Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia)

Pictures

Top of page

Picture

Title

Caption

Copyright

Adult

Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia); adult female. Lumajang, East Java, Indonesia. October 2007.

©W.A. Djatmiko (Wie146)/via wikipedia - CC BY-SA 3.0

Adult

Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia); adult male. Lumajang, East Java, Indonesia. October 2007.

©W.A. Djatmiko (Wie146)/via wikipedia - CC BY-SA 3.0

Adult

Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia); adult.

©Germano Roberto Schüür/via wikipedia - CC BY-SA 4.0

Tilapia hybrid

Tilapia, hybrid Oreochromis niloticus x O. aureus.

©Ana Milstein

GIFT strain

Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia); adult of the GIFT strain

©Benoy K. Barman

Identity

Top of page

Preferred Scientific Name

Oreochromis niloticus (Linnaeus, 1758)

Preferred Common Name

Nile tilapia

Other Scientific Names

Chromis guentheri Steindachner, 1864
Chromis nilotica (Linnaeus, 1758)
Chromis niloticus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Oreochromis nilotica Linnaeus, 1758
Oreochromis niloticus niloticus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Perca nilotica Linnaeus, 1758
Sarotherodon niloticus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Tilapia calciati Gianferrari, 1924
Tilapia nilotica Linnaeus, 1758
Tilapia nilotica nilotica (Linnaeus, 1758)
Tilapia nilotious (Linnaeus, 1758)

International Common Names

English: cichlid; edward tilapia; mango fish; mozambique tilapia; nilotica; tilapia, Nile
Spanish: mojarra; tilapia del Nilo; tilapia nilótica
French: tilapia de Nil; tilapia du Nil
Arabic: boulti
Chinese: lou fei

Local Common Names

Cambodia: trey tilapia chhnoht
Ethiopia: koroso; qoroosoo
Germany: Nilbuntbarsch; Nil-Maulbrüter; Tilapie
Ghana: akpafiatsi; didee
India: tilapia
Israel: amnun yeor
Japan: chikadai
Kenya: chambo; ngege; nyamami
Laos: nin
Nigeria: bugu; epia; falga; garagaza; gargaza; ifunu; karfasa; karwa; mpupa; tome; tsokungi; ukuobu
Philippines: pla pla; tilapia; tilapiya
Poland: tilapia nilowa
Portugal: tilápia-do-Nilo
Senegal: wass
Sweden: munruvare
Tanzania: chambo; ngege; perege; sato
Thailand: pla nil
Uganda: ngege; uganda

Summary of Invasiveness

Top of page

The Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus, is an African freshwater cichlid and one of the world’s most important food fishes. Owing to its hardy nature, and its wide range of trophic and ecological adaptations, it has been widely introduced for aquaculture, augmentation of capture fisheries and sport fishing (Trewavas, 1983; Welcomme, 1988), and is now found in every country in the tropics. The Nile tilapia is often described as a 'pioneer' species, meaning that it thrives in disturbed habitats, opportunistically migrating and reproducing. These traits mean that Nile tilapia often outcompetes native species in areas where it has been introduced.

Taxonomic Tree

Top of page

Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Metazoa
Phylum: Chordata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Perciformes
Family: Cichlidae
Genus: Oreochromis
Species: Oreochromis niloticus

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Top of page

Tilapia is a common name that is now applied to several genera and species of fish that were formerly classified in the genus Tilapia, in the Family Cichlidae. In the reclassification scheme developed by Trewavas (1983) the several hundred species of Tilapia were split into three genera, Oreochromis, Sarotherodon and some remained as Tilapia.

Fishbase (Froese and Pauly, 2011) provides data on the Nile tilapia as O. niloticus niloticus, distinguished from 7 other subspecies: O. niloticus filoa, baringoensis, cancellatus, eduardianus, sugutae, tana and vulcani.

Distribution

Top of page

Nile tilapia is a freshwater cichlid native to the Nile River basin; the south-western Middle East; the Niger, Benue, Volta and Senegal rivers, and the lakes Chad, Tanganyika, Albert, Edward, and Kivu (Trewavas, 1983; Daget et al., 1991). It has been introduced – mostly for farming purposes – into more than 50 countries on all the continents except Antarctica (Pullin et al., 1997), and is now found in virtually every country within the tropics.

In most areas in which Nile tilapia has been introduced, especially in southern Africa, most occurrence data records are limited to monitoring surveys conducted by various national fisheries departments. These surveys are limited to major rivers and reservoirs with viable artisanal and commercial fisheries, such as the Kafue River (Zambia), Lake Kariba (Zambia/Zimbabwe border) and Lake Chicamba (Mozambique). This paucity of information makes it difficult to ascertain exactly those areas where Nile tilapia has been introduced and to predict those areas where it is likely to spread. This can be compounded by the fact that it is often difficult to identify habitats where it has established using standard morphological identification, as Nile tipalia can interbreed with congeners.

Distribution Table

Top of page

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 10 Jan 2020

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	First Reported	Reference	Notes
Africa
Algeria	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
Botswana	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2011); Moor and Bruton (1988)
Burkina Faso	Present	Native		Froese and Pauly (2004)
Burundi	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004); FAO (1997)
Cabo Verde	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
Cameroon	Present	Native		Pullin et al. (1997); Froese and Pauly (2004)
Central African Republic	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004); Welcomme (1988)
Chad	Present	Native		Froese and Pauly (2004)
Comoros	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004); Trewavas (1983)
Congo, Democratic Republic of the	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004); Welcomme (1988)
Congo, Republic of the	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004); FAO (1997); Pullin et al. (1997)
Côte d'Ivoire	Present	Native		Froese and Pauly (2004)
Egypt	Present	Native		Pullin et al. (1997); Froese and Pauly (2004)
Eritrea	Present	Introduced		Hillman (1993); Pullin et al. (1997); Froese and Pauly (2004)
Ethiopia	Present	Native		Pullin et al. (1997); Froese and Pauly (2004)
Gabon	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004); FAO (1996)
Gambia	Present	Native		Froese and Pauly (2004)
Ghana	Present	Native		Froese and Pauly (2004)
Guinea	Present	Native		Froese and Pauly (2004)
Kenya	Present	Introduced		Ogutu-Ohwayo (1990); Ogutu-Ohwayo and Hecky (1991); Muchiri et al. (1995); Twongo (1995); Pullin et al. (1997); Froese and Pauly (2004)
Liberia	Present	Native		Froese and Pauly (2004); Bartley (2006)
Libya	Present	Native		Bartley (2006)
Madagascar	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004); Welcomme (1984); Pullin (1988); Leveque (1997); Reinthal and Stiassny (1997)
Malawi	Present			Pullin et al. (1997)
Mali	Present	Native		Froese and Pauly (2004)
Mauritius	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004); FAO (1997)
Mozambique	Present	Introduced		Firmat et al. (2013)	Established
Niger	Present	Native		Froese and Pauly (2004)
Nigeria	Present	Native		Pullin et al. (1997); Froese and Pauly (2004)
Réunion	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004); Welcomme (1988)
Rwanda	Present	Introduced		Vos and Thys Audenaerde (1990); Pullin et al. (1997); Froese and Pauly (2004)
São Tomé and Príncipe	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004)
Senegal	Present	Native		Froese and Pauly (2004)
Sierra Leone	Present	Native		Froese and Pauly (2004); Bartley (2006)
South Africa	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997); Waal and Bills (2000); Froese and Pauly (2004); D'Amato et al. (2007); Zengeya et al. (2011); Zengeya et al. (2013); CABI (Undated)
Sudan	Present	Native		Pullin et al. (1997); Froese and Pauly (2004)
Tanzania	Present	Introduced		Welcomme (1988); Ogutu-Ohwayo (1990); Ogutu-Ohwayo and Hecky (1991); Twongo (1995); Pullin et al. (1997); Froese and Pauly (2004)
Togo	Present	Native		Froese and Pauly (2004)
Tunisia	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004); FAO (1997)
Uganda	Present	Native		Ogutu-Ohwayo (1990); Vos and Thys Audenaerde (1990); Ogutu-Ohwayo and Hecky (1991); Twongo (1995); Pullin et al. (1997); Froese and Pauly (2004)
Zambia	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004); Schwank (1995); Tweddle (2010)
Zimbabwe	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997); Chifamba (1998); Froese and Pauly (2004); Marshall and Tweddle (2007); Zengeya and Marshall (2007); Zengeya and Marshall (2008)
Asia
Bangladesh	Present	Introduced		Welcomme (1988); Pullin et al. (1997); Barua et al. (2001); Froese and Pauly (2004)
Bhutan	Present	Introduced		Welcomme (1988)
Brunei	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004)
Cambodia	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997); Froese and Pauly (2004); Nuov et al. (2005)
China	Present	Introduced		FAO (1997); Pullin et al. (1997); Froese and Pauly (2004)
Hong Kong	Present	Introduced		Welcomme (1988); Pullin et al. (1997); Froese and Pauly (2004)
India	Present	Introduced		Shetty et al. (1989); Pullin et al. (1997); Froese and Pauly (2004)
Indonesia	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004); FAO (1997); Bartley (2006)
Iran	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004); Coad (1995)
Iraq	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2011); Coad (1996)
Israel	Present	Native		FAO (1997); Pullin et al. (1997); Golani and Mires (2000); Froese and Pauly (2004)
Japan	Present	Introduced		Pullin and Capili (1988); Chiba et al. (1989); Pullin et al. (1997); Froese and Pauly (2004)
Jordan	Present	Native		Pullin et al. (1997); Krupp and Schneider (1989)
Kuwait	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
Laos	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997); Kottelat (2001); Froese and Pauly (2004)
Lebanon	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
Malaysia	Present	Introduced		Ang and Gopinath (1989); Pullin et al. (1997); Froese and Pauly (2004); Chong et al. (2010)
Myanmar	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997); Thame (2003); Bartley (2006)
Nepal	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004); Manandhar (1995); FAO (1997); Bartley (2006)
Pakistan	Present	Introduced		FAO (1997); Pullin et al. (1997); Froese and Pauly (2004)
Philippines	Present	Introduced		Juliano et al. (1989); Bleher (1994); Manandhar (1995); Pullin et al. (1997); Guererro (1998); Moreau (1999); Froese and Pauly (2004)
Qatar	Present			Bartley (2006)
Saudi Arabia	Present	Introduced		Siddiqui et al. (1989); Pullin et al. (1997); Froese and Pauly (2004)
Singapore	Present	Introduced		FAO (1997); Pullin et al. (1997); Froese and Pauly (2004)
South Korea	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997); Jang et al. (2002)
Sri Lanka	Present	Introduced		Welcomme (1988); Amarasinghe and Silva (1996); Pullin et al. (1997); Froese and Pauly (2004)
Syria	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997); Froese and Pauly (2004)
Taiwan	Present	Introduced		Liao and Lia (1989); Pullin et al. (1997); Froese and Pauly (2004)
Thailand	Present	Introduced		Welcomme (1988); Iongh and Zon (1993); Pullin et al. (1997); Froese and Pauly (2004)
Turkey	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
United Arab Emirates	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
Vietnam	Present	Introduced		FAO (1997); Pullin et al. (1997); Froese and Pauly (2004)
Yemen	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
Europe
Albania	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2011)
Belgium	Present	Introduced		FAO (1997); Pullin et al. (1997); Froese and Pauly (2004); DAISIE (2011)
Cyprus	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004); Welcomme (1988); Holcík (1991)
Czechia	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004); Welcomme (1988); Holcík (1991); Lusk et al. (2010); Lusk et al. (2011)
France	Present	Introduced		Tabthipwon et al. (1988); Pullin et al. (1997); Froese and Pauly (2004)
Germany	Present			Pullin et al. (1997); Welcomme (1988); Holcík (1991)
Hungary	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
Italy	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997); Bartley (2006); Andaloro et al. (2012)
Malta	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004)
Netherlands	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
Poland	Present		1990	NOBANIS (2011); Grabowska et al. (2010)	Not established
Russia	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997); Bogutskaya and Naseka (2002)
-Northern Russia	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
Slovakia	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004); Welcomme (1988); Holcík (1991)
Spain	Present			CABI (Undated a)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Canary Islands	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
Ukraine	Present			DAISIE (2011)
United Kingdom	Present	Introduced		Romana (1988); Pullin et al. (1997); Froese and Pauly (2004);
North America
Canada	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
Cayman Islands	Present	Introduced		Bartley (2006)
Costa Rica	Present	Introduced		Welcomme (1988); Pullin et al. (1997); FAO (2002); Froese and Pauly (2004)
Cuba	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997); Froese and Pauly (2004)
Dominican Republic	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004); Welcomme (1988); Chakalall (1993)
El Salvador	Present	Introduced		Welcomme (1988); Pullin et al. (1997); Froese and Pauly (2004); Bartley (2006)
Grenada	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004); Chakalall (1993)
Guatemala	Present	Introduced		FAO (1997); Pullin et al. (1997); FAO (2002); Froese and Pauly (2004); Bartley (2006)
Haiti	Present	Introduced		Welcomme (1988); Pullin et al. (1997); Froese and Pauly (2004); Bartley (2006)
Honduras	Present	Introduced		Welcomme (1988); Pullin et al. (1997); Froese and Pauly (2004); Bartley (2006)
Jamaica	Present	Introduced		Chakalall (1993); Pullin et al. (1997); Froese and Pauly (2004)
Martinique	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
Mexico	Present	Introduced		FAO (1997); Pullin et al. (1997); Pérez-Ponce de León et al. (2000); Froese and Pauly (2004); Bartley (2006)
Netherlands Antilles	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004); Chakalall (1993)
Nicaragua	Present	Introduced		Welcomme (1988); McKaye et al. (1995); Pullin et al. (1997); Froese and Pauly (2004); McCrary et al. (2007)
Panama	Present	Introduced		Welcomme (1988); Pullin et al. (1997); Froese and Pauly (2004)
Puerto Rico	Present	Introduced		Erdman (1984); Welcomme (1988); Pullin et al. (1997); Froese and Pauly (2004)
Saint Lucia	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004); Chakalall (1993); FAO (1997); FAO (2010); Krauss (2012)
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004); Chakalall (1993)
Trinidad and Tobago	Present	Introduced		Chakalall (1993); Pullin et al. (1997); Froese and Pauly (2004)
U.S. Virgin Islands	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
United States	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997); Froese and Pauly (2004)
-Alabama	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Arizona	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Arkansas	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-California	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Colorado	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Connecticut	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Delaware	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Florida	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Georgia	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Hawaii	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Idaho	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Illinois	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Indiana	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Iowa	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Kansas	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Kentucky	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Louisiana	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Maryland	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Massachusetts	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Michigan	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Minnesota	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Mississippi	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997); Peterson et al. (2002)
-Missouri	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-New Hampshire	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-New Jersey	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-New Mexico	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-New York	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-North Carolina	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-North Dakota	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Ohio	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Oklahoma	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Oregon	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Pennsylvania	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-South Carolina	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-South Dakota	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Texas	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Virginia	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Washington	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-West Virginia	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Wyoming	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
Oceania
American Samoa	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
Cook Islands	Present	Introduced		Eldredge (1994); Bartley (2006)
Fiji	Present	Introduced		Welcomme (1988); Pullin et al. (1997); Froese and Pauly (2004)
Guam	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
Kiribati	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004); FAO (1996); CABI (Undated)
Samoa	Present	Introduced		Bell and Mulipola (2000)
South America
Argentina	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
Bolivia	Present	Introduced		FAO (1997); Pullin et al. (1997); Froese and Pauly (2004)
Brazil	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997); Starling et al. (2002); Froese and Pauly (2004)
-Bahia	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Ceara	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Espirito Santo	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Minas Gerais	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Pernambuco	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Rio de Janeiro	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
-Sao Paulo	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
Colombia	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997); Froese and Pauly (2004); Bartley (2006); Leal-Flórez et al. (2008)
Ecuador	Present	Introduced		Welcomme (1988); Pullin et al. (1997); Froese and Pauly (2004)
-Galapagos Islands	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2011); Bartley (2006)
Guyana	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004); FAO (2002)
Paraguay	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
Peru	Present	Introduced		Welcomme (1988); Pullin et al. (1997); Froese and Pauly (2004)
Suriname	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
Uruguay	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)
Venezuela	Present	Introduced		Pullin et al. (1997)

