, Localized | ||||||
Indonesia | Present | ||||||
Iran | Present | ||||||
Iraq | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Israel | Present | ||||||
Japan | Present | ||||||
Jordan | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Kazakhstan | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Kuwait | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Kyrgyzstan | Present, Localized | ||||||
Lebanon | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Malaysia | Present | ||||||
-Peninsular Malaysia | Present, Serological evidence and/or isolation of the agent | ||||||
-Sarawak | Present, Serological evidence and/or isolation of the agent | ||||||
Maldives | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Mongolia | Present | ||||||
Myanmar | Present | ||||||
Nepal | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
North Korea | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Oman | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Pakistan | Present, Localized | ||||||
Saudi Arabia | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Singapore | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
South Korea | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Sri Lanka | Present | ||||||
Syria | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Tajikistan | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Thailand | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
United Arab Emirates | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Vietnam | Present | ||||||
Europe |
|||||||
Albania | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Belarus | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Belgium | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Bosnia and Herzegovina | Present | ||||||
Bulgaria | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Croatia | Present | ||||||
Cyprus | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Czechia | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Denmark | Present | ||||||
Estonia | Present | ||||||
Finland | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Germany | Present | ||||||
Greece | Present, Localized | ||||||
Hungary | Present | ||||||
Iceland | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Isle of Man | Present | ||||||
Italy | Present | ||||||
Jersey | Present | ||||||
Latvia | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Liechtenstein | Absent, Unconfirmed presence record(s) | ||||||
Lithuania | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Luxembourg | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Malta | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Moldova | Present | ||||||
Montenegro | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Netherlands | Present | ||||||
North Macedonia | Present, Localized | ||||||
Norway | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Poland | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Portugal | Present | ||||||
Romania | Present | ||||||
Russia | Present | ||||||
Serbia | Present | ||||||
Serbia and Montenegro | Present | ||||||
Slovakia | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Slovenia | Present | ||||||
Spain | Present | ||||||
Sweden | Present | ||||||
Switzerland | Present | ||||||
Ukraine | Present | ||||||
United Kingdom | Present | ||||||
-Northern Ireland | Present | ||||||
North America |
|||||||
Barbados | Present | ||||||
Belize | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Bermuda | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Canada | Present | ||||||
Costa Rica | Present | ||||||
Cuba | Present | ||||||
Curaçao | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Dominica | Present | ||||||
Dominican Republic | Present | ||||||
El Salvador | Present | ||||||
Greenland | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Guadeloupe | Present | ||||||
Guatemala | Present | ||||||
Haiti | Absent, Unconfirmed presence record(s) | ||||||
Honduras | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Jamaica | Present | ||||||
Martinique | Present | ||||||
Mexico | Present | ||||||
Nicaragua | Present | ||||||
Panama | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Saint Kitts and Nevis | Present | ||||||
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | Present | ||||||
United States | Present | ||||||
Oceania |
|||||||
Australia | Present | ||||||
French Polynesia | Present | ||||||
New Caledonia | Present | ||||||
New Zealand | Present | ||||||
Samoa | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Vanuatu | Present, Serological evidence and/or isolation of the agent | ||||||
South America |
|||||||
Argentina | Present | ||||||
Bolivia | Absent, Unconfirmed presence record(s) | ||||||
