Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia)

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Caption

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Adult

Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia); adult female. Lumajang, East Java, Indonesia. October 2007.

©W.A. Djatmiko (Wie146)/via wikipedia - CC BY-SA 3.0

Adult

Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia); adult male. Lumajang, East Java, Indonesia. October 2007.

©W.A. Djatmiko (Wie146)/via wikipedia - CC BY-SA 3.0

Adult

Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia); adult.

©Germano Roberto Schüür/via wikipedia - CC BY-SA 4.0

Tilapia hybrid

Tilapia, hybrid Oreochromis niloticus x O. aureus.

©Ana Milstein

GIFT strain

Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia); adult of the GIFT strain

©Benoy K. Barman

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Oreochromis niloticus (Linnaeus, 1758)

Preferred Common Name

Nile tilapia

Other Scientific Names

Chromis guentheri Steindachner, 1864
Chromis nilotica (Linnaeus, 1758)
Chromis niloticus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Oreochromis nilotica Linnaeus, 1758
Oreochromis niloticus niloticus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Perca nilotica Linnaeus, 1758
Sarotherodon niloticus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Tilapia calciati Gianferrari, 1924
Tilapia nilotica Linnaeus, 1758
Tilapia nilotica nilotica (Linnaeus, 1758)
Tilapia nilotious (Linnaeus, 1758)

International Common Names

English: cichlid; edward tilapia; mango fish; mozambique tilapia; nilotica; tilapia, Nile
Spanish: mojarra; tilapia del Nilo; tilapia nilótica
French: tilapia de Nil; tilapia du Nil
Arabic: boulti
Chinese: lou fei

Local Common Names

Cambodia: trey tilapia chhnoht
Ethiopia: koroso; qoroosoo
Germany: Nilbuntbarsch; Nil-Maulbrüter; Tilapie
Ghana: akpafiatsi; didee
India: tilapia
Israel: amnun yeor
Japan: chikadai
Kenya: chambo; ngege; nyamami
Laos: nin
Nigeria: bugu; epia; falga; garagaza; gargaza; ifunu; karfasa; karwa; mpupa; tome; tsokungi; ukuobu
Philippines: pla pla; tilapia; tilapiya
Poland: tilapia nilowa
Portugal: tilápia-do-Nilo
Senegal: wass
Sweden: munruvare
Tanzania: chambo; ngege; perege; sato
Thailand: pla nil
Uganda: ngege; uganda

Summary of Invasiveness

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The Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus, is an African freshwater cichlid and one of the world’s most important food fishes. Owing to its hardy nature, and its wide range of trophic and ecological adaptations, it has been widely introduced for aquaculture, augmentation of capture fisheries and sport fishing (Trewavas, 1983; Welcomme, 1988), and is now found in every country in the tropics. The Nile tilapia is often described as a 'pioneer' species, meaning that it thrives in disturbed habitats, opportunistically migrating and reproducing. These traits mean that Nile tilapia often outcompetes native species in areas where it has been introduced.

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Metazoa
Phylum: Chordata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Perciformes
Family: Cichlidae
Genus: Oreochromis
Species: Oreochromis niloticus

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

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Tilapia is a common name that is now applied to several genera and species of fish that were formerly classified in the genus Tilapia, in the Family Cichlidae. In the reclassification scheme developed by Trewavas (1983) the several hundred species of Tilapia were split into three genera, Oreochromis, Sarotherodon and some remained as Tilapia.

Fishbase (Froese and Pauly, 2011) provides data on the Nile tilapia as O. niloticus niloticus, distinguished from 7 other subspecies: O. niloticus filoa, baringoensis, cancellatus, eduardianus, sugutae, tana and vulcani.

Distribution

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Nile tilapia is a freshwater cichlid native to the Nile River basin; the south-western Middle East; the Niger, Benue, Volta and Senegal rivers, and the lakes Chad, Tanganyika, Albert, Edward, and Kivu (Trewavas, 1983; Daget et al., 1991). It has been introduced – mostly for farming purposes – into more than 50 countries on all the continents except Antarctica (Pullin et al., 1997), and is now found in virtually every country within the tropics.

In most areas in which Nile tilapia has been introduced, especially in southern Africa, most occurrence data records are limited to monitoring surveys conducted by various national fisheries departments. These surveys are limited to major rivers and reservoirs with viable artisanal and commercial fisheries, such as the Kafue River (Zambia), Lake Kariba (Zambia/Zimbabwe border) and Lake Chicamba (Mozambique). This paucity of information makes it difficult to ascertain exactly those areas where Nile tilapia has been introduced and to predict those areas where it is likely to spread. This can be compounded by the fact that it is often difficult to identify habitats where it has established using standard morphological identification, as Nile tipalia can interbreed with congeners.