Introductions

Top of page

Introduced to	Introduced from	Year	Reason	Introduced by	Established in wild through		References	Notes
Introduced to	Introduced from	Year	Reason	Introduced by	Natural reproduction	Continuous restocking	References	Notes
Albania			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Froese and Pauly (2011)
Algeria			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
American Samoa			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
Argentina		1940-1949	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997); Vigliano and Darrigran (2003)
Bahia			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
Bangladesh	Thailand	1954	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Barua et al. (2001); Pullin et al. (1997); Welcomme (1988)
Belgium	Israel	1957	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	DAISIE (2011); FAO (1997); Pullin et al. (1997)
Bhutan		1985	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Welcomme (1988)
Bolivia	Colombia	1960-1969	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	FAO (1997); Pullin et al. (1997)
Botswana			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Moor and Bruton (1988)
Brazil	Côte d'Ivoire	1971	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Froese and Pauly (2004); Pullin et al. (1997); Starling et al. (2002)
Brunei Darussalam			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No
Burundi	Congo	1951	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	FAO (1997)
Cambodia	Vietnam	1980	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Nuov et al. (2005); Pullin et al. (1997)
Canada			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
Canary Islands			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
Cape Verde			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
Cayman Islands			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Bartley (2006)
Ceara			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
Central African Republic	Congo	1957	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Welcomme (1988)
China	Egypt	1978	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	FAO (1997); Pullin et al. (1997)
Colombia	Brazil	1979	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Bartley (2006); Leal-Flórez et al. (2008); Pullin et al. (1997)
Comoros			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Trewavas (1983)
Congo	Sudan	1953	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	FAO (1997); Pullin et al. (1997)
Congo Democratic Republic			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Welcomme (1988)
Cook Islands	Fiji	1993	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Bartley (2006); Eldredge (1994)
Costa Rica	Panama	1979	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	FAO (2002); Pullin et al. (1997); Welcomme (1988)
Cuba	Peru	1967	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997); Welcomme (1988)
Cyprus	Israel	1976	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Holcík (1991); Welcomme (1988)
Czech Republic	Sudan	1985	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Holcík (1991); Lusk et al. (2010); Lusk et al. (2011); Welcomme (1988)
Dominican Republic		1979	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Chakalall (1993); Welcomme (1988)
Ecuador			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997); Welcomme (1988)
El Salvador	USA	1979	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Bartley (2006); Pullin et al. (1997); Welcomme (1988)
England and Wales			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Froese and Pauly (2004)
Eritrea	Ethiopia	1989	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Hillman (1993); Pullin et al. (1997)
Espirito Santo			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
Fiji	Israel	1968	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997); Welcomme (1988)
France			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997); Tabthipwon et al. (1988)
Gabon			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No
Gabon			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		No	No
Galapagos Islands		2003	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Bartley (2006)
Germany		1957	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Holcík (1991); Pullin et al. (1997); Welcomme (1988)
Grenada		1982	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Chakalall (1993)
Guam			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
Guatemala	El Salvador	1974	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Bartley (2006); FAO (1997); FAO (2002)
Guyana			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	FAO (2002)
Haiti		1977	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Bartley (2006); Pullin et al. (1997); Welcomme (1988)
Honduras	USA	1978	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Bartley (2006); Pullin et al. (1997); Welcomme (1988)
Hong Kong	Taiwan	1972	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997); Welcomme (1988)
Hungary			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
India	Thailand	1990	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997); Shetty et al. (1989)
Indonesia	Taiwan	1969	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Bartley (2006); FAO (1997)
Iran			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Coad (1995)
Iraq		1950-1974	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Coad (1996)
Italy		2000	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Andaloro et al. (2012); Bartley (2006); Pullin et al. (1997)
Jamaica		1975-1999	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Chakalall (1993); Pullin et al. (1997)
Japan	Egypt	1962	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Chiba et al. (1989); Pullin and Capili (1988); Pullin et al. (1997)
Kenya		1954-1962	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Muchiri et al. (1995); Ogutu-Ohwayo (1990); Ogutu-Ohwayo and Hecky (1991); Pullin et al. (1997); Twongo (1995)
Kiribati			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No
Korea, Republic of			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
Korea, Republic of	Taiwan	1975	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Jang et al. (2002)
Kuwait			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
Laos	Thailand		Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Kottelat (2001); Kottelat (2001b); Pullin et al. (1997)
Lebanon			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
Madagascar	Egypt	1956	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Leveque (1997); Pullin et al. (1997); Reinthal and Stiassny (1997); Welcomme (1984); Welcomme (1988)
Malawi			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
Malaysia	Thailand	1979	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Ang and Gopinath (1989); Chong et al. (2010); Froese and Pauly (2004); Pullin et al. (1997)
Malta			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		No	No
Malta			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No
Martinique			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
Mauritius	Tanzania	1950	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	FAO (1997)
Mexico	Africa	1964	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Bartley (2006); FAO (1997); Pérez-Ponce et al. (2000)
Mozambique			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Firmat et al. (2013)
Myanmar	Thailand	1977	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Bartley (2006); Pullin et al. (1997); Thame (2003)
Nepal	Thailand	1985	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Bartley (2006); FAO (1997); Manandhar (1995)
Netherlands Antilles			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Chakalall (1993)
Nicaragua	El Salvador	1964	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	McCrary et al. (2007); McKaye et al. (1995); Pullin et al. (1997); Welcomme (1988)
Pakistan	Egypt	1985	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	FAO (1997); Pullin et al. (1997)
Panama	Brazil	1976	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997); Welcomme (1988)
Paraguay			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
Peru	Brazil	1979	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997); Welcomme (1988)
Philippines	Thailand	1970	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Bleher (1994); Guererro (1998); Juliano et al. (1989); Manandhar (1995); Moreau (1999); Pullin et al. (1997)
Poland	Czech Republic	1989	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Grabowska et al. (2010); NOBANIS (2011)
Puerto Rico	Brazil	1974	Aquarium trade (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Erdman (1984); Pullin et al. (1997); Welcomme (1988)
Qatar			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Bartley (2006)
Réunion	Madagascar	1957	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Welcomme (1988)
Russian Federation			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Bogutskaya and Naseka (2002); Pullin et al. (1997)
Rwanda	Congo Democratic Republic	1935-51	Aquarium trade (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997); Vos and Thys (1990)
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines		1983	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Chakalall (1993)
Samoa	Fiji	1991	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Bell and Mulipola (2000)
Sao Tome and Principe	Gabon		Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Froese and Pauly (2004)
Saudi Arabia			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997); Siddiqui et al. (1989)
Singapore		1970-1979	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	FAO (1997); Pullin et al. (1997)
Slovakia			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Froese and Pauly (2004); Holcík (1991); Welcomme (1984)
South Africa	Israel	1955	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	D'Amato et al. (2007); Pullin et al. (1997); Schoor DJvan (1966); Waal and Bills (2000); Zengeya et al. (2011); Zengeya et al. (2013)
Sri Lanka		1956	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Amarasinghe and Silva (1996); Pullin et al. (1997); Welcomme (1988)
Suriname			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
Syria			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Froese and Pauly (2004); Pullin et al. (1997)
Taiwan	Japan	1966	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Liao and Lia (1989); Pullin et al. (1997)
Tanzania		1950-1969	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Ogutu-Ohwayo (1990); Ogutu-Ohwayo and Hecky (1991); Pullin et al. (1997); Twongo (1995); Welcomme (1988)
Thailand	Japan	1965	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Iongh and Zon (1993); Pullin et al. (1997); Welcomme (1988)
Trinidad and Tobago	Jamaica	1980-1985	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Chakalall (1993); Pullin et al. (1997)
Tunisia		1966	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	FAO (1997)
Turkey		1970-1979	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
UK			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997); Romana (1988)
Ukraine			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	DAISIE (2011)
United Arab Emirates			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
United States Virgin Islands			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
Uruguay			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
USA	Brazil	1974	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Peterson et al. (2002); Pullin et al. (1997)
Venezuela			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
Vietnam	Philippines	1973	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	FAO (1997); Pullin et al. (1997)
Yemen			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Pullin et al. (1997)
Zambia	Scotland	1983	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Froese and Pauly (2004); Schwank (1995); Thys Audenaerde DFEvan den (1994); Thys van den Audenaerde DFE (1994); Tweddle (2010)
Zimbabwe	Scotland	1990	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Chifamba (1998); Marshall and Tweddle (2007); Pullin et al. (1997); Zengeya and Marshall (2007); Zengeya and Marshall (2008)
Zimbabwe	Kenya	1986	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Chifamba (1998); Marshall and Tweddle (2007); Pullin et al. (1997); Zengeya and Marshall (2007); Zengeya and Marshall (2008)

