Asystasia gangetica (chinese violet)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Soil Tolerances
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Impact Summary
- Environmental Impact
- Threatened Species
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
- References
- Links to Websites
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pageIdentity
Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Asystasia gangetica (L.) T. Anderson, 1860
Preferred Common Name
- chinese violet
Other Scientific Names
- Asystasia coromandeliana Nees
- Justicia gangetica L.
International Common Names
- English: creeping foxglove; ganges primrose; philippine violet
- Spanish: asistasia; coromandel
- French: herbe le rail; herbe piment; herbe pistache
- Chinese: kuan ye shi wan cuo
Local Common Names
- Malaysia: rumput nyonya
- Mauritius: herbe pistache
- South Africa: asystasia; creeping foxglove
- Thailand: baya; yaya
EPPO code
- ASYCO (Asystasia gangetica)
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageA. gangetica is a fast growing perennial plant which is included on various lists of invasive plants, including for Cuba, Puerto Rico and Hawaii. In Australia, A. gangetica subsp. micrantha is on the National Environmental Alert List (Ismail and Shukor, 1998) while in Florida it is considered a noxious weed. The ability of A. gangetica to tolerate a remarkable range of habitats including disturbed areas, cultivated areas, and semi-waterlogged areas, as well as climates means that this species has the potential to spread much further than it has to date. Additionally, this species can form a dense ground cover, presumably competing with native species (Varnham, 2006).
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Scrophulariales
- Family: Acanthaceae
- Genus: Asystasia
- Species: Asystasia gangetica
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageThe family Acanthaceae includes about 4000 species widespread in both New and Old World Tropics. This family includes a range of morphological diversity, habitats, and biogeographic patterns. The genus Asystasia includes about 40 species of paleotropical origin (Acevedo-Rodríguez, 2005). For A. gangetica two subspecies have been identified: A. gangetica subsp. gangetica and A. gangetica subsp. micrantha. The original range of the subspecies is unclear, but it is likely that A. gangetica subsp. gangetica was limited to Asia, and A. gangetica subsp. micrantha was limited to Africa (Ismail and Shukor, 1998).
Description
Top of pagePerennial herbs, erect, decumbent, or clambering; 1-3 m in length. Stems quadrangular. Leaves opposite; blades simple, with numerous linear cystoliths on the upper surface, the secondary veins conspicuous; stipules absent. Flowers bisexual, zygomorphic, arranged in spikes on axillary branches. Calyx green, 5-7 mm long, the sepals lanceolate; corolla asymmetrically funnel-shaped, light yellow or pale violet, 2.3-5 cm long, with glandular hairs on the outer surface; stamens and pistil inserted on the floral tube. Capsules ellipsoid or club-shaped, 2-2.5 cm long, light brown when ripe, densely covered with glandular hairs; seeds 2-4 light brown, with irregular margins, lenticular (Acevedo-Rodríguez, 2005).
Distribution
Top of pageThe species A. gangetica is native to tropical Malaysia, India, and Africa, but has been introduced into tropical areas in North, Central and South America, Hawaii, West Indies, and Australia as an ornamental herb and eventually escapes into natural and disturbed areas.