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 10 Jan 2020

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	First Reported	Reference	Notes
Africa
Algeria	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
Botswana	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2011) Moor and Bruton (1988)
Burkina Faso	Present	Native		Froese and Pauly (2004)
Burundi	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004) FAO (1997)
Cabo Verde	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
Cameroon	Present	Native		Pullin et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Central African Republic	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004) Welcomme (1988)
Chad	Present	Native		Froese and Pauly (2004)
Comoros	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004) Trewavas (1983)
Congo, Democratic Republic of the	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004) Welcomme (1988)
Congo, Republic of the	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004) FAO (1997) Pullin et al. (1997)
Côte d'Ivoire	Present	Native		Froese and Pauly (2004)
Egypt	Present	Native		Pullin et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Eritrea	Present	Introduced		Hillman (1993) Pullin et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Ethiopia	Present	Native		Pullin et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Gabon	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004) FAO (1996)
Gambia	Present	Native		Froese and Pauly (2004)
Ghana	Present	Native		Froese and Pauly (2004)
Guinea	Present	Native		Froese and Pauly (2004)
Kenya	Present	Introduced		Ogutu-Ohwayo (1990) Ogutu-Ohwayo and Hecky (1991) Muchiri et al. (1995) Twongo (1995) Pullin et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Liberia	Present	Native		Froese and Pauly (2004) Bartley (2006)
Libya	Present	Native		Bartley (2006)
Madagascar	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004) Welcomme (1984) Pullin (1988) Leveque (1997) Reinthal and Stiassny (1997)
Malawi	Present			Pullin et al. (1997)
Mali	Present	Native		Froese and Pauly (2004)
Mauritius	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004) FAO (1997)
Mozambique	Present	Introduced		Firmat et al. (2013)	Established
Niger	Present	Native		Froese and Pauly (2004)
Nigeria	Present	Native		Pullin et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Réunion	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004) Welcomme (1988)
Rwanda	Present	Introduced		Vos and Thys Audenaerde (1990) Pullin et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004)
São Tomé and Príncipe	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004)
Senegal	Present	Native		Froese and Pauly (2004)
Sierra Leone	Present	Native		Froese and Pauly (2004) Bartley (2006)
South Africa	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997) Waal and Bills (2000) Froese and Pauly (2004) D'Amato et al. (2007) Zengeya et al. (2011) Zengeya et al. (2013) CABI (Undated)
Sudan	Present	Native		Pullin et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Tanzania	Present	Introduced		Welcomme (1988) Ogutu-Ohwayo (1990) Ogutu-Ohwayo and Hecky (1991) Twongo (1995) Pullin et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Togo	Present	Native		Froese and Pauly (2004)
Tunisia	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004) FAO (1997)
Uganda	Present	Native		Ogutu-Ohwayo (1990) Vos and Thys Audenaerde (1990) Ogutu-Ohwayo and Hecky (1991) Twongo (1995) Pullin et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Zambia	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004) Schwank (1995) Tweddle (2010)
Zimbabwe	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997) Chifamba (1998) Froese and Pauly (2004) Marshall and Tweddle (2007) Zengeya and Marshall (2007) Zengeya and Marshall (2008)
Asia
Bangladesh	Present	Introduced		Welcomme (1988) Pullin et al. (1997) Barua et al. (2001) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Bhutan	Present	Introduced		Welcomme (1988)
Brunei	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004)
Cambodia	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004) Nuov et al. (2005)
China	Present	Introduced		FAO (1997) Pullin et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Hong Kong	Present	Introduced		Welcomme (1988) Pullin et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004)
India	Present	Introduced		Shetty et al. (1989) Pullin et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Indonesia	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004) FAO (1997) Bartley (2006)
Iran	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004) Coad (1995)
Iraq	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2011) Coad (1996)
Israel	Present	Native		FAO (1997) Pullin et al. (1997) Golani and Mires (2000) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Japan	Present	Introduced		Pullin and Capili (1988) Chiba et al. (1989) Pullin et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Jordan	Present	Native		Pullin et al. (1997) Krupp and Schneider (1989)
Kuwait	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
Laos	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997) Kottelat (2001) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Lebanon	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
Malaysia	Present	Introduced		Ang and Gopinath (1989) Pullin et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004) Chong et al. (2010)
Myanmar	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997) Thame (2003) Bartley (2006)
Nepal	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004) Manandhar (1995) FAO (1997) Bartley (2006)
Pakistan	Present	Introduced		FAO (1997) Pullin et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Philippines	Present	Introduced		Juliano et al. (1989) Bleher (1994) Manandhar (1995) Pullin et al. (1997) Guererro (1998) Moreau (1999) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Qatar	Present			Bartley (2006)
Saudi Arabia	Present	Introduced		Siddiqui et al. (1989) Pullin et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Singapore	Present	Introduced		FAO (1997) Pullin et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004)
South Korea	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997) Jang et al. (2002)
Sri Lanka	Present	Introduced		Welcomme (1988) Amarasinghe and Silva (1996) Pullin et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Syria	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Taiwan	Present	Introduced		Liao and Lia (1989) Pullin et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Thailand	Present	Introduced		Welcomme (1988) Iongh and Zon (1993) Pullin et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Turkey	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
United Arab Emirates	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
Vietnam	Present	Introduced		FAO (1997) Pullin et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Yemen	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
Europe
Albania	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2011)
Belgium	Present	Introduced		FAO (1997) Pullin et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004) DAISIE (2011)
Cyprus	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004) Welcomme (1988) Holcík (1991)
Czechia	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004) Welcomme (1988) Holcík (1991) Lusk et al. (2010) Lusk et al. (2011)
France	Present	Introduced		Tabthipwon et al. (1988) Pullin et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Germany	Present			Pullin et al. (1997) Welcomme (1988) Holcík (1991)