Risk of Introduction

Top of page

Despite the well-documented adverse ecological effects of Nile tilapia on recipient river systems (see Canonico et al., 2005 and references therein), it is among one of the most widely cultured species in aquaculture and stock enhancements (Suresh, 2003) and it has been introduced into more than 50 countries on all continents except Antarctica (Pullin et al., 1997). In addition, Nile tilapia has been extensively propagated locally by farmers and anglers for recreational and sport fishing into small- and medium-sized reservoirs, often circumventing permitting processes. As a consequence, these movements are not usually documented or monitored.

Nile tilapia is well-suited for aquaculture because of its wide range of trophic and ecological adaptations, and its adaptive life history characteristics that enable it to occupy many different tropical and sub-tropical freshwater niches (Trewavas, 1983). These attributes have inherently predisposed it to be a successful invasive species, with established feral populations in most tropical and sub-tropical environments in which it has either been cultured or has otherwise gained access to (Welcomme, 1988; Pullin et al., 1997; Costa-Pierce, 2003; Canonico et al., 2005). However, predicting the areas where Nile tilapia will spread, once introduced to and area, can be difficult.

Decisions on exotic fish introductions are usually based on a trade-off between socio-economic benefits and potential adverse ecological effects (Cowx, 1999). In Zambia, for example, aquaculture projects rearing Nile tilapia have been ardently promoted within the Zambezi River system, and the inevitable fish escapes from such facilities have led to the establishment of feral populations in river systems such as the Kafue River (Schwank, 1995) and tributaries of the Upper Kapombo River, and Nile tilapia will probably futher spread in the upper Zambezi River, where indigenous Oreochromis species such as O. andersonii and O. macrochir will be at risk of being outcompeted (Tweddle, 2010).

Habitat List

Top of page

Category	Habitat	Presence	Status
Brackish
	Inland saline areas	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
	Inland saline areas	Present, no further details	Natural
	Inland saline areas	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural
	Estuaries	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
	Estuaries	Present, no further details	Natural
	Estuaries	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural
	Lagoons	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
	Lagoons	Present, no further details	Natural
	Lagoons	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural
Freshwater
	Irrigation channels	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
	Irrigation channels	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural
	Lakes	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
	Lakes	Present, no further details	Natural
	Lakes	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural
	Reservoirs	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
	Reservoirs	Present, no further details	Natural
	Reservoirs	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural
	Rivers / streams	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
	Rivers / streams	Present, no further details	Natural
	Rivers / streams	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural
	Ponds	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
	Ponds	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural

Biology and Ecology

Top of page

Reproductive Biology

Nile tilapia are maternal mouthbrooders. A female lays her eggs in a simple nest prepared by the male, the male fertilizes the eggs and then the female picks the eggs up and incubates them in her mouth. Even after eggs hatch, fry will remain in the mother’s mouth. Once the fry are free-swimming they will return to her mouth for protection. Females can produce several hundred to several thousand young per spawn.

Climate

Top of page

Climate	Status	Description
A - Tropical/Megathermal climate	Preferred	Average temp. of coolest month > 18°C, > 1500mm precipitation annually
Af - Tropical rainforest climate	Preferred	> 60mm precipitation per month
Am - Tropical monsoon climate	Preferred	Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25]))
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer	Preferred	< 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25])
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate	Preferred	< 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25])
B - Dry (arid and semi-arid)	Tolerated	< 860mm precipitation annually
BW - Desert climate	Tolerated	< 430mm annual precipitation
C - Temperate/Mesothermal climate	Tolerated	Average temp. of coldest month > 0°C and < 18°C, mean warmest month > 10°C

Air Temperature

Top of page

Parameter	Lower limit	Upper limit
Absolute minimum temperature (ºC)	8
Mean annual temperature (ºC)	-8	42
Mean maximum temperature of hottest month (ºC)	36	42
Mean minimum temperature of coldest month (ºC)	8	10

Water Tolerances

Top of page

Parameter	Minimum Value	Maximum Value	Typical Value	Status	Life Stage
Ammonia [unionised] (mg/l)			<0.1	Optimum	Adult
Ammonia [unionised] (mg/l)			<0.1	Optimum	Broodstock
Ammonia [unionised] (mg/l)			<0.1	Optimum	Egg
Ammonia [unionised] (mg/l)			<0.1	Optimum	Larval
Ammonia [unionised] (mg/l)			<0.1	Optimum	Fry
Ammonia [unionised] (mg/l)			>0.1	Harmful	Egg
Ammonia [unionised] (mg/l)			>0.1	Harmful	Larval
Ammonia [unionised] (mg/l)			>0.2	Harmful	Adult
Ammonia [unionised] (mg/l)			>0.2	Harmful	Broodstock
Ammonia [unionised] (mg/l)			>0.2	Harmful	Fry
Carbon Dioxide (mg/l)			<20	Optimum	Adult
Carbon Dioxide (mg/l)			<20	Optimum	Broodstock
Carbon Dioxide (mg/l)			>30	Harmful	Adult
Carbon Dioxide (mg/l)			>30	Harmful	Broodstock
Chloride (mg/l)			<2,000	Optimum	Adult
Chloride (mg/l)			<2,000	Optimum	Broodstock
Chloride (mg/l)			>5,000	Harmful	Adult
Chloride (mg/l)			>5,000	Harmful	Broodstock
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l)			<2	Harmful	Adult
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l)			<2	Harmful	Broodstock
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l)			<2	Harmful	Egg
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l)			<2	Harmful	Larval
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l)			<2	Harmful	Fry
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l)	4	7		Optimum	Adult
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l)	4	7		Optimum	Broodstock
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l)	4	7		Optimum	Egg
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l)	4	7		Optimum	Larval
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l)	4	7		Optimum	Fry
Hardness (mg/l of Calcium Carbonate)			>400	Harmful	Adult
Hardness (mg/l of Calcium Carbonate)			>400	Harmful	Broodstock
Hardness (mg/l of Calcium Carbonate)	50	250		Optimum	Adult
Hardness (mg/l of Calcium Carbonate)	50	250		Optimum	Broodstock
Nitrite (mg/l)			<0.5	Optimum	Adult
Nitrite (mg/l)			<0.5	Optimum	Broodstock
Nitrite (mg/l)			>0.8	Harmful	Adult
Nitrite (mg/l)			>0.8	Harmful	Broodstock
Salinity (part per thousand)			>10	Harmful	Adult
Salinity (part per thousand)			>10	Harmful	Broodstock
Salinity (part per thousand)			>5	Harmful	Egg
Salinity (part per thousand)			>5	Harmful	Larval
Salinity (part per thousand)			>7	Harmful	Fry
Salinity (part per thousand)	1	3		Optimum	Egg
Salinity (part per thousand)	1	3		Optimum	Larval
Salinity (part per thousand)	1	3		Optimum	Fry
Salinity (part per thousand)	1	8		Optimum	Adult
Salinity (part per thousand)	1	8		Optimum	Broodstock
Spawning temperature (ºC temperature)			<20	Harmful	Broodstock
Spawning temperature (ºC temperature)	25	33		Optimum	Broodstock
Water pH (pH)			<5, >10	Harmful	Adult
Water pH (pH)			<5.5, >10	Harmful	Broodstock
Water pH (pH)			<6, >9.5	Harmful	Egg
Water pH (pH)			<6, >9.5	Harmful	Larval
Water pH (pH)			<6, >9.5	Harmful	Fry
Water pH (pH)	6	8		Optimum	Egg
Water pH (pH)	6	8		Optimum	Larval
Water pH (pH)	6	8		Optimum	Fry
Water pH (pH)	6	9		Optimum	Adult
Water pH (pH)	6	9		Optimum	Broodstock
Water temperature (ºC temperature)			<20	Harmful	Egg
Water temperature (ºC temperature)			<20	Harmful	Larval
Water temperature (ºC temperature)	25	30		Optimum	Adult
Water temperature (ºC temperature)	25	30		Optimum	Egg
Water temperature (ºC temperature)	25	30		Optimum	Larval
Water temperature (ºC temperature)	25	30		Optimum	Fry
Water temperature (ºC temperature)	25	33		Optimum	Broodstock
Water temperature (ºC temperature)			<15	Harmful	Adult
Water temperature (ºC temperature)			<18	Harmful	Fry
Water temperature (ºC temperature)			<20	Harmful	Broodstock

Natural enemies

Top of page

Natural enemy	Type	Specificity
Clarias gariepinus	Predator	not specific
Crocodylus niloticus	Predator	not specific
Hydrocynus vittatus	Predator	not specific
Lates niloticus	Predator	not specific

Notes on Natural Enemies

Top of page

O. niloticus is predated upon by shoreline birds, large piscivorous fish (such as tigerfish Hydrocynus vittatus, Nile perch Lates niloticus and catfish Claris gariepinus) and crocodiles.