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 17 Dec 2021Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Botswana | Present | Native | |||||
Cameroon | Present | Native | |||||
Côte d'Ivoire | Present | Native | |||||
Equatorial Guinea | Present | Native | |||||
Eswatini | Present | Native | |||||
Ethiopia | Present | Native | Original citation: Hedberg and Edwards (1989) | ||||
Gabon | Present | Native | |||||
Gambia | Present | Native | |||||
Ghana | Present | Native | |||||
Guinea-Bissau | Present | Native | |||||
Kenya | Present | Native | |||||
Liberia | Present | Native | |||||
Mali | Present | Native | |||||
Mauritius | Present | Native | |||||
Mayotte | Present | Introduced | 1884 | ||||
Namibia | Present | Native | |||||
Nigeria | Present | Native | |||||
Senegal | Present | Native | |||||
Sierra Leone | Present | Native | |||||
South Africa | Present | Native | |||||
Tanzania | Present | Native | |||||
Togo | Present | Native | |||||
Uganda | Present | Native | |||||
Asia |
|||||||
China | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Guangdong | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Guangxi | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Yunnan | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
India | Present | Native | |||||
Indonesia | Present | Native | |||||
Malaysia | Present | ||||||
-Peninsular Malaysia | Present | Native | |||||
Singapore | Present | ||||||
Taiwan | Present | Introduced | 2005 | ||||
North America |
|||||||
Anguilla | Present | Introduced | |||||
Bahamas | Present | Introduced | |||||
Barbados | Present | Introduced | 1898 | ||||
Belize | Present | Introduced | |||||
British Virgin Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Guana, Tortola, and Virgin Gorda | |||
Cayman Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
Cuba | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Dominican Republic | Present | Introduced | |||||
Guadeloupe | Present | Introduced | 1898 | ||||
Haiti | Present | Introduced | |||||
Jamaica | Present | Introduced | |||||
Martinique | Present | Introduced | 1898 | ||||
Netherlands Antilles | Present | Introduced | Saba Island | ||||
Puerto Rico | Present | Introduced | 1948 | Invasive | Also in Vieques Island | ||
Saint Lucia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | Present | Introduced | 1898 | ||||
U.S. Virgin Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | St. Croix, St. John, and St. Thomas | |||
United States | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Florida | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Considered a noxious weed | |||
-Hawaii | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Oceania |
|||||||
Australia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Fiji | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
French Polynesia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Guam | Present | Introduced | |||||
New Caledonia | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Niue | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Palau | Present | Introduced | |||||
Samoa | Present | Introduced | |||||
Tonga | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
South America |
|||||||
Brazil | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Rio de Janeiro | Present | Introduced | |||||
Colombia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Ecuador | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Guyana | Present | Introduced | |||||
Venezuela | Present | Introduced |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageA. gangetica was introduced as an ornamental plant into the Caribbean islands of Martinique, Guadalupe, St. Vincent and Barbados as early as 1898. Ignaz Urban, in the Symbolae Antillanae reported this species as a “culta et quasi spontanea” for these islands. This species was reported for Puerto Rico for the first time by Liogier and Martorell in 1982 (although collected in 1963) as “cultivated and escaped in moist districts” and for the Virgin Islands by Acevedo-Rodríguez in 1996 as “in gardens or escaped in disturbed areas”. In Puerto Rico, this species is known from the northern half of the island where it is considered as “quite common” (Acevedo-Rodríguez, 2005). A. gangetica was also introduced in Hawaii and in French Polynesia where it has been classified as a “potential problematic species” and by 2002 this species was included in the Global Compendium of Weeds (http://www.hear.org/gcw/). In Australia since 1998 the subspecies A. gangetica micrantha is on the National Environmental Alert List (Ismail and Shukor, 1998) and must be reported when found. In Florida it has been listed as an invasive and noxious weed since 1999 (USDA-NRCS, 2012).
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageThe risk of introduction of A. gangetica is high, mainly because this species is still used as an ornamental herb in many countries. The species is dispersed by seeds and rhizomes. The seeds are dispersed from explosive capsules, but long-distance dispersal is effected by man. The risk of introduction of rhizome material as a contaminant of soil and compost remains high in those countries where the plant is well established.
Habitat
Top of pageA. gangetica is a rapidly growing perennial, shrubby herb which grows to 1 m height and can be found along roadsides, altered natural areas, cultivated areas and riverbanks as well as in semi-waterlogged areas. In Hawaii, Pacific Islands, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands this species has been recorded in cultivated areas, urban areas, and disturbed habitats (PIER, 2012).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | ||||
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Wetlands | Secondary/tolerated habitat |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
Recent work with A. gangetica in Singapore, showed that for this species the gametic chromosome number is n=13. The somatic chromosome number for the species is therefore 2n=26, and the chromosomes generally form ring bivalents (Pandit et al., 2006).
Physiology and Phenology
A. gangetica has been collected in flower and fruit throughout the year in the West Indies (Acevedo-Rodríguez, 2005).
Longevity
A. gangetica is a rapidly growing perennial.
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
A - Tropical/Megathermal climate | Preferred | Average temp. of coolest month > 18°C, > 1500mm precipitation annually | |
Af - Tropical rainforest climate | Preferred | > 60mm precipitation per month | |
Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Preferred | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Tolerated | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Tolerated | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
- impeded
- seasonally waterlogged
Soil texture
- heavy
- light
- medium
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageA. gangetica is dispersed by seeds and by rhizomes. Seeds are dispersed from explosive capsules.