Hungary	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
Italy	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997) Bartley (2006) Andaloro et al. (2012)
Malta	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004)
Netherlands	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
Poland	Present		1990	NOBANIS (2011) Grabowska et al. (2010)	Not established
Russia	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997) Bogutskaya and Naseka (2002)
-Northern Russia	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
Slovakia	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004) Welcomme (1988) Holcík (1991)
Spain	Present			CABI (Undated a)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Canary Islands	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
Ukraine	Present			DAISIE (2011)
United Kingdom	Present	Introduced		Romana (1988) Pullin et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004)
North America
Canada	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
Cayman Islands	Present	Introduced		Bartley (2006)
Costa Rica	Present	Introduced		Welcomme (1988) Pullin et al. (1997) FAO (2002) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Cuba	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Dominican Republic	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004) Welcomme (1988) Chakalall (1993)
El Salvador	Present	Introduced		Welcomme (1988) Pullin et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004) Bartley (2006)
Grenada	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004) Chakalall (1993)
Guatemala	Present	Introduced		FAO (1997) Pullin et al. (1997) FAO (2002) Froese and Pauly (2004) Bartley (2006)
Haiti	Present	Introduced		Welcomme (1988) Pullin et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004) Bartley (2006)
Honduras	Present	Introduced		Welcomme (1988) Pullin et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004) Bartley (2006)
Jamaica	Present	Introduced		Chakalall (1993) Pullin et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Martinique	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
Mexico	Present	Introduced		FAO (1997) Pullin et al. (1997) Pérez-Ponce de León et al. (2000) Froese and Pauly (2004) Bartley (2006)
Netherlands Antilles	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004) Chakalall (1993)
Nicaragua	Present	Introduced		Welcomme (1988) McKaye et al. (1995) Pullin et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004) McCrary et al. (2007)
Panama	Present	Introduced		Welcomme (1988) Pullin et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Puerto Rico	Present	Introduced		Erdman (1984) Welcomme (1988) Pullin et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Saint Lucia	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004) Chakalall (1993) FAO (1997) FAO (2010) Krauss (2012)
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004) Chakalall (1993)
Trinidad and Tobago	Present	Introduced		Chakalall (1993) Pullin et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004)
U.S. Virgin Islands	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
United States	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004)
-Alabama	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Arizona	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Arkansas	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-California	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Colorado	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Connecticut	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Delaware	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Florida	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Georgia	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Hawaii	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Idaho	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Illinois	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Indiana	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Iowa	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Kansas	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Kentucky	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Louisiana	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Maryland	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Massachusetts	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Michigan	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Minnesota	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Mississippi	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997) Peterson et al. (2002)
-Missouri	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-New Hampshire	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-New Jersey	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-New Mexico	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-New York	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-North Carolina	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-North Dakota	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Ohio	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Oklahoma	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Oregon	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Pennsylvania	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-South Carolina	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-South Dakota	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Texas	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Virginia	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Washington	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-West Virginia	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Wyoming	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
Oceania
American Samoa	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
Cook Islands	Present	Introduced		Eldredge (1994) Bartley (2006)
Fiji	Present	Introduced		Welcomme (1988) Pullin et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Guam	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
Kiribati	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004) FAO (1996) CABI (Undated)
Samoa	Present	Introduced		Bell and Mulipola (2000)
South America
Argentina	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
Bolivia	Present	Introduced		FAO (1997) Pullin et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Brazil	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997) Starling et al. (2002) Froese and Pauly (2004)
-Bahia	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Ceara	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Espirito Santo	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Minas Gerais	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Pernambuco	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Rio de Janeiro	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Sao Paulo	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
Colombia	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004) Bartley (2006) Leal-Flórez et al. (2008)
Ecuador	Present	Introduced		Welcomme (1988) Pullin et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004)
-Galapagos Islands	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2011) Bartley (2006)
Guyana	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004) FAO (2002)
Paraguay	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
Peru	Present	Introduced		Welcomme (1988) Pullin et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Suriname	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
Uruguay	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
Venezuela	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)