Brazil | Present | ||||||
Chile | Present | ||||||
Colombia | Present | ||||||
Ecuador | Present | ||||||
Falkland Islands | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
French Guiana | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Guyana | Present | ||||||
Paraguay | Present | ||||||
Peru | Absent, Unconfirmed presence record(s) | ||||||
Uruguay | Present | ||||||
Venezuela | Present |
Sign | Life Stages | Type |
---|---|---|
Cardiovascular Signs / Tachycardia, rapid pulse, high heart rate | Sign | |
Cardiovascular Signs / Tachycardia, rapid pulse, high heart rate | Sign | |
Digestive Signs / Anorexia, loss or decreased appetite, not nursing, off feed | Sign | |
Digestive Signs / Anorexia, loss or decreased appetite, not nursing, off feed | Sign | |
Digestive Signs / Anorexia, loss or decreased appetite, not nursing, off feed | Sign | |
Digestive Signs / Diarrhoea | Sign | |
Digestive Signs / Rumen hypomotility or atony, decreased rate, motility, strength | Sign | |
General Signs / Fever, pyrexia, hyperthermia | Sign | |
General Signs / Fever, pyrexia, hyperthermia | Sign | |
General Signs / Fever, pyrexia, hyperthermia | Sign | |
General Signs / Icterus, jaundice | Sign | |
General Signs / Icterus, jaundice | Sign | |
General Signs / Icterus, jaundice | Sign | |
General Signs / Pale mucous membranes or skin, anemia | Sign | |
General Signs / Pale mucous membranes or skin, anemia | Sign | |
General Signs / Petechiae or ecchymoses, bruises, ecchymosis | Sign | |
General Signs / Reluctant to move, refusal to move | Sign | |
General Signs / Sudden death, found dead | Sign | |
General Signs / Sudden death, found dead | Sign | |
General Signs / Underweight, poor condition, thin, emaciated, unthriftiness, ill thrift | Sign | |
General Signs / Weight loss | Sign | |
Nervous Signs / Dullness, depression, lethargy, depressed, lethargic, listless | Sign | |
Nervous Signs / Dullness, depression, lethargy, depressed, lethargic, listless | Sign | |
Nervous Signs / Dullness, depression, lethargy, depressed, lethargic, listless | Sign | |
Nervous Signs / Seizures or syncope, convulsions, fits, collapse | Sign | |
Pain / Discomfort Signs / Skin pain | Sign | |
Reproductive Signs / Abortion or weak newborns, stillbirth | Sign | |
Reproductive Signs / Abortion or weak newborns, stillbirth | Sign | |
Reproductive Signs / Abortion or weak newborns, stillbirth | Sign | |
Reproductive Signs / Agalactia, decreased, absent milk production | Sign | |
Reproductive Signs / Agalactia, decreased, absent milk production | Sign | |
Reproductive Signs / Bloody milk, red, pink, brown milk | Sign | |
Reproductive Signs / Female infertility, repeat breeder | Sign | |
Reproductive Signs / Mastitis, abnormal milk | Sign | |
Reproductive Signs / Mummy, mummified fetus | Sign | |
Reproductive Signs / Small litter size | Sign | |
Respiratory Signs / Dyspnea, difficult, open mouth breathing, grunt, gasping | Sign | |
Respiratory Signs / Dyspnea, difficult, open mouth breathing, grunt, gasping | Sign | |
Respiratory Signs / Increased respiratory rate, polypnea, tachypnea, hyperpnea | Sign | |
Skin / Integumentary Signs / Skin erythema, inflammation, redness | Sign | |
Urinary Signs / Haematuria, blood in urine | Sign | |
Urinary Signs / Haematuria, blood in urine | Sign | |
Urinary Signs / Haemoglobinuria or myoglobinuria | Sign | |
Urinary Signs / Haemoglobinuria or myoglobinuria | Sign | |
Urinary Signs / Haemoglobinuria or myoglobinuria | Sign | |
Urinary Signs / Red or brown urine, pink | Sign | |
Urinary Signs / Red or brown urine, pink | Sign | |
Urinary Signs / Red or brown urine, pink | Sign |
Acute leptospirosis is seen mainly in calves. They show signs of fever, anorexia, pass red urine, are jaundiced and many die within 3 to 5 days. Survivors are usually unthrifty for the rest of their lives. Decreased reproductive performance can also indicate the presence of leptospirosis. Leptospirosis can cause stillbirths and abortions in late pregnancy. A cow may show no signs of illness before or after the abortion or stillbirth. Leptospirosis can decrease a calf drop by 40% or more during a bad epidemic. Mastitis may also be caused by leptospirosis. Cows show signs of fever and depression and go off their feed. The udder is flaccid in all four quarters and milk yield decreases. Milk is yellowish and may contain red flecks but usually returns to normal in 4 to 5 days, full production being restored after 2 to 3 weeks. Within a herd where there are cases of acute leptospiral mastitis, a large number of cows will show no signs of disease, but will have a fall in milk production. Several weeks later these cows may then abort.