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Economic/livelihood | Positive and negative |
Environment (generally) | Negative |
Environmental Impact
Top of pageA. gangetica has been identified as a weed which can smother native plants where it has been introduced. This is possibly due to the fact that this species is a facultative climber and forms dense colonies. Further studies are needed to identify the mechanisms.
Threatened Species
Top of pageThreatened Species | Conservation Status | Where Threatened | Mechanism | References | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hylaeus assimulans (assimulans yellow-faced bee) | USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Ecosystem change / habitat alteration | US Fish and Wildlife Service (2014a) | |
Hylaeus facilis (easy yellow-faced bee) | USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Ecosystem change / habitat alteration | US Fish and Wildlife Service (2014b) | |
Hylaeus hilaris (hilaris yellow-faced bee) | USA ESA species proposed for listing | Hawaii | Ecosystem change / habitat alteration | US Fish and Wildlife Service (2014c) |
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Abundant in its native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Is a habitat generalist
- Tolerant of shade
- Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
- Long lived
- Fast growing
- Reproduces asexually
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Uses
Top of pageIn Africa (South Africa, Nigeria, Kenya, and Tanzania) the leaves are eaten as a vegetable (e.g. Mepba et al., 2007) and used as an herbal remedy in traditional medicine. The leaves are used in Nigeria for the treatment of asthma (Akah et al., 2003). It is also used as an ornamental plant in countries of the Neotropics.
Uses List
Top of pageGeneral
- Botanical garden/zoo
- Sociocultural value
Human food and beverage
- Vegetable
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
Ornamental
- Potted plant
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageAsystasia resembles the genus Dyschoriste but can be differentiated by their inflorescences. Dyschoriste has flowers arranged in cymose fascicles or singly at the axils while those of Asystasia are arranged in distal spikes or racemes (Durkee, 1986).
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Work with A. gangetica in Hawaii suggests that this species is probably sensitive to hormone-type herbicides (Motooka et al., 2003).
Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
Top of pageMore information is needed on reproductive biology of this species, and on environmental requirements for germination and establishment of seedlings and juvenile plants. Studies to evaluate the impact of the plant on native species in areas where it has been introduced, and recommendations for management and control in natural areas invaded by this species, are also needed.
References
Top of pageAcevedo-Rodríguez P, 1996. Flora of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden, 78:1-581
Acevedo-Rodríguez P, Strong MT, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, 98:1192 pp. Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm
Adams CD, 1972. Flowering Plants of Jamaica. University of the West Indies, 267
Daniel TF, 1997. Catalog of the Acanthaceae of Belize with taxonomic and phytogeographic notes. Contributions of the University of Michigan Herbarium, 21:161-174
Durkee LH, 1986. Family Acanthaceae. Fieldiana, 18:1-87. [Flora Costaricensis.]
Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2012. Flora of China Web. Cambridge, USA: Harvard University Herbaria. http://flora.huh.harvard.edu/china/
Forzza RC, Leitman PM, Costa AF, Carvalho Jr AA, et al. , 2012. List of species of the Flora of Brazil (Lista de espécies Flora do Brasil). Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Rio de Janeiro Botanic Garden. http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/2012/
González-Torres LR, Rankin R, Palmarola A (eds), 2012. Invasive plants of Cuba. (Plantas Invasoras en Cuba.) Bissea: Boletin sobre Conservacion de Plantad del Jardin Botanico Nacional, 6:1-140
Idárraga-Piedrahita A, Ortiz RDC, Callejas Posada R, Merello M, 2011. Flora of Antioquia. (Flora de Antioquia.) Catálogo de las Plantas Vasculares, vol. 2. Listado de las Plantas Vasculares del Departamento de Antioquia:939 pp
Ismail S, Shukor A, 1998. Effects of water stress, shading and clipping on growth and development of Asystasia gangetica. Plant Protection Quarterly, 13:140-142
ISSG, 2012. Global Invasive Species Database (GISD). Global Invasive Species Database (GISD). Auckland, New Zealand: University of Auckland . http://www.issg.org/database