Introductions

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Introduced to	Introduced from	Year	Reason	Introduced by	Established in wild through		References	Notes
Introduced to	Introduced from	Year	Reason	Introduced by	Natural reproduction	Continuous restocking	References	Notes
Albania			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Froese and Pauly (2011)
Algeria			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
American Samoa			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
Argentina		1940-1949	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997); Vigliano and Darrigran (2003)
Bahia			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
Bangladesh	Thailand	1954	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Barua et al. (2001); Pullin et al. (1997); Welcomme (1988)
Belgium	Israel	1957	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	DAISIE (2011); FAO (1997); Pullin et al. (1997)
Bhutan		1985	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Welcomme (1988)
Bolivia	Colombia	1960-1969	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	FAO (1997); Pullin et al. (1997)
Botswana			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Moor and Bruton (1988)
Brazil	Côte d'Ivoire	1971	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Froese and Pauly (2004); Pullin et al. (1997); Starling et al. (2002)
Brunei Darussalam			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No
Burundi	Congo	1951	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	FAO (1997)
Cambodia	Vietnam	1980	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Nuov et al. (2005); Pullin et al. (1997)
Canada			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
Canary Islands			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
Cape Verde			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
Cayman Islands			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Bartley (2006)
Ceara			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
Central African Republic	Congo	1957	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Welcomme (1988)
China	Egypt	1978	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	FAO (1997); Pullin et al. (1997)
Colombia	Brazil	1979	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Bartley (2006); Leal-Flórez et al. (2008); Pullin et al. (1997)
Comoros			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Trewavas (1983)
Congo	Sudan	1953	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	FAO (1997); Pullin et al. (1997)
Congo Democratic Republic			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Welcomme (1988)
Cook Islands	Fiji	1993	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Bartley (2006); Eldredge (1994)
Costa Rica	Panama	1979	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	FAO (2002); Pullin et al. (1997); Welcomme (1988)
Cuba	Peru	1967	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997); Welcomme (1988)
Cyprus	Israel	1976	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Holcík (1991); Welcomme (1988)
Czech Republic	Sudan	1985	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Holcík (1991); Lusk et al. (2010); Lusk et al. (2011); Welcomme (1988)
Dominican Republic		1979	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Chakalall (1993); Welcomme (1988)
Ecuador			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997); Welcomme (1988)
El Salvador	USA	1979	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Bartley (2006); Pullin et al. (1997); Welcomme (1988)
England and Wales			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Froese and Pauly (2004)
Eritrea	Ethiopia	1989	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Hillman (1993); Pullin et al. (1997)
Espirito Santo			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
Fiji	Israel	1968	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997); Welcomme (1988)
France			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997); Tabthipwon et al. (1988)
Gabon			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No
Gabon			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		No	No
Galapagos Islands		2003	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Bartley (2006)
Germany		1957	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Holcík (1991); Pullin et al. (1997); Welcomme (1988)
Grenada		1982	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Chakalall (1993)
Guam			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
Guatemala	El Salvador	1974	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Bartley (2006); FAO (1997); FAO (2002)
Guyana			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	FAO (2002)
Haiti		1977	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Bartley (2006); Pullin et al. (1997); Welcomme (1988)
Honduras	USA	1978	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Bartley (2006); Pullin et al. (1997); Welcomme (1988)
Hong Kong	Taiwan	1972	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997); Welcomme (1988)
Hungary			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
India	Thailand	1990	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997); Shetty et al. (1989)
Indonesia	Taiwan	1969	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Bartley (2006); FAO (1997)
Iran			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Coad (1995)
Iraq		1950-1974	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Coad (1996)
Italy		2000	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Andaloro et al. (2012); Bartley (2006); Pullin et al. (1997)
Jamaica		1975-1999	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Chakalall (1993); Pullin et al. (1997)
Japan	Egypt	1962	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Chiba et al. (1989); Pullin and Capili (1988); Pullin et al. (1997)
Kenya		1954-1962	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Muchiri et al. (1995); Ogutu-Ohwayo (1990); Ogutu-Ohwayo and Hecky (1991); Pullin et al. (1997); Twongo (1995)
Kiribati			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No
Korea, Republic of			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
Korea, Republic of	Taiwan	1975	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Jang et al. (2002)
Kuwait			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
Laos	Thailand		Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Kottelat (2001); Kottelat (2001b); Pullin et al. (1997)
Lebanon			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
Madagascar	Egypt	1956	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Leveque (1997); Pullin et al. (1997); Reinthal and Stiassny (1997); Welcomme (1984); Welcomme (1988)
Malawi			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
Malaysia	Thailand	1979	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Ang and Gopinath (1989); Chong et al. (2010); Froese and Pauly (2004); Pullin et al. (1997)
Malta			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		No	No
Malta			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No
Martinique			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
Mauritius	Tanzania	1950	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	FAO (1997)
Mexico	Africa	1964	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Bartley (2006); FAO (1997); Pérez-Ponce et al. (2000)
Mozambique			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Firmat et al. (2013)
Myanmar	Thailand	1977	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Bartley (2006); Pullin et al. (1997); Thame (2003)
Nepal	Thailand	1985	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Bartley (2006); FAO (1997); Manandhar (1995)
Netherlands Antilles			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Chakalall (1993)
Nicaragua	El Salvador	1964	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	McCrary et al. (2007); McKaye et al. (1995); Pullin et al. (1997); Welcomme (1988)
Pakistan	Egypt	1985	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	FAO (1997); Pullin et al. (1997)
Panama	Brazil	1976	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997); Welcomme (1988)
Paraguay			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
Peru	Brazil	1979	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997); Welcomme (1988)
Philippines	Thailand	1970	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Bleher (1994); Guererro (1998); Juliano et al. (1989); Manandhar (1995); Moreau (1999); Pullin et al. (1997)
Poland	Czech Republic	1989	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Grabowska et al. (2010); NOBANIS (2011)
Puerto Rico	Brazil	1974	Aquarium trade (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Erdman (1984); Pullin et al. (1997); Welcomme (1988)
Qatar			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Bartley (2006)
Réunion	Madagascar	1957	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Welcomme (1988)
Russian Federation			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Bogutskaya and Naseka (2002); Pullin et al. (1997)
Rwanda	Congo Democratic Republic	1935-51	Aquarium trade (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997); Vos and Thys (1990)
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines		1983	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Chakalall (1993)
Samoa	Fiji	1991	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Bell and Mulipola (2000)
Sao Tome and Principe	Gabon		Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Froese and Pauly (2004)
Saudi Arabia			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997); Siddiqui et al. (1989)
Singapore		1970-1979	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	FAO (1997); Pullin et al. (1997)
Slovakia			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Froese and Pauly (2004); Holcík (1991); Welcomme (1984)
South Africa	Israel	1955	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	D'Amato et al. (2007); Pullin et al. (1997); Schoor DJvan (1966); Waal and Bills (2000); Zengeya et al. (2011); Zengeya et al. (2013)
Sri Lanka		1956	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Amarasinghe and Silva (1996); Pullin et al. (1997); Welcomme (1988)
Suriname			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
Syria			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Froese and Pauly (2004); Pullin et al. (1997)
Taiwan	Japan	1966	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Liao and Lia (1989); Pullin et al. (1997)
Tanzania		1950-1969	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Ogutu-Ohwayo (1990); Ogutu-Ohwayo and Hecky (1991); Pullin et al. (1997); Twongo (1995); Welcomme (1988)
Thailand	Japan	1965	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Iongh and Zon (1993); Pullin et al. (1997); Welcomme (1988)
Trinidad and Tobago	Jamaica	1980-1985	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Chakalall (1993); Pullin et al. (1997)
Tunisia		1966	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	FAO (1997)
Turkey		1970-1979	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
UK			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997); Romana (1988)
Ukraine			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	DAISIE (2011)
United Arab Emirates			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
United States Virgin Islands			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
Uruguay			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
USA	Brazil	1974	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Peterson et al. (2002); Pullin et al. (1997)
Venezuela			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
Vietnam	Philippines	1973	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	FAO (1997); Pullin et al. (1997)
Yemen			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
Zambia	Scotland	1983	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Froese and Pauly (2004); Schwank (1995); Thys Audenaerde DFEvan den (1994); Thys van den Audenaerde DFE (1994); Tweddle (2010)
Zimbabwe	Scotland	1990	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Chifamba (1998); Marshall and Tweddle (2007); Pullin et al. (1997); Zengeya and Marshall (2007); Zengeya and Marshall (2008)
Zimbabwe	Kenya	1986	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Chifamba (1998); Marshall and Tweddle (2007); Pullin et al. (1997); Zengeya and Marshall (2007); Zengeya and Marshall (2008)

