Oncorhynchus tshawytscha (chinook salmon)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Description
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- Introductions
- Habitat List
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Air Temperature
- Water Tolerances
- Natural enemies
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Environmental Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses List
- Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
- References
- Links to Websites
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
Don't need the entire report?
Generate a print friendly version containing only the sections you need.
Generate reportIdentity
Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Oncorhynchus tshawytscha (Walbaum, 1792)
Preferred Common Name
- chinook salmon
Other Scientific Names
- Oncorhynchus chouicha Bean, 1894
- Oncorhynchus cooperi Suckley, 1862
- Oncorhynchus tschawytscha (Walbaum, 1792)
- Oncorhynchus tshawytsha (Walbaum, 1792)
- Salmo cooperi Suckley, 1862
- Salmo orientalis Pallas, 1814
- Salmo quinnat Richardson, 1836
- Salmo richardi Suckley, 1861
- Salmo tschawytscha Bloch and Schneider, 1801
- Salmo tshawytscha Walbaum, 1792
- Salmo warreni Suckley, 1862
International Common Names
- English: blackmouth; blackmouth salmon; chinook; king; king salmon; locks; lox; Pacific salmon; quinnat; quinnat salmon; salmon; salmon, chinook; smilie; spring; spring salmon; tyee; tyee salmon
- Spanish: salmon chinook; salmon real; salmón real
- French: saumon chinook; saumon royal
- Russian: chavycha
Local Common Names
- Canada/British Columbia: k'with'thet; k'wolexw; saæup; sa-cin; schaanexw; shamet skelex; shmexwalsh; sináech; sk'wel'eng's schaanexw; slhop' schaanexw; spak'ws schaanexw; st'thokwi; su-ha; taagun; taagun gaaw gaada; taagun gaaw sg'iida; taagwun; t'aown; yee
- Denmark: kongelaks
- Finland: kuningaslohi
- Germany: konigslachs; Königslachs; Quinnat
- Italy: salmone reale
- Japan: masunosuke
- Netherlands: chinook zalm
- Norway: chinook
- Poland: czawycza
- Portugal: salmao-real; salmão-real
- Sweden: kungslax
- USA/Alaska: iqallugpak; tarjaxfaq
- Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro): vrsta lososa
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageChinook salmon (O. tshawytscha) are the largest of the Pacific salmon group and are found throughout the northern Pacific area from latitudes of 35°N to approximately 70°N. Native areas include Alaska, Canada, northwestern USA, Russia, and Japan. These salmon have been introduced throughout the world but have established breeding populations only a few select places. Introduced populations have established themselves in New Zealand, Chile, Argentina, and the Great Lakes along the USA-Canada border. All other attempts at introduction have failed.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Metazoa
- Phylum: Chordata
- Subphylum: Vertebrata
- Class: Actinopterygii
- Order: Salmoniformes
- Family: Salmonidae
- Genus: Oncorhynchus
- Species: Oncorhynchus tshawytscha
Description
Top of pageO. tshawytscha are the largest of the Pacific coastal salmon, reaching as much as 125 lbs (56.7 kg). Bodies of the adults are fusiform and laterally compressed, especially in males near spawning. The head is approximately 20% of the total length, although it is longer in mature males. At breeding time, the head of the male is transformed into a ‘kype’, with a deformed, upturned jaw and a hooked nose. The mouth is unable to close after the kype has developed. Both males and females have well-developed, moderately large, sharp teeth in both jaws. Gill rakers are rough and widely spaced with 10-16 rakers on the lower limb and 6-10 on the upper limb.
O. tshawytscha have a long, narrow adipose fin and a centrally located dorsal fin that is soft rayed, has square edges, and contains 10-14 principal rays. The caudal fin is broad, emarginate to shallowly forked. Pectoral fins are low, somewhat pointed and contain 14-17 rays. Anal fins contain 14-19 rays, a characteristic that distinguishes members of the genus Oncorhynchus from other trout.