Means of Movement and Dispersal

Top of page

Introduced Accidental

Nile tilapia has repeatedly reached new areas after escaping from nearby fish farms, such as in the Middle Zambezi, Nata (Makgadikgadi/Okavango), Runde-Save, Buzi and Limpopo River systems (Schwank, 1995; van der Waal and Bills 1997; 2000; Tweddle and Wise, 2007; Weyl, 2008; Zengeya and Marshall, 2008).

Intentional Introduction

Nile tilapia has been widely introduced for aquaculture, augmentation of capture fisheries, and sport fishing (Trewavas, 1983; Welcomme, 1988).

Pathway Causes

Top of page

Cause	Notes	Long Distance	Local	References
Aquaculture		Yes		Nico and Schofield, 2011
Breeding and propagation	Wide spread intentional introduction	Yes	Yes	Canonico et al., 2005
Escape from confinement or garden escape	Accidental		Yes	Canonico et al., 2005; Nico and Schofield, 2011
Fisheries	Widespread intentaion introduction	Yes	Yes	Canonico et al., 2005
Intentional release	Wide spread intentional introduction	Yes	Yes	Canonico et al., 2005

Pathway Vectors

Top of page

Vector	Notes	Long Distance	Local	References
Aquaculture stock	Wide spread intentional introduction	Yes	Yes	Canonico et al., 2005

Impact Summary

Top of page

Category	Impact
Animal/plant collections	Positive
Animal/plant products	Positive
Biodiversity (generally)	Negative
Crop production	Positive
Cultural/amenity	Positive
Economic/livelihood	Positive
Environment (generally)	Negative
Fisheries / aquaculture	Positive
Human health	Positive
Livestock production	Positive
Native fauna	Negative
Native flora	Negative
Tourism	Positive
Trade/international relations	Positive

Economic Impact

Top of page

In most invaded systems, Nile tilapia has had a pronounced impact on fisheries, in terms of increased food production and poverty alleviation, by creating alternative aquaculture and fisheries livelihoods (Wise et al., 2007). Interestingly, the establishment of Nile tilapia in novel systems has not led to a decrease in overall yields, but rather a replacement of indigenous species (Ogutu–Ohwayo, 1991; Twongo, 1995; Balirwa et al., 2003; Shipton et al., 2008; Weyl, 2008). In some cases, Nile tilapia has supplanted desirable species from the fishery setups, such as in Lake Victoria, where Nile tilapia is often regarded as being of inferior quality in comparison to the various haplochromines that it supplanted and therefore, commands lower market prices (Wise et al., 2007).

Environmental Impact

Top of page

Tilapia introductions were often associated with severe environmental change, especially construction of reservoirs and large-scale irrigation projects. Many populations of tilapia are now so well established they are a permanent part of the fish community. Introduced tilapia often will develop large populations and male Nile tilapia will create nesting areas that will cover large areas of disturbed bottom sediments. The male’s aggressive protection of nest territory may impact native nest builders.

Impact on Biodiversity

Nile tilapia have been distributed throughout the tropics. In many cases this distribution occurred before any scientific evaluation of natural aquatic ecosystems. The environmental impact in most cases can only be assumed and in most cases is equally related to considerable anthropogenic changes in the environment.

Threatened Species

Top of page

Threatened Species	Conservation Status	Where Threatened	Mechanism	References
Oreochromis andersonii (three spotted tilapia)	VU (IUCN red list: Vulnerable)		Competition; Competition - monopolizing resources
Oreochromis macrochir (longfin tilapia)	VU (IUCN red list: Vulnerable)		Competition; Competition - monopolizing resources
Oreochromis mossambicus (Mozambique tilapia)	No Details		Competition; Competition - monopolizing resources
Zizania texana (Texas wild-rice)	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Texas	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Pest and disease transmission	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1995

Social Impact

Top of page

Tilapia’s major social impact is as an important source of protein in many developing countries. A second important impact is as a source of employment producing tilapia for export. In Brazil, tilapia also support the fee fishing recreational activities. One important social impact of tilapia aquaculture is the increase in household incomes from small farms and eateries associated with farms. Another impact is the benefit to women involved with tilapia farming. Hatcheries and genetic improvement programs employ many highly educated women in developing countries. These positions are especially important in locations where women with advanced degrees in biology have a difficult time finding employment commensurate with their education. Processing plants also hire large numbers of unskilled women for the processing line and skilled women for quality assurance. Finally, Nile tilapia, also known as Egyptian Mouth Breeders, are a popular aquarium fish.

Risk and Impact Factors

Top of page Invasiveness

Invasive in its native range
Proved invasive outside its native range
Has a broad native range
Abundant in its native range
Highly adaptable to different environments
Is a habitat generalist
Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
Pioneering in disturbed areas
Capable of securing and ingesting a wide range of food
Highly mobile locally
Fast growing
Has high reproductive potential
Has high genetic variability

Impact outcomes

Altered trophic level
Changed gene pool/ selective loss of genotypes
Conflict
Damaged ecosystem services
Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
Modification of natural benthic communities
Modification of nutrient regime
Negatively impacts cultural/traditional practices
Reduced native biodiversity
Threat to/ loss of endangered species
Threat to/ loss of native species

Impact mechanisms

Competition - monopolizing resources
Competition (unspecified)
Pest and disease transmission
Herbivory/grazing/browsing
Hybridization
Interaction with other invasive species
Rapid growth

Likelihood of entry/control

Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Highly likely to be transported internationally illegally
Difficult to identify/detect in the field
Difficult/costly to control

Uses

Top of page

Tilapias are the third most farmed fish in the world after carps and salmonids, accounting for 4% of global aquaculture production (FAO, 2010). Aquaculture is perceived as a means of protein security, poverty alleviation and economic development in many developing countries (NEPAD, 2005).

The Nile tilapia is well-suited for aquaculture because of its wide range of trophic and ecological adaptations, as well as its adaptive life history characteristics that enable it to occupy many different tropical and sub-tropical freshwater niches (Trewavas, 1983).

Along with the Mozambique tilapia, Oreochromis mossambicus, the Nile tilapia is the most important tilapia in aquaculture. They are among the ten most introduced fish species in the world, and together they account for 99.5% of global tilapia production (FAO 2010). Since the mid-1980s, there has been a shift in producer preference away from the Mozambique tilapia towards culturing Nile tilapia, as the latter has a higher growth rate and a reduced tendency to stunt. Nile tilapia now dominates global tilapia aquaculture production, accounting for 72%, or 474 000 tons, in 1995 (FAO, 2010).

Uses List

Top of page

General

Botanical garden/zoo
Laboratory use
Research model
Sport (hunting, shooting, fishing, racing)

Human food and beverage

Meat/fat/offal/blood/bone (whole, cut, fresh, frozen, canned, cured, processed or smoked)

Detection and Inspection

Top of page

Nile tilapia is easily recognised by its caudal fin, which is distinctively striped, with 30-34 lateral scales and 20-26 gill rakers on the lower limb of the first gill arch. Breeding males have a red flush on the lower head, body, dorsal and caudal fins (Trewavas, 1983; Daget et al., 1991; Skelton, 2001).

However, the morphological identification of Nile tilapia in areas with congeneric Oreochromis species is not clearly defined, as there is considerable variation and broad interspecific overlaps in meristic and morphometric characters that are used in species identification (Trewavas, 1983). This is further complicated by the fact that Nile tilapia easily hybridises with it congeners and produces hybrids that are difficult to identify morphologically, as back-crosses resemble parental species (Trewavas, 1983). This clearly poses a serious problem for the control and management of Nile tilapia, as it is often difficult to identify habitats where it has established using standard morphological identification.

Diagnosis

To circumvent morphological identification problems of Nile tilapia, a combination of genetic and morphometric analyses can be done to identify Oreochromis species (see D’Amato et al., 2007; Firmat et al., 2013).

Prevention and Control

Top of page

Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Prevention

When deciding what species should be used for aquaculture and where, a precautionary approach is recommended, particularly in areas thought to be highly suitable for the establishment of Nile tilapia. Introductions of Nile tilapia should be restricted to catchments where it has already established, and prohibited in pristine areas that are still free of invasion. In addition, and if possible, potential point sources of Nile tilapia should be eradicated in non-invaded river systems.

Alternatively, the use of indigenous species could be promoted and enhanced through stock improvement and better farming methods. It should be noted, however, that the alternative species should also not be introduced to novel river systems outside their native range, as they would possibly pose the same invasion-related problems as encountered with Nile tilapia.

There is a need to implement regular monitoring programmes in most river catchments and also to educate farmers and anglers about the ecological impacts that invasive species such as Nile tilapia have on indigenous congeners.

Domestication and Breeding

There are some steps that aquaculture operations can take to mitigate any additional harm of Nile tilapia introductions. The eventual goal should be to develop fully domesticated strains of tilapia that will have little chance of surviving outside a culture setting, in much the same manner as most domestic farm animals. The industry is well on its way with tilapia. Red strains of Nile tilapia are an important step, as red Nile tilapia are only found in domesticated populations and they have very little chance of surviving in the wild. Predation is high from birds, fish and humans because they are so visible in the water. Strains that have been bred to have very large fillets and a more rounded body form are also unlikely to survive outside a farm. Finally, all-male populations, developed from hybrids, sex-reversal or genetically male parentage, are less likely to be able to establish a breeding population off farm. All of these techniques should be considered as contributing to the reduction of the ability of tilapia to impact native communities.

References

Top of page

Alceste CC, Conroy G, 2002. Important diseases in modern tilapia culture. Aquaculture Magazine 28(3):59-64

Amarasinghe US, Silva SSde, 1996. Impact of Oreochromis mossambicus × O. niloticus (Pisces: Cichlidae) hybridization on population reproductive potential and long-term influence on a reservoir fishery. Fisheries Management and Ecology, 3(3):239-249

Andaloro F, Falautano M, Perzia P, Maricchiolo C, Castriota L, 2012. Identification and distribution of non-indigenous species in the Mediterranean Sea: the Italian challenge. Aliens, 32:13-19

Ang K, Gopinath RC, 1989. The status of introduced fish species in Malaysia. In: Exotic aquatic organisms in Asia. Proceedings of the Workshop on Introduction of Exotic Aquatic Organisms in Asia. Asian Fish. Soc. Spec. Publ [ed. by Silva SDe] Manila, Philippines: Asian Fisheries Society, 71-82

Avtalion RR, Shlapobersky M, 1994. A whirling disease of tilapia larvae. Israeli Journal of Aquaculture, 46(2):102-104

Balirwa JS, Chapman CA, Chapman LJ, Cowx IG, Geheb K, Kaufman L, Lowe-McConnell RH, Seehausen O, Wanink JH, Welcomme RL, Witte F, 2003. Biodiversity and fishery sustainability in the Lake Victoria basin: an unexpected marriage? BioScience, 53:703-715

Bartley DM, 2006. Introduced species in fisheries and aquaculture: information for responsible use and control. Rome, Italy, FAO: unpaginated

Barua SP, Khan MMH, Reza AHMA, 2001. The status of alien invasive species in Bangladesh and their impact on the ecosystems. In: Report of workshop on Alien Invasive Species, Global Biodiversity Forum-South and Southeast Asia Session, Colombo. IUCN Regional Biodiversity Programme, Asia, Colombo, Sri Lanka. October 1999 [ed. by Balakrishna P] Gland, Switzerland: IUCN-The World Conservation Union, 1-7. http://www.biodiversityasia.org/alien.htm