Risk of Introduction

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Despite the well-documented adverse ecological effects of Nile tilapia on recipient river systems (see Canonico et al., 2005 and references therein), it is among one of the most widely cultured species in aquaculture and stock enhancements (Suresh, 2003) and it has been introduced into more than 50 countries on all continents except Antarctica (Pullin et al., 1997). In addition, Nile tilapia has been extensively propagated locally by farmers and anglers for recreational and sport fishing into small- and medium-sized reservoirs, often circumventing permitting processes. As a consequence, these movements are not usually documented or monitored.

Nile tilapia is well-suited for aquaculture because of its wide range of trophic and ecological adaptations, and its adaptive life history characteristics that enable it to occupy many different tropical and sub-tropical freshwater niches (Trewavas, 1983). These attributes have inherently predisposed it to be a successful invasive species, with established feral populations in most tropical and sub-tropical environments in which it has either been cultured or has otherwise gained access to (Welcomme, 1988; Pullin et al., 1997; Costa-Pierce, 2003; Canonico et al., 2005). However, predicting the areas where Nile tilapia will spread, once introduced to and area, can be difficult.

Decisions on exotic fish introductions are usually based on a trade-off between socio-economic benefits and potential adverse ecological effects (Cowx, 1999). In Zambia, for example, aquaculture projects rearing Nile tilapia have been ardently promoted within the Zambezi River system, and the inevitable fish escapes from such facilities have led to the establishment of feral populations in river systems such as the Kafue River (Schwank, 1995) and tributaries of the Upper Kapombo River, and Nile tilapia will probably futher spread in the upper Zambezi River, where indigenous Oreochromis species such as O. andersonii and O. macrochir will be at risk of being outcompeted (Tweddle, 2010).

Habitat List

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Category	Habitat	Presence	Status
Brackish	Inland saline areas	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Brackish	Inland saline areas	Present, no further details	Natural
Brackish	Inland saline areas	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural
Freshwater	Irrigation channels	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Freshwater	Irrigation channels	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural
Freshwater	Lakes	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Freshwater	Lakes	Present, no further details	Natural
Freshwater	Lakes	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural
Freshwater	Reservoirs	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Freshwater	Reservoirs	Present, no further details	Natural
Freshwater	Reservoirs	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural
Freshwater	Rivers / streams	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Freshwater	Rivers / streams	Present, no further details	Natural
Freshwater	Rivers / streams	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural
Freshwater	Ponds	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Freshwater	Ponds	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural
Brackish	Estuaries	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Brackish	Estuaries	Present, no further details	Natural
Brackish	Estuaries	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural
Brackish	Lagoons	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Brackish	Lagoons	Present, no further details	Natural
Brackish	Lagoons	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural

Biology and Ecology

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Reproductive Biology

Nile tilapia are maternal mouthbrooders. A female lays her eggs in a simple nest prepared by the male, the male fertilizes the eggs and then the female picks the eggs up and incubates them in her mouth. Even after eggs hatch, fry will remain in the mother’s mouth. Once the fry are free-swimming they will return to her mouth for protection. Females can produce several hundred to several thousand young per spawn.

Climate

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Climate	Status	Description
A - Tropical/Megathermal climate	Preferred	Average temp. of coolest month > 18°C, > 1500mm precipitation annually
Af - Tropical rainforest climate	Preferred	> 60mm precipitation per month
Am - Tropical monsoon climate	Preferred	Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25]))
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer	Preferred	< 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25])
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate	Preferred	< 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25])
B - Dry (arid and semi-arid)	Tolerated	< 860mm precipitation annually
BW - Desert climate	Tolerated	< 430mm annual precipitation
C - Temperate/Mesothermal climate	Tolerated	Average temp. of coldest month > 0°C and < 18°C, mean warmest month > 10°C

Air Temperature

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Parameter	Lower limit	Upper limit
Absolute minimum temperature (ºC)	8
Mean annual temperature (ºC)	-8	42
Mean maximum temperature of hottest month (ºC)	36	42
Mean minimum temperature of coldest month (ºC)	8	10