At spawning, males and females are easily distinguished by their head and body shape. Females have a small, somewhat pointed head and are more rounded laterally. Males have a prolonged, hooked snout, gaping mouth, enlarged teeth and a body which is strongly compressed laterally.
ColorationAdult O. tshawytscha are identified by fishermen by the black gum tissue next to the lower teeth. Adults captured in the ocean are dark greenish or bluish on top and silver underneath. As they enter freshwater, they take on a golden colour and slowly become darker as they approach spawning time.
Juvenile O. tshawytscha are brownish in colour with 6-12 parr marks, long transverse dark marks on the sides of the fish. Parr marks in O. tshawytscha are longer and wider than those of other salmon juveniles. The first ray of the anal fin is elongate but not as long as that in coho salmon juveniles. As the fish undergo parr-smolt transformation, the parr-marks become obscured by a layer of purines, causing the fish to appear uniformly silver. The caudal fin at this time develops a black band.
Distribution
Top of pageOncorhynchus tshawytscha inhabit streams and rivers along the eastern Pacific Ocean from Point Hope, Alaska to the Ventura River, California, USA, with occasional strays as far south as San Diego, California. In the western Pacific Ocean, they are found in the Bering Sea and the Sea of Okhotsk south to Honshu, Japan, and the Sea of Japan.
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 10 Feb 2022Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Madagascar | Present | Introduced | 1955 | ||||
Antarctica |
|||||||
French Southern Territories | Present | Introduced | 1987 | Original location reported: Kerguelen Islands | |||
Asia |
|||||||
China | Present | Introduced | 2002 | ||||
Japan | Present | Native | |||||
-Hokkaido | Present | Native | Original citation: Dore (1990) | ||||
Europe |
|||||||
Belgium | Present | Introduced | 1882 | ||||
Denmark | Present | Introduced | 1897 | ||||
Finland | Present | Introduced | 1930 | ||||
France | Present | Introduced | 1877 | ||||
Germany | Present | Introduced | 1879 | ||||
Ireland | Present | Introduced | |||||
Italy | Present | Introduced | |||||
Netherlands | Present | Introduced | 1877 | ||||
Poland | Present | Introduced | 1889 | ||||
Russia | Present | Native | |||||
-Eastern Siberia | Present | Native | Original citation: Scott and Crossman (1998) | ||||
United Kingdom | Present | Introduced | |||||
North America |
|||||||
Canada | Present | Native | |||||
-British Columbia | Present | Native | |||||
-Yukon | Present | Native | Original citation: Dore (1990) | ||||
Mexico | Present | Introduced | Original citation: De La Cruz-Agüero J (1999) | ||||
Nicaragua | Present | Introduced | |||||
United States | Present | Native | |||||
-Alaska | Present | Native | |||||
-California | Present | Native | Original citation: Dore (1990) | ||||
-Hawaii | Present | Introduced | 1876 | ||||
-Idaho | Present | Native | Original citation: Dore (1990) | ||||
-Illinois | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Michigan | Present | Introduced | Original citation: Scott and Crossman (1998) | ||||
-Minnesota | Present | Introduced | Original citation: Close and et al. (1984) | ||||
-New York | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Oregon | Present | Native | Original citation: Healey (1991) | ||||
-Washington | Present | Native | Original citation: Healey (1991) | ||||
-Wisconsin | Present | Introduced | Original citation: Close and et al. (1984) | ||||