Cattle that recover may become carriers and shed the organism in their urine. The organism can colonize the kidneys and cause nephritis and lead to excretion of the bacteria in urine (Yener and Keles, 2001; for further discussion, see Epidemiology section).
Leptospira pomona and L. hardjo can cause localized renal infections in young animals, leading to diarrhoea, anaemia, haemoglobinuria and abortion.The kidneys are swollen, with multi-focal petechial and ecchymotic haemorrhages that become pale with time. The liver may be swollen, with minute areas of focal necrosis. Petechial haemorrhages in other organs are seen in fulminating cases, however, in the more prevalent Leptospirahardjo infections, the lesions are primarily restricted to the kidneys.
Leptospirosis in pigs causes reproductive losses in breeding herds throughout the world. Losses are due to abortion, stillbirths, weak piglets, and reduced fertility. Pigs are maintenance hosts for serovars of the pomona, australis and tarassovi serogroups, while strains of serogroups canicola, icterohaemorrhagiae, and grippotyphosa are often incidental infections. The most important serovar in pigs is pomona, which is found worldwide. Other serovars found in pigs are tarrassovi, bratislava, canicola, copenhageni, and icterohaemorrhagiae.
Cattle that recover from leptospirosis may become carriers and shed the organism in their urine. The organism can colonize the kidneys and cause nephritis and lead to excretion of the bacteria in urine (Yener and Keles, 2001). Cattle can shed leptospirosis in the urine for over 12 months.
If the urine is passed into an environment favourable to the bacteria, for example into moist, shaded areas with moderate temperatures, the bacteria can survive for a number of weeks. Survival in the environment can also be extended if the bacterium is picked up by carrier animals (rats, wild pigs, bandicoots, etc.) which can then re-infect the herd with their urine. Leptospires are able to penetrate the membranes of the mouth, nose, eyes and broken skin. Muddy areas around water troughs, water holes and dams are sites of infection. Pigs can act as long-term carriers of serovars pomona and tarassovi. Therefore leptospirosis is more likely on mixed dairy-pig properties or when feral pigs are present. As well as transmission via urine, sexual transmission is an important source of infection (Heinemann et al., 2000).
Leptospirosis presents an important zoonotic risk to people working closely with pigs.
Treatment includes antibiotic therapy. Administration of streptomycin, chlortetracycline or oxytetracycline in the early stages of infection reduces the number of leptospires in the tissues and the amount of excreted organisms.
It is possible to eradicate leptospirosis from infected farms by a combination of vaccination, diagnostic tests, drugs and improved hygiene and biosecurity. The greatest threat to eradication schemes is the introduction of infected animals and contact with infected rodents or wild animals (including contact with feral pigs). Vaccination against leptospirosis is common in pigs and cattle. Most vaccines are formalin inactivated, and contain one or more serovars, with aluminium hydroxide adjuvant. Pregnant cows should be vaccinated promptly with killed vaccine. All cattle aged more than 6 months should be vaccinated, with a booster, after 4 weeks. Cows should have an annual booster at mid-pregnancy or at drying off. A monovalent vaccine against Leptospira borgpetersenii serovar hardjo can prevent it colonising the kidneys and greatly reduce excretion of the bacteria (Bolin and Alt, 2001).