Bell LAJ, Mulipola AP, 2000. Status of aquaculture and stock enhancement research and development in Samoa. Review Workshop of ACIAR/ICLARM Research on the Culture of Commercially Important Coral Reef Invertebrates in the Pacific Island Region, Honiara, Solomon Islands, 16-19 February 1998

Bell MV, Henderson RJ, Sargent JR, 1986. The role of polyunsaturated fatty acids in fish. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, B, 83(4):711-719

Bleher H, 1994. Lanao. Aqua Geographia, 10(4):6-30

Bogutskaya NG, Naseka A, 2002. An overview of nonindigenous fishes in inland waters of Russia. Proc. Zool. Inst. Russ. Acad. Sci, 296:21-30

Canonico GC, Arthington A, McCrary JK, Thieme ML, 2005. The effects of introduced tilapias on native biodiversity. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 15:463-483

Carro-Anzalotta AE, McGinty AS, 1986. Effects of stocking density on growth of Tilapia nilotica cultured in cages in ponds. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society, 17:52-57

Chakalall B, 1993. Species cultured in insular Caribbean countries, Belize, French Guiana, Guyana and Suriname. Caribbean Technical Co-operation Network in Artisanal Fisheries an Aquaculture. Santiago, Chile: FAO Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, 32 pp

Chang S-L, Huang C-M, Liao I-C, 1988. The effect of various feeds on seed production by Taiwanese red tilapia. In: Pullin RSV, Bhukaswan T, Tonguthai K, Maclean JL, eds. The Second International Symposium on Tilapia in Aquaculture. ICLARM Conference Proceedings 15. Manila, Philippines, International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, 319-322

Chen SN, Kou GH, Hedrick RP, Fryer JL, 1985. The occurrence of viral infections of fish in Taiwan. In: Ellis AE, ed. Fish and Shellfish Pathology. New York: Academic Press, 313-319

Chiba K, Taki Y, Sakai K, Oozeki Y, 1989. Present status of aquatic organisms introduced into Japan. In: Exotic aquatic organisms in Asia. Proceedings of the Workshop on Introduction of Exotic Aquatic Organisms in Asia. Special Publication of the Asian Fisheries Society 3 [ed. by Silva SSDe]

Chifamba PC, 1998. Status of Oreochromis niloticus in Lake Kariba, Zimbabwe, following escape from fish farms. In: Stocking and introduction of fish [ed. by Cowx, I. G.]. Oxford, UK: Fishing News Books, 267-273

Chong VC, Lee PKY, Lau CM, 2010. Diversity, extinction risk and conservation of Malaysian fishes. Journal of Fish Biology, 76(9):2009-2066. http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/loi/jfb

Chou BenShan, Shiau ShiYen, Hung SSO, 2001. Effect of dietary cod liver oil on growth and fatty acids of juvenile hybrid tilapia. North American Journal of Aquaculture, 63(4):277-284

Coad BW, 1995. Freshwater fishes of Iran. Acta Sci. Nat. Acad. Sci. Brno, 29(1):1-64

Coad BW, 1996. Exotic fish species in the Tigris-Euphrates basin. Zoology in the Middle East, 13:71-83

Costa-Pierce BA, 2003. Rapid evolution of an established feral population (Oreochromis spp.): the need to incorporate invasion science into regulatory structures. Biological Invasions, 5:71-84

Cowx IG, 1999. An appraisal of stocking strategies in the light of developing country constraints. Fisheries Management and Ecology, 6(1):21-34

Daget J, Gosse JP, Teugels GG, Thys Audenaerde DFEvan den, 1991. Check-list of the freshwater fishes of Africa (CLOFFA). CLOFFA, 4

DAISIE, 2011. European Invasive Alien Species Gateway. http://www.europe-aliens.org/

D'Amato ME, Esterhuyse MM, waal BWCvan der, Brink D, Volckaert AM, 2007. Hybridisation and phylogeography of the Mozambique tilapia Oreochromis mossambicus in southern Africa evidenced by mitochondrial and microsatellite DNA genotyping. Conservation Genetics, 8:475-488

Diana JS, Lin CK, Schneeberger PJ, 1991. Relationships among nutrient imputs, water nutrient concentrations, primary production, and yield of Oreochromis niloticus in ponds. Aquaculture, 92(4):323-341

Egna HS, Boyd CE, 1997. Dynamics of pond aquaculture. Dynamics of pond aquaculture., 437 pp

Eldredge LG, 1994. Freshwater fishes. In: Perspectives in aquatic exotic species management in the Pacific islands. Vol 1. Introductions of commercially significant aquatic organisms to the Pacific islands [ed. by Eldredge LG] New Caledonia

El-Sayed AFM, 1999. Alternative dietary protein sources for farmed tilapia, Oreochromis spp. Aquaculture, 179(1/4):149-168; 5 pp of ref

El-Sayed AFM, Teshima SI, 1991. Tilapia nutrition in aquaculture. Reviews in Aquatic Sciences, 5(3/4):247-265

Engle C, 1997. Marketing tilapias. In: Costa-Pierce BA, Rakocy JE, eds. Tilapia Aquaculture in the Americas. Vol. 1. Baton Rouge, LA: World Aquaculture Society, 244-258

Erdman DS, 1984. Exotic fishes in Puerto Rico. In: Distribution, biology and management of exotic fishes [ed. by Courtney WR, Stauffer JR] Baltimore, United States, 162-176

FAO, 1996. Aquaculture Production Statistics 1985-1994. FAO Fish Circular 815, 189 pp

FAO, 1997. FAO database on introduced aquatic species. FAO database on introduced aquatic species. Rome, Italy: FAO, unpaginated. http://www.fao.org/fishery/dias

FAO, 2002. Aquaculture production: values 1984-2001: FAO yearbook. Fishery statistics. Aquaculture production 2001, 92(2)

FAO, 2010. Introduced Species Fact Sheets. Fisheries and Aquaculture Department. Introduced Species Fact Sheets. Fisheries and Aquaculture Department. Rome, Italy: FAO. http://www.fao.org/fishery/introsp/9144/en

Fasakin EA, Balogun AM, Fasuru BE, 1999. Use of duckweed, Spirodela polyrhiza L. Schleiden, as a protein feedstuff in practical diets for tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus L. Aquaculture Research, 30(5):313-318; 25 ref

Firmat C, Alibert P, Losseau M, Baroiller JF, Schliewen UK, 2013. Successive invasion-mediated interspecific hybridizations and population structure in the endangered cichlid Oreochromis mossambicus. PLoS ONE, 8(5). e63880. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0063880

Fitzsimmons K, 2000. Future trends of tilapia aquaculture in the Americas. In: Costa-Pierce BA, Rakocy JE, eds. Tilapia Aquaculture in the Americas. Vol. 2. Baton Rouge, LA: World Aquaculture Society, 252-264

Fitzsimmons K, Dickenson G, Brand C, Davis J, 1997. Effects of reducing dietary lipid levels on growth and body composition of hybrid tilapia in an intensive recirculating-water system. Progressive Fish-Culturist, 59(4):293-296; 12 ref

Food and Agriculture Organization, 1995. Aquaculture production statistics 1985-1994. FAO Fisheries Circular, No. 815(rev8). Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), xxvii + 189 pp

Food and Agriculture Organization, 2010. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture, 2010. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 197 pp. http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1820e/i1820e.pdf

Froese R, Pauly D, 2004. FishBase DVD. Penang, Malaysia: Worldfish Center. Online at www.fishbase.org

Froese R, Pauly D, 2011. FishBase. http://www.fishbase.org

Golani D, Mires D, 2000. Introduction of fishes to the freshwater system of Israel. Israel Journal of Aquaculture/Bamidgeh, 52(2):47-60

Grabowska J, Kotusz J, Witkowski A, 2010. Alien invasive fish species in Polish waters: an overview. Folia Zoologica, 59(1):73-85

Green BW, 1992. Substitution of organic manure for pelleted feed in tilapia production. Aquaculture, 101(3/4):213-222; 27 ref

Green BW, Phelps RP, Alvarenga HR, 1989. The effect of manures and chemical fertilizers on the production of Oreochromis niloticus in earthen ponds. Aquaculture, 76(1/2):37-42; [1 fig., 3 tab.]

Green BW, Teichert-Coddington DR, Phelps RP, 1990. Response of tilapia yield and economics to varying rates of organic fertilization and season in two Central American countries. Aquaculture, 90(3/4):279-290; 24 ref

Guererro RDIII, 1998. Impact of tilapia introductions on the endemic fishes in some Philippine lakes and reservoirs. Aquaculture Asia, 3(1):16-17

Hillman JC, 1993. List of introduced species of Eritrea. Compiled by staff of the Research Section, Ministry of Marine Resources. Massawa, Eritrea: Ministry of Marine Resources

Holcík J, 1991. Fish introductions in Europe with particular reference to its central and eastern part. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 48(Suppl.1):13-23

Huang ChenHuei, Huang MingChih, Hou PingChun, 1998. Effect of dietary lipids on fatty acid composition and lipid peroxidation in sarcoplasmic reticulum of hybrid tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus x O. aureus. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. B, Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, 120(2):331-336; 31 ref

Iongh HHDe, Zon JCJVan, 1993. Assessment of impact of the introduction of exotic fish species in north-east Thailand. Aquaculture and Fisheries Management, 24:279-289

Jang M-H, Kim J-G, Park S-B, Jeong K-S, Cho G-I, Joo G-J, 2002. The current status of the distribution of introduced fish in large river systems of South Korea. International Review of Hydrobiology, 87(2-3):319-328

Jauncey K, Ross B, 1982. A Guide to Tilapia Feeds and Feeding. Scotland, UK: University of Stirling

Juliano RO, Guerrero RD, Ronquillo I, 1989. The introduction of exotic aquatic species in the Philippines. Proceedings of the Workshop on Introduction of Exotic Aquatic Organisms in Asia. Asian Fisheries Society Special Publication 3

Karapanagiotidis I, 2002. Studies to optimize the polyunsaturated fatty acid composition of tilapias for human consumption in Southeast Asia. Stirling University Aquaculture News, 28:6-7

Knud-Hansen CF, Batterson TR, McNabb CD, 1993. The role of chicken manure on the production of Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus (L.). Aquaculture and Fisheries Management, 24(4):483-493; 25 ref

Knud-Hnasen C, Batterson T, McNabb C, Harahat I, Sumanatadinata K, Eidman M, 1991. Nitrogen input, primary productivity and fish yield in fertilized ponds in Indonesia. Aquaculture, 94:49-63

Kottelat M, 2001. Fishes of Laos. Colombo: WHT Publications Ltd

Krauss U, 2012. 161 Invasive Alien Species present in Saint Lucia and their current status. Caribbean Alien Invasive Species Network (CIASNET), 12 pp. http://www.ciasnet.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/IAS-present-in-SLU-May-2012-revision.pdf

Krupp F, Schneider W, 1989. The fishes of the Jordan River drainage basin and Azraq Oasis. In: Fauna of Saudi Arabia, 10. 347-416