Oceania |
|||||||
Australia | Present | Introduced | 1877 | ||||
-Tasmania | Present | Introduced | Original citation: Waugh (1980) | ||||
New Zealand | Present | Introduced | 1876 | ||||
Sea Areas |
|||||||
Arctic Sea | Present | Native | |||||
Pacific - Eastern Central | Present | Native | |||||
Pacific - Northeast | Present | Native | |||||
Pacific - Northwest | Present | Native | |||||
Pacific - Southeast | Present | Introduced | Original citation: Heen and et al. (1993) | ||||
Pacific - Southwest | Present | Introduced | Original citation: Waugh (1980) | ||||
South America |
|||||||
Argentina | Present | Introduced | 1904 | ||||
Chile | Present | Introduced | 1924 |
Introductions
Top of pageIntroduced to | Introduced from | Year | Reason | Introduced by | Established in wild through | References | Notes | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Natural reproduction | Continuous restocking | |||||||
Argentina | USA | 1900-1929 | Unknown | No | No | FishBase (2004) | ||
Australia | New Zealand | 1877 | Unknown | No | No | FishBase (2004) | ||
Australia | USA | 1877 | Unknown | No | No | FishBase (2004) | ||
Brazil | California | 1958 | International organisation | No | No | Joyner (1980) | ||
Chile | USA | 1900 | Unknown | No | No | FishBase (2004) | ||
Denmark | Germany | 1897 | Unknown | No | No | FishBase (2004) | ||
Finland | USA | 1930 | Unknown | No | No | FishBase (2004) | ||
France | USA | 1877 | Unknown | No | No | FishBase (2004) | ||
Germany | 1890-1899 | Unknown | No | No | FishBase (2004) | |||
Hawaii | California | 1876 | Unknown | No | No | FishBase (2004) | ||
Japan | USA | 1881 | Unknown | No | No | FishBase (2004) | ||
Madagascar | 1955 | Unknown | No | No | FishBase (2004) | |||
Netherlands | USA | 1877 | Unknown | No | No | FishBase (2004) | ||
New Zealand | USA | 1875-1910 | Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause) | Individual | No | No | McDowall (1994); Waugh (1980) | |
UK | USA | Aquaculture (pathway cause) | Unknown | No | No | FishBase (2004) |
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | Managed | Protected agriculture (e.g. glasshouse production) | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Productive/non-natural |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Principal habitat | Natural | |
Littoral | Mud flats | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Natural | |
Littoral | Salt marshes | Principal habitat | Natural | |
Freshwater | Lakes | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Productive/non-natural | |
Freshwater | Reservoirs | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Productive/non-natural | |
Freshwater | Rivers / streams | Principal habitat | Natural | |
Brackish | Estuaries | Principal habitat | Natural | |
Marine | Pelagic zone (offshore) | Principal habitat | Natural |
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
C - Temperate/Mesothermal climate | Preferred | Average temp. of coldest month > 0°C and < 18°C, mean warmest month > 10°C | |
Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year | Preferred | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year | |
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Preferred | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | |
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Tolerated | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) | |
D - Continental/Microthermal climate | Preferred | Continental/Microthermal climate (Average temp. of coldest month < 0°C, mean warmest month > 10°C) | |