Water Tolerances

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Parameter	Minimum Value	Maximum Value	Typical Value	Status	Life Stage
Ammonia [unionised] (mg/l)			<0.1	Optimum	Adult
Ammonia [unionised] (mg/l)			<0.1	Optimum	Broodstock
Ammonia [unionised] (mg/l)			<0.1	Optimum	Egg
Ammonia [unionised] (mg/l)			<0.1	Optimum	Larval
Ammonia [unionised] (mg/l)			<0.1	Optimum	Fry
Ammonia [unionised] (mg/l)			>0.1	Harmful	Egg
Ammonia [unionised] (mg/l)			>0.1	Harmful	Larval
Ammonia [unionised] (mg/l)			>0.2	Harmful	Adult
Ammonia [unionised] (mg/l)			>0.2	Harmful	Broodstock
Ammonia [unionised] (mg/l)			>0.2	Harmful	Fry
Carbon Dioxide (mg/l)			<20	Optimum	Adult
Carbon Dioxide (mg/l)			<20	Optimum	Broodstock
Carbon Dioxide (mg/l)			>30	Harmful	Adult
Carbon Dioxide (mg/l)			>30	Harmful	Broodstock
Chloride (mg/l)			<2,000	Optimum	Adult
Chloride (mg/l)			<2,000	Optimum	Broodstock
Chloride (mg/l)			>5,000	Harmful	Adult
Chloride (mg/l)			>5,000	Harmful	Broodstock
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l)			<2	Harmful	Adult
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l)			<2	Harmful	Broodstock
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l)			<2	Harmful	Egg
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l)			<2	Harmful	Larval
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l)			<2	Harmful	Fry
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l)	4	7		Optimum	Adult
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l)	4	7		Optimum	Broodstock
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l)	4	7		Optimum	Egg
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l)	4	7		Optimum	Larval
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l)	4	7		Optimum	Fry
Hardness (mg/l of Calcium Carbonate)			>400	Harmful	Adult
Hardness (mg/l of Calcium Carbonate)			>400	Harmful	Broodstock
Hardness (mg/l of Calcium Carbonate)	50	250		Optimum	Adult
Hardness (mg/l of Calcium Carbonate)	50	250		Optimum	Broodstock
Nitrite (mg/l)			<0.5	Optimum	Adult
Nitrite (mg/l)			<0.5	Optimum	Broodstock
Nitrite (mg/l)			>0.8	Harmful	Adult
Nitrite (mg/l)			>0.8	Harmful	Broodstock
Salinity (part per thousand)			>10	Harmful	Adult
Salinity (part per thousand)			>10	Harmful	Broodstock
Salinity (part per thousand)			>5	Harmful	Egg
Salinity (part per thousand)			>5	Harmful	Larval
Salinity (part per thousand)			>7	Harmful	Fry
Salinity (part per thousand)	1	3		Optimum	Egg
Salinity (part per thousand)	1	3		Optimum	Larval
Salinity (part per thousand)	1	3		Optimum	Fry
Salinity (part per thousand)	1	8		Optimum	Adult
Salinity (part per thousand)	1	8		Optimum	Broodstock
Spawning temperature (ºC temperature)			<20	Harmful	Broodstock
Spawning temperature (ºC temperature)	25	33		Optimum	Broodstock
Water pH (pH)			<5, >10	Harmful	Adult
Water pH (pH)			<5.5, >10	Harmful	Broodstock
Water pH (pH)			<6, >9.5	Harmful	Egg
Water pH (pH)			<6, >9.5	Harmful	Larval
Water pH (pH)			<6, >9.5	Harmful	Fry
Water pH (pH)	6	8		Optimum	Egg
Water pH (pH)	6	8		Optimum	Larval
Water pH (pH)	6	8		Optimum	Fry
Water pH (pH)	6	9		Optimum	Adult
Water pH (pH)	6	9		Optimum	Broodstock
Water temperature (ºC temperature)			<20	Harmful	Egg
Water temperature (ºC temperature)			<20	Harmful	Larval
Water temperature (ºC temperature)	25	30		Optimum	Adult
Water temperature (ºC temperature)	25	30		Optimum	Egg
Water temperature (ºC temperature)	25	30		Optimum	Larval
Water temperature (ºC temperature)	25	30		Optimum	Fry
Water temperature (ºC temperature)	25	33		Optimum	Broodstock
Water temperature (ºC temperature)			<15	Harmful	Adult
Water temperature (ºC temperature)			<18	Harmful	Fry
Water temperature (ºC temperature)			<20	Harmful	Broodstock

Natural enemies

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Natural enemy	Type	Specificity
Clarias gariepinus	Predator	not specific
Crocodylus niloticus	Predator	not specific
Hydrocynus vittatus	Predator	not specific
Lates niloticus	Predator	not specific

Notes on Natural Enemies

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O. niloticus is predated upon by shoreline birds, large piscivorous fish (such as tigerfish Hydrocynus vittatus, Nile perch Lates niloticus and catfish Claris gariepinus) and crocodiles.

Means of Movement and Dispersal

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Introduced Accidental

Nile tilapia has repeatedly reached new areas after escaping from nearby fish farms, such as in the Middle Zambezi, Nata (Makgadikgadi/Okavango), Runde-Save, Buzi and Limpopo River systems (Schwank, 1995; van der Waal and Bills 1997; 2000; Tweddle and Wise, 2007; Weyl, 2008; Zengeya and Marshall, 2008).

Intentional Introduction

Nile tilapia has been widely introduced for aquaculture, augmentation of capture fisheries, and sport fishing (Trewavas, 1983; Welcomme, 1988).