Leal-Flórez J, Rueda M, Wolff M, 2008. Role of the non-native fish Oreochromis niloticus in the long-term variations of abundance and species composition of the native ichthyofauna in a Caribbean estuary. Bulletin of Marine Science, 82(3):365-380. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/umrsmas/bullmar/2008/00000082/00000003/art00007

Leveque C, 1997. The freshwater Fish of Tropical Africa. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press

Liao I-C, Lia H-C, 1989. Exotic aquatic species in Taiwan. In: Proceedings of the Workshop on Introduction of Exotic Aquatic Organisms in Asia. Asian Fisheries Society Special Publication 3 [ed. by Silva SSDe] Manila, Philippines

Lusk MR, Luskova V, Hanel L, 2011. Black List alien invasive fish species in the Czech Republic. Biodiverzita ichtyofauna, 8:79-97

Lusk S, Lusková V, Hanel L, 2010. Alien fish species in the Czech Republic and their impact on the native fish fauna. Folia Zoologica, 59(1):57-72

Manandhar HN, 1995. Letter sent to FAO. Kathmandu, Nepal: Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Agriculture Development, Fisheries Development Division

Marshall BE, Tweddle D, 2007. Oreochromis mortimeri. Version 2011.1. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species [ed. by U. C. N. 2. 0. 1. 1.]. www.iucnredlist.org

Martínez R, Arenal A, Estrada MP, Herrera F, Huerta V, Vázquez J, Sánchez T, Fuente Jde la, 1999. Mendelian transmission, transgene dosage and growth phenotype in transgenic tilapia (Oreochromis hornorum) showing ectopic expression of homologous growth hormone. Aquaculture, 173(1/4):271-283; 37 ref

McCrary JK, Murphy BR, Stauffer JR, Hendrix SS, 2007. Tilapia (Teleostei: Cichlidae) status in Nicaraguan natural waters. Environmental Biology of Fishes, 78(2):107-114

McKaye KR, Ryan JD, Stauffer JR, Perez LJL, Vega GI, Berghe EPvan den, 1995. African tilapia in Lake Nicaragua: ecosystem in transition. Bioscience, 45:406-411

Moor IJ de, Bruton M, 1988. Atlas of alien and translocated indigenous aquatic animals in southern Africa. A report of the Committee for Nature Conservation Research National Programme for Ecosystem Research. South African Scientific Programmes Report. Port Elizabeth, South Africa, 310 p

Moreau J, 1999. The adaptation and impact on trophic relationships of introduced cichlids in Southeast Asian lakes and reservoirs. In: Fish and Fisheries of lakes and reservoirs in Southeast Asia and Africa [ed. by Densen, W. L. T. van \Morris, M. J.]. Otley, UK: Westbury Publishing, 207-229

Muchiri S, Hart PJB, Harper DM, 1995. The persistence of introduced tilapia species in Lake Naivasha, Kenya, in the face of environmental variability and fishing pressure. In: The impact of species changes in African Lakes [ed. by Pitcher TJ, Hart PJB] London, United Kingdom, 299-319

Naegel LC, 1997. Azolla meal as supplemental feed ingredients for tilapias. In: Fitzsimmons K, ed. Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Tilapia in Aquaculture. Ithaca, NY, USA: Northeast Regional Agricultural Engineering Service, 20-30

Nathaniel S, Silva EIL, 1996. Food and nest site availability: an indicator of the colonization of a highland reservoir in Sri Lanka by three species of cichlids. Sri Lanka Journal of Aquatic Science, 1:81-90

NEPAD, 2005. The NEPAD action plan for the development of African fisheries and aquaculture. In: The New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) - Fish for All Summit, Abuja Nigeria, 23 August 2005. http://www.fishforall.org/ffa-summit/English/NEPAD ActionPlan.pdf

Nico LG, Schofield PJ, 2011. Oreochromis niloticus. USGS Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database. Gainesville, Florida, USA: USGS. http://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/factsheet.aspx?SpeciesID=468

NOBANIS, 2011. North European and Baltic Network on Invasive Alien Species. http://www.nobanis.org/

Nuov S, Viseth H, Vibol O, 2005. Present status of alien species in aquaculture and aquatic ecosystem in Cambodia. In: International mechanisms for the control and responsible use of alien species in aquatic ecosystems. Report of an Ad Hoc Expert Consultation, Xishuangbanna, People's Republic of China, 27-30 August 2003 [ed. by Bartley, D. M.\Bhujel, R. C.\Funge-Smith, S.\Olin, P. G.\Phillips, M. J.]. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 75-85

Nwachukwu VN, 1997. Tilapia nutrition through substrate enhancement in ponds: a cheap sustainable, and environmentally friendly feeding method. In: Fitzsimmons K, ed. Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Tilapia in Aquaculture. Ithaca, NY, USA: Northeast Regional Agricultural Engineering Service, 5-57

Ogutu-Ohwayo R, 1990. The decline of the native fishes of lakes Victoria and Kyoga (East Africa) and the impact of introduced species, especially the Nile perch, Lates niloticus, and the Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus. Environmental Biology of Fishes, 27:81-96

Ogutu-Ohwayo R, Hecky RE, 1991. Fish introductions in Africa and some of their implications. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science, 48(Suppl. 1):8-12

Paperna I, 1973. Lymphocystis in fish from East African lakes. Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 9(No.4):331-335

Pérez-Ponce de León G, García-Prieto L, León-Règagnon V, Choudhury A, 2000. Helminth communities of native and introduced fishes in Lake Pátzcuaro, Michoacán, México. Journal of Fish Biology, 57(2):303-325

Peterson MS, Woodley CM, Slack WT, 2002. The influence of invasive, non-native tilapiine fishes on freshwater recreational fishes in south Mississippi: spatial/temporal distribution, species associations, and trophic interactions. The influence of invasive, non-native tilapiine fishes on freshwater recreational fishes in south Mississippi. Jackson, Mississippi, USA: Mississippi Wildlife, Fisheries and Parks

Plumb JA, 1997. Infectious diseases of tilapia. In: Costa-Pierce BA, Rakocy JE, eds. Tilapia Aquaculture in the Americas. Vol. 1. Baton Rouge, LA: World Aquaculture Society, 212-228

Pullin RS, Palmares ML, Casal CV, Dey MM, Pauly D, 1997. Environmental impacts of tilapias. In: Fitzsimmons K, ed. Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Tilapia in Aquaculture. Ithaca, NY, USA: Northeast Regional Agricultural Engineering Service, 554-572

Pullin RSV, 1988. Tilapia genetic resources for aquaculture. In: ICLARM Conference Proceedings, 16. 108

Pullin RSV, Capili JB, 1988. Genetic improvement of tilapias: problems and prospects. In: ICLARM Conference Proceedings, 15 [ed. by Pullin, R. S. V. \Bhukaswan, T. \Tonguthai, K. \Maclean, J. L.]. Bangkok; Manila, Thailand; Philippines: Department of Fisheries; ICLARM, 259-266

Rakocy JE, Hargreaves JA, 1993. Integration of vegetable hydroponics with fish culture: a review. Techniques for modern aquaculture. Proceedings of an aquacultural engineering conference, Spokane, Washington, USA, 21-23 June 1993., 112-136; [1 fig.]

Reinthal PN, Stiassny MLJ, 1997. Revision of the Madagascan genus Ptychochromoides (Teleostei: Cichlidae), with description of a new species. Ichthyological Exploration of Freshwaters, 7(4):353-368

Roem AJ, Stickney RR, Kohler CC, 1990. Vitamin requirements of blue tilapias in a recirculating water system. Progressive Fish-Culturist, 52(1):15-18

Romana MRR, 1988. Electrophoretic studies on induced gynogenetic diploids and triploids in tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus and O. aureus). In: ICLARM Conference Proceedings, 15 [ed. by Pullin, R. S. V. \Bhukaswan, T. \Tonguthai, K. \Maclean, J. L.]. 267-274

Santiago CB, Aldaba MB, Abuan EF, Laron MA, 1985. The effects of artificial diets on fry production and growth of Oreochromis niloticus breeders. Aquaculture, 47(2/3):193-203; 17 ref

Schoor DJ van, 1966. Studies on the culture and acclimation of Tilapia in the Western Cape Province. Investigation Report No. 7, 7. Cape Town, South Africa: Department of Nature Conservation, Cape Provincial Administration

Schwank EJ, 1995. The introduced Oreochromis niloticus is spreading on the Kafue floodplain, Zambia. Hydrobiologia, 315:143-147

Shetty HPC, Nandeesha MC, Jhingran AG, 1989. Impact of exotic aquatic species in Indian waters. Proceedings of the Workshop on Introduction of Exotic Aquatic Organisms in Asia. In: Exotic aquatic organisms in Asia. Asian Fisheries Society Special Publication, 3 [ed. by Silva, De]. 45-55

Shiau ShiYen, 1997. Utilization of carbohydrates in warmwater fish-with particular reference to tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus x O. aureus. Aquaculture, 151(1/4):79-96

Shiau SY, Lin SF, Yu SL, Lin AL, Kwok CC, 1990. Defatted and full-fat soybean meal as partial replacement for fishmeal in tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus O. aureus) diets at low protein level. Aquaculture, 86(4):401-407; 17 ref

Shipton T, Tweddle D, Watts M, 2008. Introduction of the tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) into the Eastern Cape. Species risk assessment. The Eastern Cape Development Corporation, Risk assessment report. 1-29

Siddiqui AQ, Howlader MS, Adam AD, 1989. Culture of Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus (L.), at three stocking densities in outdoor concrete tanks using drainage water. Aquaculture and Fisheries Management, 20:49-57

Skelton PH, 2001. A complete guide to the freshwater fishes of southern Africa. Cape Town, South Africa: Struik Publishers

Starling F, Lazzaro X, Cavalcanti C, Moreira R, 2002. Contribution of omnivorous tilapia to eutrophication of a shallow tropical reservoir: evidence from a fish kill. Freshwater Biology, 47(12):2443-2452

Stickney RR, 1996. Tilapia update, 1995. World Aquaculture, 27(1):45-50

Suresh V, 2003. Tilapias. In: Aquaculture: farming aquatic animals and plants [ed. by Lucas, J. S. \Southgate, P. C.]. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing

Tabthipwon P, Orachunwong C, Kugler J, Moreau J, 1988. Influence of Chlorella vulgaris and Microcystis aeruginosa mixed with commercial carp pellets on growth of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). In: ICLARM Conference Proceedings, 15 [ed. by Pullin, R. S. V. \Bhukaswan, T. \Tonguthai, K. \Maclean, J. L.]. 387-392

Takeuchi T, Satoh S, Watanabe T, 1983. Dietary lipids suitable for the practical feed of Tilapia nilotica. Bulletin of the Japanese Society of Scientific Fisheries, 49:1361-1365

Thame M, 2003. Aquatic Alien Species of Myanmar. http://www.aquaticaliens.org/documents/PenangWorkshoppublications/Session%203/3.6%20Myanmar%20(Minn%20Thame%20and%20Myat%20Myat%20Htwe%20combined).pdf

Thys Audenaerde DFEvan den, 1994. Introduction of aquatic species into Zambian waters, and their importance for aquaculture and fisheries, Aquaculture for Local Community Development Programme. Introduction of aquatic species into Zambian waters, and their importance for aquaculture and fisheries, Aquaculture for Local Community Development Programme. [ALCOM Field Document No 29.]