Df - Continental climate, wet all year | Preferred | Continental climate, wet all year (Warm average temp. > 10°C, coldest month < 0°C, wet all year) | |
Ds - Continental climate with dry summer | Tolerated | Continental climate with dry summer (Warm average temp. > 10°C, coldest month < 0°C, dry summers) | |
Dw - Continental climate with dry winter | Tolerated | Continental climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, coldest month < 0°C, dry winters) | |
E - Polar climate | Preferred | Polar climate (Average temp. of warmest month < 10°C) |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
70 | 53 |
Air Temperature
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit |
---|---|---|
Mean annual temperature (ºC) | 0 | |
Mean maximum temperature of hottest month (ºC) | 16 | 22 |
Mean minimum temperature of coldest month (ºC) | -7 | 0 |
Water Tolerances
Top of pageParameter | Minimum Value | Maximum Value | Typical Value | Status | Life Stage | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ammonia [unionised] (mg/l) | >0.0125 | Harmful | Egg | |||
Ammonia [unionised] (mg/l) | 0 | Optimum | Egg | |||
Ammonia [unionised] (mg/l) | 0-0.005 | Optimum | 0.005-0.0125 tolerated | |||
Ammonium [ionised] (mg/l) | 0 (not toxic) | Optimum | Tolerance depends on temperature and pH | |||
Cadmium (mg/l) | <0.004 | Optimum | Egg | |||
Cadmium (mg/l) | >0.003 | Harmful | Egg | |||
Chlorine (mg/l) | 0 | Optimum | Egg | |||
Chlorine (mg/l) | 0.05 | Harmful | Egg | |||
Copper (mg/l) | 0 | Optimum | Egg | |||
Copper (mg/l) | 0.006 | Harmful | Egg | |||
Cyanide (mg/l) | >0.02 | Harmful | Egg | |||
Cyanide (mg/l) | 0 | Optimum | Egg | |||
Depth (m b.s.l.) | 20-50 | Optimum | 0.03-110 tolerated | |||
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l) | <3.0 | Harmful | Egg | |||
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l) | 6 | saturated | Optimum | 3-6 tolerated | ||
Hardness (mg/l of Calcium Carbonate) | Optimum | Tolerance depends on temperature, pH and ammonia | ||||
Hydrogen sulphide (mg/l) | 0 | Optimum | Egg | |||
Hydrogen sulphide (mg/l) | 0.002 | Harmful | Egg | |||
Lead (mg/l) | 0 | Optimum | Egg | |||
Lead (mg/l) | 0.03 | Harmful | Egg | |||
Mercury (mg/l) | <0.00005 | Optimum | Egg | |||
Mercury (mg/l) | >0.002 | Harmful | Egg | |||
Phenols (mg/l) | >5.0 | Harmful | Egg | |||
Phenols (mg/l) | 0 | Optimum | Egg | |||
Polychlorinated biphenyls (mg/l) | >0.002 | Harmful | Egg | |||
Polychlorinated biphenyls (mg/l) | 0 | Optimum | Egg | |||
Salinity (part per thousand) | 30 | Optimum | Egg | |||
Salinity (part per thousand) | 35 | Harmful | Egg | |||
Salinity (part per thousand) | 0-30 | Optimum | Tolerance depends on state of development, 30-37 tolerated | |||
Total Nitrogen (mg/l) | >110 | Harmful | Egg | nitrogen supersaturation | ||
Total Nitrogen (mg/l) | 0 | Optimum | Egg | nitrogen supersaturation | ||
Turbidity (JTU turbidity) | Optimum | At highest levels water is opaque. 0-4000 mg/L preferred; 4000-11,000 mg/L tolerated | ||||
Water pH (pH) | >9.0 | Harmful | Egg | |||
Water pH (pH) | 6.5 | 9 | Optimum | Egg | ||
Water pH (pH) | 6.5-8.0 | Optimum | 6.0-8.5 tolerated | |||
Water temperature (ºC temperature) | <6 | >14 | Harmful | Egg | ||
Water temperature (ºC temperature) | 6 | 14 | Optimum | Egg | ||
Water temperature (ºC temperature) | 6-14 | Optimum | Cannot withstand freezing, <6 and 14-22 tolerated | |||
Zinc (mg/l) | 0 | Optimum | Egg | |||
Zinc (mg/l) | 0.03 | Harmful | Egg |