Long RW, Lakela OK, 1971. A Flora of Tropical Florida: A Manual of the Seed Plants and Ferns of Southern Peninsular Florida. Coral Cables, USA: University of Miami Press
Mori S, Buck B, Gracie C, Tulig M, 2008. Plants and Lichens of Saba. New York, USA: New York Botanical Garden. http://sweetgum.nybg.org/saba/
Motooka P, Ching L, Nagai G, 2002. Herbicidal weed control methods for pastures and natural areas of Hawaii. Weed Control Nov. 2002 - WC-8. p1-35. http://www2.ctahr.hawaii.edu/oc/freepubs/pdf/WC-8.pdf
ORSTOM, 1988. List of vascular plants of Gabon
PIER, 2012. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Smithsonian Institution, 2012. Flora of the West Indies. Flora of the West Indies., USA: Smithsonian Institution. http://botany.si.edu/antilles/westindies/
Urban I, 1898. Symbolae Antillanae Seu Fundamenta Florae Indiae Occidentalis, vol. 1. Berolini, Fratres Borntraeger. http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/23192#page/7/mode/1up
USDA-ARS, 2012. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx
USDA-NRCS, 2012. The PLANTS Database. Baton Rouge, USA: National Plant Data Center. http://plants.usda.gov/
Varnham K, 2006. Non-native species in UK Overseas Territories: a review. Peterborough, UK. [JNCC Report 372.] http://www.jncc.gov.uk/page-3660
Wagner WL, Herbst DR, Sohmer SH, 1990. Manual of Flowering Plants of Hawaii. Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum Special Publication 83. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: University of Hawaii
Distribution References
Adams C D, 1972. Flowering plants of Jamaica. Mona, Jamaica: University of the West Indies. 848 pp.
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated b. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Daniel TF, 1997. Catalog of the Acanthaceae of Belize with taxonomic and phytogeographic notes. In: Contributions of the University of Michigan Herbarium, 21 161-174.
Durkee LH, 1986. Family Acanthaceae. In: Fieldiana, 18 1-87.
Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2012. Flora of China Web., Cambridge, USA: Harvard University Herbaria. http://flora.huh.harvard.edu/china/
Forzza RC, Leitman PM, Costa AF, Carvalho Jr AA et al, 2012. List of species of the Flora of Brazil. (Lista de espécies Flora do Brasil)., Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Rio de Janeiro Botanic Garden. http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/2012/
González-Torres LR, Rankin R, Palmarola A, 2012. Invasive plants of Cuba. (Plantas Invasoras en Cuba). In: Bissea: Boletin sobre Conservacion de Plantad del Jardin Botanico Nacional, 6 [ed. by González-Torres LR, Rankin R, Palmarola A]. 1-140.
Idárraga-Piedrahita A, Ortiz RDC, Callejas Posada R, Merello M, 2011. Flora of Antioquia. (Flora de Antioquia). In: Catálogo de las Plantas Vasculares, 2 Vasculares del Departamento de Antioquia. 939 pp.
Ismail S, Shukor A, 1998. Effects of water stress, shading and clipping on growth and development of Asystasia gangetica. In: Plant Protection Quarterly, 13 140-142.
ISSG, 2012. Global Invasive Species Database (GISD). In: Global Invasive Species Database (GISD), Auckland, New Zealand: University of Auckland. http://www.issg.org/database
Long RW, Lakela OK, 1971. A Flora of Tropical Florida: A Manual of the Seed Plants and Ferns of Southern Peninsular Florida., Coral Cables, USA: University of Miami Press.
Mori S, Buck B, Gracie C, Tulig M, 2008. Plants and Lichens of Saba., New York, USA: New York Botanical Garden. http://sweetgum.nybg.org/saba/
ORSTOM, 1988. List of vascular plants of Gabon.,
PIER, 2012. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk., Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Smithsonian Institution, 2012. Flora of the West Indies., USA: Smithsonian Institution. http://botany.si.edu/antilles/westindies/
Urban I, 1898. (Symbolae Antillanae Seu Fundamenta Florae Indiae Occidentalis)., 1 Berolini, Fratres Borntraeger. http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/23192#page/7/mode/1up
USDA-ARS, 2012. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx
Wagner WL, Herbst DR, Sohmer SH, 1990. Manual of Flowering Plants of Hawaii. In: Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum Special Publication 83, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: University of Hawaii.
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
Flora of the West Indies | http://botany.si.edu/antilles/WestIndies/ | |
Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER) | http://www.hear.org/Pier/index.html |
Contributors
Top of page16/07/12 Original text by:
Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
Pedro Acevedo-Rodríguez, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
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