Pathway Causes

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Cause	Notes	Long Distance	Local	References
Aquaculture		Yes		Nico and Schofield (2011)
Breeding and propagation	Wide spread intentional introduction	Yes	Yes	Canonico et al. (2005)
Escape from confinement or garden escape	Accidental		Yes	Canonico et al. (2005); Nico and Schofield (2011)
Fisheries	Widespread intentaion introduction	Yes	Yes	Canonico et al. (2005)
Intentional release	Wide spread intentional introduction	Yes	Yes	Canonico et al. (2005)

Pathway Vectors

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Vector	Notes	Long Distance	Local	References
Aquaculture stock	Wide spread intentional introduction	Yes	Yes	Canonico et al. (2005)

Impact Summary

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Category	Impact
Animal/plant collections	Positive
Animal/plant products	Positive
Biodiversity (generally)	Negative
Crop production	Positive
Cultural/amenity	Positive
Economic/livelihood	Positive
Environment (generally)	Negative
Fisheries / aquaculture	Positive
Human health	Positive
Livestock production	Positive
Native fauna	Negative
Native flora	Negative
Tourism	Positive
Trade/international relations	Positive

Economic Impact

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In most invaded systems, Nile tilapia has had a pronounced impact on fisheries, in terms of increased food production and poverty alleviation, by creating alternative aquaculture and fisheries livelihoods (Wise et al., 2007). Interestingly, the establishment of Nile tilapia in novel systems has not led to a decrease in overall yields, but rather a replacement of indigenous species (Ogutu–Ohwayo, 1991; Twongo, 1995; Balirwa et al., 2003; Shipton et al., 2008; Weyl, 2008). In some cases, Nile tilapia has supplanted desirable species from the fishery setups, such as in Lake Victoria, where Nile tilapia is often regarded as being of inferior quality in comparison to the various haplochromines that it supplanted and therefore, commands lower market prices (Wise et al., 2007).

Environmental Impact

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Tilapia introductions were often associated with severe environmental change, especially construction of reservoirs and large-scale irrigation projects. Many populations of tilapia are now so well established they are a permanent part of the fish community. Introduced tilapia often will develop large populations and male Nile tilapia will create nesting areas that will cover large areas of disturbed bottom sediments. The male’s aggressive protection of nest territory may impact native nest builders.

Impact on Biodiversity

Nile tilapia have been distributed throughout the tropics. In many cases this distribution occurred before any scientific evaluation of natural aquatic ecosystems. The environmental impact in most cases can only be assumed and in most cases is equally related to considerable anthropogenic changes in the environment.

Threatened Species

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Threatened Species	Conservation Status	Where Threatened	Mechanism	References
Oreochromis andersonii (three spotted tilapia)	VU (IUCN red list: Vulnerable)		Competition; Competition - monopolizing resources
Oreochromis macrochir (longfin tilapia)	VU (IUCN red list: Vulnerable)		Competition; Competition - monopolizing resources
Oreochromis mossambicus (Mozambique tilapia)	No Details		Competition; Competition - monopolizing resources
Zizania texana (Texas wild-rice)	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Texas	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Pest and disease transmission	US Fish and Wildlife Service (1995)

Social Impact

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Tilapia’s major social impact is as an important source of protein in many developing countries. A second important impact is as a source of employment producing tilapia for export. In Brazil, tilapia also support the fee fishing recreational activities. One important social impact of tilapia aquaculture is the increase in household incomes from small farms and eateries associated with farms. Another impact is the benefit to women involved with tilapia farming. Hatcheries and genetic improvement programs employ many highly educated women in developing countries. These positions are especially important in locations where women with advanced degrees in biology have a difficult time finding employment commensurate with their education. Processing plants also hire large numbers of unskilled women for the processing line and skilled women for quality assurance. Finally, Nile tilapia, also known as Egyptian Mouth Breeders, are a popular aquarium fish.

Risk and Impact Factors

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Invasiveness

Invasive in its native range
Proved invasive outside its native range
Has a broad native range
Abundant in its native range
Highly adaptable to different environments
Is a habitat generalist
Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
Pioneering in disturbed areas
Capable of securing and ingesting a wide range of food
Highly mobile locally
Fast growing
Has high reproductive potential
Has high genetic variability

Impact outcomes

Altered trophic level
Changed gene pool/ selective loss of genotypes
Conflict
Damaged ecosystem services
Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
Modification of natural benthic communities
Modification of nutrient regime
Negatively impacts cultural/traditional practices
Reduced native biodiversity
Threat to/ loss of endangered species
Threat to/ loss of native species

Impact mechanisms

Competition - monopolizing resources
Competition (unspecified)
Pest and disease transmission
Herbivory/grazing/browsing
Hybridization
Interaction with other invasive species
Rapid growth

Likelihood of entry/control

Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Highly likely to be transported internationally illegally
Difficult to identify/detect in the field
Difficult/costly to control

Uses

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Tilapias are the third most farmed fish in the world after carps and salmonids, accounting for 4% of global aquaculture production (FAO, 2010). Aquaculture is perceived as a means of protein security, poverty alleviation and economic development in many developing countries (NEPAD, 2005).

The Nile tilapia is well-suited for aquaculture because of its wide range of trophic and ecological adaptations, as well as its adaptive life history characteristics that enable it to occupy many different tropical and sub-tropical freshwater niches (Trewavas, 1983).

Along with the Mozambique tilapia, Oreochromis mossambicus, the Nile tilapia is the most important tilapia in aquaculture. They are among the ten most introduced fish species in the world, and together they account for 99.5% of global tilapia production (FAO 2010). Since the mid-1980s, there has been a shift in producer preference away from the Mozambique tilapia towards culturing Nile tilapia, as the latter has a higher growth rate and a reduced tendency to stunt. Nile tilapia now dominates global tilapia aquaculture production, accounting for 72%, or 474 000 tons, in 1995 (FAO, 2010).