Trewavas E, 1983. Tilapiine fishes of the genera Sarotherodon, Oreochromis and Danakilia. London, UK: British Museum of Natural History, 583 pp

Tweddle D, 2010. Overview of the Zambezi River system: its history, fish fauna, fisheries, and conservation. Aquatic Ecosystem Health & Management, 13(3):224-240

Twongo T, 1995. Impact of fish species introductions on the tilapias of Lakes Victoria and Kyoga. The impact of species changes in African Lakes, 18:45-57

Ulloa Rojas JB, 2002. Use of coffee pulp as feed ingredient for tilapia culture. Ph.D. Dissertation. Wageningen University, The Netherlands

Ulloa Rojas JB, Weerd H, 1997. The growth and feed utilization of Oreochromis aureus fingerlings fed diets of with various coffee pulp levels. In: Fitzsimmons K, ed. Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Tilapia in Aquaculture. Northeast Regional Agricultural Engineering Service, Ithaca, NY, USA, 40-49

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1995. San Marcos and Comal and Associated Aquatic Ecosystems (Revised) Recovery Plan. In: San Marcos and Comal and Associated Aquatic Ecosystems (Revised) Recovery Plan : US Fish and Wildlife Service.x + 93 pp. + 28 pp. of appendices.

Vigliano P, Darrigran G, 2003. Argentina´s Freshwater Systems, Aliens in Wonderland. In: Proceeding 11th. International Conference an Aquatic Invasive Species, Alexandria, Virginia, USA, 2002 [ed. by Muckle-Jeffs], 25-44

Viola S, Arieli Y, Zohar G, 1988. Animal-protein-free feeds for hybrid tilapia (Oreochromis niloticusO. aureus) in intensive culture. Aquaculture, 75(1-2):115-125; 24 ref

Vos L De, Thys Audenaerde DFE van den, 1990. The effects of Tilapia introductions in Lake Luhondo, Rwanda. Environmental Biology of Fishes, 27:303-308

Waal BCW van der, Bills R, 1997. Oreochromis niloticus in the Limpopo System. Ichthos, 52:14-16

Waal BCW van der, Bills R, 2000. Oreochromis niloticus (Teleostei: Cichlidae) now in the Limpopo River system. South African Journal of Science, 96(1):47-48

Watanabe T, Kiron V, Satoh S, 1997. Trace mineral in fish nutrition. Aquaculture, 151:185-207

Welcomme R, 1988. International introductions of inland aquatic species. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper, 294:1-318

Welcomme RL, 1984. International transfers of inland fish species. In: Distribution, Biology and Management of Exotic Fishes [ed. by Courtenay and Stauffer WRJR] Baltimore, Maryland, USA: Johns Hopkins University Press, 22-40

Weyl OLF, 2008. Rapid invasion of a subtropical lake fishery in central Mozambique by Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus (Pisces: Cichlidae). Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 18:839-851

Wise RM, Wilgen BWvan, Hill MP, Schulthess F, Tweddle D, Chabi-Olay A, Zimmermann HG, 2007. The economic impact and appropriate management of selected invasive alien species on the African continent. Global Invasive Species Programme

Zengeya TA, Booth AJ, Bastos ADS, Chimimba CT, 2011. Trophic interrelationships between the exotic Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus and indigenous tilapiine cichlids in a subtropical African river system (Limpopo River, South Africa). Environmental Biology of Fishes, 92(4):479-489. http://springerlink.metapress.com/link.asp?id=102877

Zengeya TA, Marshall BE, 2007. Trophic interrelationships amongst cichlid fishes in a tropical African reservoir (Lake Chivero, Zimbabwe). Hydrobiologia, 592:175-182. http://springerlink.metapress.com/content/1573-5117/

Zengeya TA, Marshall BE, 2008. The inshore fish community of Lake Kariba half a century after its creation: what happened to the Upper Zambezi invasion? African Journal of Aquatic Science, 33:99-102

Zengeya TA, Robertson MP, Booth AJ, Chimimba CT, 2013. A qualitative ecological risk assessment of the invasive Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus in a sub-tropical African river system (Limpopo River, South Africa). Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 23(1):51-64. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)1099-0755

Distribution References

Amarasinghe U S, Silva S S de, 1996. Impact of Oreochromis mossambicus × O. niloticus (Pisces: Cichlidae) hybridization on population reproductive potential and long-term influence on a reservoir fishery. Fisheries Management and Ecology. 3 (3), 239-249. DOI:10.1111/j.1365-2400.1996.tb00151.x

Andaloro F, Falautano M, Perzia P, Maricchiolo C, Castriota L, 2012. Identification and distribution of non-indigenous species in the Mediterranean Sea: the Italian challenge. Aliens: The Invasive Species Bulletin. 13-19. http://www.issg.org/pdf/aliens_newsletters/A32.pdf

Ang K, Gopinath R C, 1989. The status of introduced fish species in Malaysia. In: Exotic Aquatic Organisms in Asia. Proceedings of the Workshop on Introduction of Exotic Aquatic Organisms in Asia [Exotic aquatic organisms in Asia. Proceedings of the Workshop on Introduction of Exotic Aquatic Organisms in Asia.], [ed. by Silva S De]. Manila, Philippines: Asian Fisheries Society. 71-82.

Bartley D M, 2006. Introduced species in fisheries and aquaculture: information for responsible use and control. In: Introduced species in fisheries and aquaculture: information for responsible use and control, Rome, Italy: FAO.

Barua S P, Khan M M H, Reza A H M A, 2001. The status of alien invasive species in Bangladesh and their impact on the ecosystems. In: Report of workshop on Alien Invasive Species, Global Biodiversity Forum-South and Southeast Asia Session, Colombo. IUCN Regional Biodiversity Programme, Asia, Colombo, Sri Lanka. October 1999. [ed. by Balakrishna P]. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN-The World Conservation Union. 1-7.

Bell LAJ, Mulipola AP, 2000. Status of aquaculture and stock enhancement research and development in Samoa. In: Review Workshop of ACIAR/ICLARM Research on the Culture of Commercially Important Coral Reef Invertebrates in the Pacific Island Region, Honiara, Solomon Islands, 16-19 February 1998,

Bleher H, 1994. Lanao. In: Aqua Geographia, 10 (4) 6-30.

Bogutskaya N G, Naseka A, 2002. An overview of nonindigenous fishes in inland waters of Russia. Proc. Zool. Inst. Russ. Acad. Sci. 21-30.

CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI

CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI

CABI, Undated b. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI

Chakalall B, 1993. Species cultured in insular Caribbean countries, Belize, French Guiana, Guyana and Suriname. In: Caribbean Technical Co-operation Network in Artisanal Fisheries an Aquaculture, Santiago, Chile: FAO Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean. 32.

Chiba K, Taki Y, Sakai K, Oozeki Y, 1989. Present status of aquatic organisms introduced into Japan. In: Exotic aquatic organisms in Asia. Proceedings of the Workshop on Introduction of Exotic Aquatic Organisms in Asia. [Exotic aquatic organisms in Asia. Proceedings of the Workshop on Introduction of Exotic Aquatic Organisms in Asia.], [ed. by Silva S S De].

Chifamba PC, 1998. Status of Oreochromis niloticus in Lake Kariba, Zimbabwe, following escape from fish farms. In: Stocking and introduction of fish, [ed. by Cowx IG]. Oxford, UK: Fishing News Books. 267-273.

Chong V C, Lee P K Y, Lau C M, 2010. Diversity, extinction risk and conservation of Malaysian fishes. Journal of Fish Biology. 76 (9), 2009-2066. http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/loi/jfb DOI:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2010.02685.x

Coad B W, 1995. Freshwater fishes of Iran. Acta Sci. Nat. Acad. Sci. Brno. 29 (1), 1-64.

Coad B W, 1996. Exotic fish species in the Tigris-Euphrates basin. Zoology in the Middle East. 71-83.

DAISIE, 2011. European Invasive Alien Species Gateway. In: European Invasive Alien Species Gateway, http://www.europe-aliens.org/

D'Amato ME, Esterhuyse MM, waal BWCvan der, Brink D, Volckaert AM, 2007. Hybridisation and phylogeography of the Mozambique tilapia Oreochromis mossambicus in southern Africa evidenced by mitochondrial and microsatellite DNA genotyping. In: Conservation Genetics, 8 475-488.

Eldredge L G, 1994. Freshwater fishes. In: Perspectives in aquatic exotic species management in the Pacific islands. Vol 1. Introductions of commercially significant aquatic organisms to the Pacific islands. [ed. by Eldredge L G]. New Caledonia:

Erdman D S, 1984. Exotic fishes in Puerto Rico. In: Distribution, biology and management of exotic fishes. [ed. by Courtney W R, Stauffer J R]. Baltimore, USA: 162-176.

FAO, 1996. Aquaculture Production Statistics 1985-1994. In: FAO Fish Circular 815, 189 pp.

FAO, 1997. Xiphophorus maculatus. In: FAO database on introduced aquatic species, Rome, Italy: FAO. unpaginated. http://www.fao.org/fishery/dias

FAO, 2002. Aquaculture production: values 1984-2001: FAO yearbook. Fishery statistics. In: Aquaculture production 2001, 92 (2)

FAO, 2010. Introduced Species Fact Sheets. In: Fisheries and Aquaculture Department, Rome, Italy: FAO. http://www.fao.org/fishery/introsp/9144/en

Firmat C, Alibert P, Losseau M, Baroiller JF, Schliewen UK, 2013. Successive invasion-mediated interspecific hybridizations and population structure in the endangered cichlid Oreochromis mossambicus. In: PLoS ONE, 8 (5) DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0063880

Froese R, Pauly D, 2004. FishBase. http://www.fishbase.org

Froese R, Pauly D, 2011. FishBase. In: FishBase, http://www.fishbase.org

Golani D, Mires D, 2000. Introduction of fishes to the freshwater system of Israel. In: Israel Journal of Aquaculture/Bamidgeh, 52 (2) 47-60.

Grabowska J, Kotusz J, Witkowski A, 2010. Alien invasive fish species in Polish waters: an overview. Folia Zoologica. 59 (1), 73-85.

Guererro RDIII, 1998. Impact of tilapia introductions on the endemic fishes in some Philippine lakes and reservoirs. In: Aquaculture Asia, 3 (1) 16-17.

Hillman JC, 1993. List of introduced species of Eritrea. Compiled by staff of the Research Section, Ministry of Marine Resources., Massawa, Eritrea: Ministry of Marine Resources.

Holcík J, 1991. Fish introductions in Europe with particular reference to its central and eastern part. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 48 (Suppl. 1), 13-23.

Iongh HHDe, Zon JCJVan, 1993. Assessment of impact of the introduction of exotic fish species in north-east Thailand. In: Aquaculture and Fisheries Management, 24 279-289.

Jang M H, Kim J G, Park S B, Jeong K S, Cho G I, Joo G J, 2002. The current status of the distribution of introduced fish in large river systems of South Korea. International Review of Hydrobiology. 87 (2-3), 319-328.

Juliano R O, Guerrero R D, Ronquillo I, 1989. The introduction of exotic aquatic species in the Philippines. In: Exotic aquatic organisms in Asia. Proceedings of the Workshop on Introduction of Exotic Aquatic Organisms in Asia. [Exotic aquatic organisms in Asia. Proceedings of the Workshop on Introduction of Exotic Aquatic Organisms in Asia.], [ed. by Silva De]. 83-90.