For pig farms, control depends on combined use of antibiotic therapy, vaccination, and husbandry (including strict biosecurity with rodent control). Outbreaks should be controlled with streptomycin at 25 mg/kg, and vaccination of at-risk stock, followed by a vaccination programme. If vaccination is not possible, a programme of medicated feed (chlortetracycline or oxytetracycline 600-800g/ton of feed) fed continuously or 'one month on one month off', can be used (Ellis, 1999)
Ellis WA, 1999. Leptospirosis. In: Diseases of swine, 8th edition. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Science, 483-354.
OIE Handistatus, 2002. World Animal Health Publication and Handistatus II (dataset for 2001). Paris, France: Office International des Epizooties.
OIE Handistatus, 2003. World Animal Health Publication and Handistatus II (dataset for 2002). Paris, France: Office International des Epizooties.
OIE Handistatus, 2004. World Animal Health Publication and Handistatus II (data set for 2003). Paris, France: Office International des Epizooties.
OIE Handistatus, 2005. World Animal Health Publication and Handistatus II (data set for 2004). Paris, France: Office International des Epizooties.
OIE, 2009. World Animal Health Information Database - Version: 1.4. World Animal Health Information Database. Paris, France: World Organisation for Animal Health. http://www.oie.int
OIE, 2012. World Animal Health Information Database. Version 2. World Animal Health Information Database. Paris, France: World Organisation for Animal Health. http://www.oie.int/wahis_2/public/wahid.php/Wahidhome/Home
Radostits OM, Blood DC, Gay CC, 1994. Diseases caused by Leptospira. In: Veterinary Medicine: a textbook of the diseases of cattle, sheep, pigs, goats and horses. London, UK: Bailliere Tindall, 884-898.
Yener Z, Keles H, 2001. Immunoperoxidase and histopathological examinations of leptospiral nephritis in cattle. Journal of Veterinary Medicine A, Physiology Pathology Clinical Medicine, 48(7):441-447.
OIE Handistatus, 2005. World Animal Health Publication and Handistatus II (dataset for 2004)., Paris, France: Office International des Epizooties.
OIE, 2009. World Animal Health Information Database - Version: 1.4., Paris, France: World Organisation for Animal Health. https://www.oie.int/
OIE, 2012. World Animal Health Information Database. Version 2., Paris, France: World Organisation for Animal Health. https://www.oie.int/wahis_2/public/wahid.php/Wahidhome/Home
Website | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
CFSPH – Fast factsheet | http://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/FastFacts/pdfs/leptospirosis_F.pdf | |
CFSPH – Technical factsheet | http://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/Factsheets/pdfs/leptospirosis.pdf | |
CFSPH: Animal Disease Information | http://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/DiseaseInfo/index.php | "Animal Disease Information" provides links to various information sources, including fact sheets and images, on over 150 animal diseases of international significance. |
Leptospirosis – CDC information page | http://www.cdc.gov/leptospirosis/ | |
Leptospirosis – OIE Manual | http://www.oie.int/fileadmin/Home/eng/Health_standards/tahm/2.01.09_LEPTO.pdf | |
Leptospirosis – wetlands information factsheet | http://www.wwt.org.uk/uploads/documents/1341561607_RWDM4DiseaseFactsheetsLeptospirosis.pdf | |
Leptospirosis – WHO information page | http://www.who.int/zoonoses/institutions/Leptospirosis/en/index.html | |
Leptospirosis in Cattle – FAO Report | http://www.fao.org/prods/gap/database/gap/files/1358_LEPTO.PDF | |
OIE Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals | http://www.oie.int/en/international-standard-setting/terrestrial-manual/access-online/ | The Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals (Terrestrial Manual) aims to facilitate international trade in animals and animal products and to contribute to the improvement of animal health services world-wide. The principal target readership is laboratories carrying out veterinary diagnostic tests and surveillance, plus vaccine manufacturers and regulatory authorities in Member Countries. The objective is to provide internationally agreed diagnostic laboratory methods and requirements for the production and control of vaccines and other biological products. |
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