Uses List

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General

Botanical garden/zoo
Laboratory use
Research model
Sport (hunting, shooting, fishing, racing)

Human food and beverage

Meat/fat/offal/blood/bone (whole, cut, fresh, frozen, canned, cured, processed or smoked)

Detection and Inspection

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Nile tilapia is easily recognised by its caudal fin, which is distinctively striped, with 30-34 lateral scales and 20-26 gill rakers on the lower limb of the first gill arch. Breeding males have a red flush on the lower head, body, dorsal and caudal fins (Trewavas, 1983; Daget et al., 1991; Skelton, 2001).

However, the morphological identification of Nile tilapia in areas with congeneric Oreochromis species is not clearly defined, as there is considerable variation and broad interspecific overlaps in meristic and morphometric characters that are used in species identification (Trewavas, 1983). This is further complicated by the fact that Nile tilapia easily hybridises with it congeners and produces hybrids that are difficult to identify morphologically, as back-crosses resemble parental species (Trewavas, 1983). This clearly poses a serious problem for the control and management of Nile tilapia, as it is often difficult to identify habitats where it has established using standard morphological identification.

Diagnosis

To circumvent morphological identification problems of Nile tilapia, a combination of genetic and morphometric analyses can be done to identify Oreochromis species (see D’Amato et al., 2007; Firmat et al., 2013).

Prevention and Control

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Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Prevention

When deciding what species should be used for aquaculture and where, a precautionary approach is recommended, particularly in areas thought to be highly suitable for the establishment of Nile tilapia. Introductions of Nile tilapia should be restricted to catchments where it has already established, and prohibited in pristine areas that are still free of invasion. In addition, and if possible, potential point sources of Nile tilapia should be eradicated in non-invaded river systems.

Alternatively, the use of indigenous species could be promoted and enhanced through stock improvement and better farming methods. It should be noted, however, that the alternative species should also not be introduced to novel river systems outside their native range, as they would possibly pose the same invasion-related problems as encountered with Nile tilapia.

There is a need to implement regular monitoring programmes in most river catchments and also to educate farmers and anglers about the ecological impacts that invasive species such as Nile tilapia have on indigenous congeners.

Domestication and Breeding

There are some steps that aquaculture operations can take to mitigate any additional harm of Nile tilapia introductions. The eventual goal should be to develop fully domesticated strains of tilapia that will have little chance of surviving outside a culture setting, in much the same manner as most domestic farm animals. The industry is well on its way with tilapia. Red strains of Nile tilapia are an important step, as red Nile tilapia are only found in domesticated populations and they have very little chance of surviving in the wild. Predation is high from birds, fish and humans because they are so visible in the water. Strains that have been bred to have very large fillets and a more rounded body form are also unlikely to survive outside a farm. Finally, all-male populations, developed from hybrids, sex-reversal or genetically male parentage, are less likely to be able to establish a breeding population off farm. All of these techniques should be considered as contributing to the reduction of the ability of tilapia to impact native communities.

References

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Waal BCW van der, Bills R, 1997. Oreochromis niloticus in the Limpopo System. Ichthos, 52:14-16

Waal BCW van der, Bills R, 2000. Oreochromis niloticus (Teleostei: Cichlidae) now in the Limpopo River system. South African Journal of Science, 96(1):47-48

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Zengeya TA, Booth AJ, Bastos ADS, Chimimba CT, 2011. Trophic interrelationships between the exotic Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus and indigenous tilapiine cichlids in a subtropical African river system (Limpopo River, South Africa). Environmental Biology of Fishes, 92(4):479-489. http://springerlink.metapress.com/link.asp?id=102877

Zengeya TA, Marshall BE, 2007. Trophic interrelationships amongst cichlid fishes in a tropical African reservoir (Lake Chivero, Zimbabwe). Hydrobiologia, 592:175-182. http://springerlink.metapress.com/content/1573-5117/

Zengeya TA, Marshall BE, 2008. The inshore fish community of Lake Kariba half a century after its creation: what happened to the Upper Zambezi invasion? African Journal of Aquatic Science, 33:99-102

Zengeya TA, Robertson MP, Booth AJ, Chimimba CT, 2013. A qualitative ecological risk assessment of the invasive Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus in a sub-tropical African river system (Limpopo River, South Africa). Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 23(1):51-64. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)1099-0755

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Zengeya T A, Marshall B E, 2007. Trophic interrelationships amongst cichlid fishes in a tropical African reservoir (Lake Chivero, Zimbabwe). Hydrobiologia. 175-182. http://springerlink.metapress.com/content/1573-5117/ DOI:10.1007/s10750-007-0790-7

Zengeya T A, Robertson M P, Booth A J, Chimimba C T, 2013. A qualitative ecological risk assessment of the invasive Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus in a sub-tropical African river system (Limpopo River, South Africa). Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems. 23 (1), 51-64. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)1099-0755 DOI:10.1002/aqc.2258

Zengeya TA, Marshall BE, 2008. The inshore fish community of Lake Kariba half a century after its creation: what happened to the Upper Zambezi invasion? In: African Journal of Aquatic Science, 33 99-102.

Links to Websites

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Website	URL	Comment
American Tilapia Association	http://cals.arizona.edu/azaqua/ata.html
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway	https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6	Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list.
Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS)	http://griis.org/	Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list.

Contributors

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02/10/13 Datasheet reviewed by:

Tsungai Zengeya, Univeristy of Pretoria, South Africa

First Author
Kevin Fitzsimmons
University of Arizona, Environmental Research Lab, Soil, Water & Environ Sci Dept, 2601 E. Airport Dr, Tucson, AZ 85706, USA

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Datasheet

Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia)

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