Kottelat M, 2001. Fishes of Laos. Colombo: WHT Publications Ltd.

Krauss U, 2012. 161 Invasive Alien Species present in Saint Lucia and their current status. In: Caribbean Alien Invasive Species Network (CIASNET), 12 pp. http://www.ciasnet.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/IAS-present-in-SLU-May-2012-revision.pdf

Krupp F, Schneider W, 1989. The fishes of the Jordan River drainage basin and Azraq Oasis. In: Fauna of Saudi Arabia, 10 347-416.

Leal-Flórez J, Rueda M, Wolff M, 2008. Role of the non-native fish Oreochromis niloticus in the long-term variations of abundance and species composition of the native ichthyofauna in a Caribbean estuary. Bulletin of Marine Science. 82 (3), 365-380. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/umrsmas/bullmar/2008/00000082/00000003/art00007

Leveque C, 1997. The freshwater Fish of Tropical Africa., Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Liao I C, Lia H C, 1989. Exotic aquatic species in Taiwan. In: Exotic aquatic organisms in Asia. Proceedings of the Workshop on Introduction of Exotic Aquatic Organisms in Asia. [Exotic aquatic organisms in Asia. Proceedings of the Workshop on Introduction of Exotic Aquatic Organisms in Asia.], [ed. by Silva S S De]. Manila, Philippines:

Lusk MR, Luskova V, Hanel L, 2011. Black List alien invasive fish species in the Czech Republic. In: Biodiverzita ichtyofauna, 8 79-97.

Lusk S, Lusková V, Hanel L, 2010. Alien fish species in the Czech Republic and their impact on the native fish fauna. Folia Zoologica. 59 (1), 57-72.

Manandhar HN, 1995. Letter sent to FAO., Kathmandu, Nepal: Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Agriculture Development, Fisheries Development Division.

Marshall BE, Tweddle D, 2007. Oreochromis mortimeri. Version 2011.1. In: IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, [ed. by U C N 2 0 1 1]. http://www.iucnredlist.org

McCrary J K, Murphy B R, Stauffer J R, Hendrix S S, 2007. Tilapia (Teleostei: Cichlidae) status in Nicaraguan natural waters. Environmental Biology of Fishes. 78 (2), 107-114. http://springerlink.metapress.com/link.asp?id=102877 DOI:10.1007/s10641-006-9080-x

McKaye KR, Ryan JD, Stauffer JR, Perez LJL, Vega GI, Berghe EPvan den, 1995. African tilapia in Lake Nicaragua: ecosystem in transition. In: Bioscience, 45 406-411.

Moor I J de, Bruton M, 1988. Atlas of alien and translocated indigenous aquatic animals in southern Africa. In: A report of the Committee for Nature Conservation Research National Programme for Ecosystem Research, Port Elizabeth, South Africa: 310 pp.

Moreau J, 1999. The adaptation and impact on trophic relationships of introduced cichlids in Southeast Asian lakes and reservoirs. In: Fish and Fisheries of lakes and reservoirs in Southeast Asia and Africa, [ed. by Densen WLT, van Morris MJ]. Otley, UK: Westbury Publishing. 207-229.

Muchiri S, Hart P J B, Harper D M, 1995. The persistence of introduced tilapia species in Lake Naivasha, Kenya, in the face of environmental variability and fishing pressure. In: The impact of species changes in African Lakes. [ed. by Pitcher T J, Hart P J B]. London, UK: 299-319.

NOBANIS, 2011. North European and Baltic Network on Invasive Alien Species. In: North European and Baltic Network on Invasive Alien Species, http://www.nobanis.org/

Nuov S, Viseth H, Vibol O, 2005. Present status of alien species in aquaculture and aquatic ecosystem in Cambodia. In: International mechanisms for the control and responsible use of alien species in aquatic ecosystems. Report of an Ad Hoc Expert Consultation, Xishuangbanna, People's Republic of China, 27-30 August 2003. [ed. by Bartley D M, Bhujel R C, Funge-Smith S, Olin P G, Phillips M J]. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). 75-85.

Ogutu-Ohwayo R, 1990. The decline of the native fishes of lakes Victoria and Kyoga (East Africa) and the impact of introduced species, especially the Nile perch, Lates niloticus, and the Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus. Environmental Biology of Fishes. 81-96.

Ogutu-Ohwayo R, Hecky RE, 1991. Fish introductions in Africa and some of their implications. In: Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science, 48 (1) 8-12.

Pérez-Ponce de León G, García-Prieto L, León-Règagnon V, Choudhury A, 2000. Helminth communities of native and introduced fishes in Lake Pátzcuaro, Michoacán, México. Journal of Fish Biology. 57 (2), 303-325. DOI:10.1006/jfbi.2000.1325

Peterson MS, Woodley CM, Slack WT, 2002. The influence of invasive, non-native tilapiine fishes on freshwater recreational fishes in south Mississippi: spatial/temporal distribution, species associations, and trophic interactions. In: The influence of invasive, non-native tilapiine fishes on freshwater recreational fishes in south Mississippi, Jackson, Mississippi, USA: Mississippi Wildlife, Fisheries and Parks.

Pullin RS, Palmares ML, Casal CV, Dey MM, Pauly D, 1997. Environmental impacts of tilapias. [Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Tilapia in Aquaculture], [ed. by Fitzsimmons K]. Ithaca, NY, USA: Northeast Regional Agricultural Engineering Service. 554-572.

Pullin RSV, 1988. Tilapia genetic resources for aquaculture. [ICLARM Conference Proceedings], 16 108.

Pullin RSV, Capili JB, 1988. Genetic improvement of tilapias: problems and prospects. In: ICLARM Conference Proceedings, 15 [ed. by Pullin RSV, Bhukaswan T, Tonguthai K, Maclean JL]. Bangkok; Manila, Thailand; Philippines: Department of Fisheries; ICLARM. 259-266.

Reinthal PN, Stiassny MLJ, 1997. Revision of the Madagascan genus Ptychochromoides (Teleostei: Cichlidae), with description of a new species. In: Ichthyological Exploration of Freshwaters, 7 (4) 353-368.

Romana MRR, 1988. Electrophoretic studies on induced gynogenetic diploids and triploids in tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus and O. aureus). [ICLARM Conference Proceedings], 15 [ed. by Pullin RSV, Bhukaswan T, Tonguthai K, Maclean JL]. 267-274.

Schwank EJ, 1995. The introduced Oreochromis niloticus is spreading on the Kafue floodplain, Zambia. In: Hydrobiologia, 315 143-147.

Shetty HPC, Nandeesha MC, Jhingran AG, 1989. Impact of exotic aquatic species in Indian waters. In: Exotic aquatic organisms in Asia [Proceedings of the Workshop on Introduction of Exotic Aquatic Organisms in Asia. Asian Fish. Soc. Spec. Publ.], 3 [ed. by De Silva SS]. 45-55.

Siddiqui AQ, Howlader MS, Adam AD, 1989. Culture of Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus (L.), at three stocking densities in outdoor concrete tanks using drainage water. In: Aquaculture and Fisheries Management, 20 49-57.

Starling F, Lazzaro X, Cavalcanti C, Moreira R, 2002. Contribution of omnivorous tilapia to eutrophication of a shallow tropical reservoir: evidence from a fish kill. Freshwater Biology. 47 (12), 2443-2452. DOI:10.1046/j.1365-2427.2002.01013.x

Tabthipwon P, Orachunwong C, Kugler J, Moreau J, 1988. Influence of Chlorella vulgaris and Microcystis aeruginosa mixed with commercial carp pellets on growth of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). [ICLARM Conference Proceedings], 15 [ed. by Pullin RSV, Bhukaswan T, Tonguthai K, Maclean JL]. 387-392.

Thame M, 2003. Aquatic Alien Species of Myanmar., http://www.aquaticaliens.org/documents/PenangWorkshoppublications/Session%203/3.6%20Myanmar%20(Minn%20Thame%20and%20Myat%20Myat%20Htwe%20combined).pdf

Trewavas E, 1983. Tilapiine fishes of the genera Sarotherodon, Oreochromis and Danakilia., London, UK: British Museum of Natural History. 583.

Tweddle D, 2010. Overview of the Zambezi River system: its history, fish fauna, fisheries, and conservation. Aquatic Ecosystem Health & Management. 13 (3), 224-240. DOI:10.1080/14634988.2010.507035

Twongo T, 1995. Impact of fish species introductions on the tilapias of Lakes Victoria and Kyoga. In: The impact of species changes in African Lakes, 18 45-57.

Vos L De, Thys Audenaerde DFE van den, 1990. The effects of Tilapia introductions in Lake Luhondo, Rwanda. In: Environmental Biology of Fishes, 27 303-308.

Waal B C W van der, Bills R, 2000. Oreochromis niloticus (Teleostei: Cichlidae) now in the Limpopo River system. South African Journal of Science. 96 (1), 47-48.

Welcomme R L, 1984. International transfers of inland fish species. In: Distribution, Biology and Management of Exotic Fishes. [ed. by Courtenay W R, Stauffer J R]. Baltimore, Maryland, USA: Johns Hopkins University Press. 22-40.

Welcomme R, 1988. International introductions of inland aquatic species. In: FAO Fisheries Technical Paper, 318 pp.

Zengeya T A, Booth A J, Bastos A D S, Chimimba C T, 2011. Trophic interrelationships between the exotic Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus and indigenous tilapiine cichlids in a subtropical African river system (Limpopo River, South Africa). Environmental Biology of Fishes. 92 (4), 479-489. http://springerlink.metapress.com/link.asp?id=102877 DOI:10.1007/s10641-011-9865-4

Zengeya T A, Marshall B E, 2007. Trophic interrelationships amongst cichlid fishes in a tropical African reservoir (Lake Chivero, Zimbabwe). Hydrobiologia. 175-182. http://springerlink.metapress.com/content/1573-5117/ DOI:10.1007/s10750-007-0790-7

Zengeya T A, Robertson M P, Booth A J, Chimimba C T, 2013. A qualitative ecological risk assessment of the invasive Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus in a sub-tropical African river system (Limpopo River, South Africa). Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems. 23 (1), 51-64. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)1099-0755 DOI:10.1002/aqc.2258

Zengeya TA, Marshall BE, 2008. The inshore fish community of Lake Kariba half a century after its creation: what happened to the Upper Zambezi invasion? In: African Journal of Aquatic Science, 33 99-102.

Links to Websites

Top of page

Website	URL	Comment
American Tilapia Association	http://cals.arizona.edu/azaqua/ata.html
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway	https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6	Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list.
Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS)	http://griis.org/	Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list.

Contributors

Top of page

02/10/13 Datasheet reviewed by:

Tsungai Zengeya, Univeristy of Pretoria, South Africa

First Author
Kevin Fitzsimmons
University of Arizona, Environmental Research Lab, Soil, Water & Environ Sci Dept, 2601 E. Airport Dr, Tucson, AZ 85706, USA

Distribution Maps

Top of page

You can pan and zoom the map

Save map

Unsupported Web Browser:

One or more of the features that are needed to show you the maps functionality are not available in the web browser that you are using.

Please consider upgrading your browser to the latest version or installing a new browser.

More information about modern web browsers can be found at http://browsehappy.com/

Datasheet

Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia)

Toolbox