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Acipenser transmontanus | Predator | Aquatic|Larval | Merrell (1961) | |||
Ardea herodias | Predator | Aquatic|Fry; Aquatic|Larval | Myers (1980) | |||
Brachyramphus marmoratus | Predator | Aquatic|Larval | Mace (1983) | |||
Cepphus columba | Predator | Aquatic|Larval | Bayer (1986) | |||
Cerorhinca monocerata | Predator | Aquatic|Larval | Simenstad and et al. (1979) | |||
Cottus | Predator | Aquatic|Fry | Patten (1971) | |||
Enophrys bison | Predator | Aquatic|Larval | Macdonald and et al. (1988) | |||
Eumetopias jubatus | Predator | Aquatic|Adult; Aquatic|Broodstock; Aquatic|Larval | Mate (1981) | |||
Gavia pacifica | Predator | Aquatic|Larval | Mace (1983) | |||
Histrionicus histrionicus | Predator | Aquatic|Larval | Mace (1983) | |||
Homo sapiens | Predator | Aquatic|Adult; Aquatic|Broodstock; Aquatic|Larval | Bayer (1989) | |||
Lagenorhynchus obliquidens | Predator | Aquatic|Larval | Mitchell (1975) | |||
Lampetra ayresii | Predator | Aquatic|Adult; Aquatic|Larval | Roos and et al. (1973) | |||
Lampetra tridentata | Predator | Aquatic|Adult; Aquatic|Larval | Roos and et al. (1973) | |||
Larus delawarensis | Predator | Aquatic|Larval | Bayer (1989) | |||
Larus glaucescens | Predator | Aquatic|Larval | Mace (1983) | |||
Larus heermanni | Predator | Aquatic|Larval | Bayer (1989) | |||
Larus occidentalis | Predator | Aquatic|Larval | Bayer (1986) | |||
Larus philadelphia | Predator | Aquatic|Larval | Mace (1983) | |||
Lutra canadensis | Predator | Aquatic|Adult; Aquatic|Broodstock; Aquatic|Larval | Alexander (1979) | |||
Megaceryle alcyon | Predator | Aquatic|Fry; Aquatic|Larval | Cottam and Uhler (1936) | |||
Melanitta fusca | Predator | Aquatic|Larval | Mace (1983) | |||
Melanitta nigra | Predator | Aquatic|Larval | Mace (1983) | |||
Melanitta perspicillata | Predator | Aquatic|Larval | Mace (1983) | |||
Mergus merganser | Predator | Aquatic|Larval | Wood (1987) | |||
Merluccius productus | Predator | Aquatic|Larval | Bayer (1986) | |||
Micropterus dolomieu | Predator | Aquatic|Larval | Vigg and et al. (1988) | |||
Mirounga angustirostris | Predator | Aquatic|Larval | Morejohn and et al. (1978) | |||
Morone saxatilis | Predator | Aquatic|Larval | Stevens (1966) | |||
Oncorhynchus kisutch | Predator | Aquatic|Fry; Aquatic|Larval | Fresh and et al. (1981) | |||
Oncorhynchus mykiss | Predator | Aquatic|Egg; Aquatic|Fry; Aquatic|Larval | Fresh and et al. (1981) | |||
Oncorhynchus tshawytscha | Predator | Aquatic|Fry; Aquatic|Larval | McCabe and et al. (1983) | |||
Ophiodon elongatus | Predator | Aquatic|Larval | Olla and Davis (1989) | |||
Pelecanus occidentalis | Predator | Aquatic|Larval | Bayer (1986) | |||
Phalacrocorax auritus | Predator | Aquatic|Larval | Bayer (1989) | |||
Phalacrocorax pelagicus | Predator | Aquatic|Larval | Bayer (1986) | |||
Phalacrocorax penicillatus | Predator | Aquatic|Larval | Bayer (1986) | |||
Phoca vitulina | Predator | Aquatic|Larval | Graybill (1981) | |||
Phocoena phocoena | Predator | Aquatic|Adult; Aquatic|Broodstock; Aquatic|Larval | Smith and Gaskin (1974) | |||
Ptychocheilus oregonensis | Predator | Aquatic|Larval | Thompson (1959) | |||
Sander vitreus | Predator | Aquatic|Larval | Vigg and et al. (1988) | |||
Sebastes | Predator | Aquatic|Larval | Bayer (1986) | |||
Sebastes melanops | Predator | Aquatic|Larval | Bayer (1986) | |||
Sterna caspia | Predator | Aquatic|Larval | Bayer (1986) | |||
Synthliboramphus antiquus | Predator | Aquatic|Larval | Mace (1983) | |||
Theragra chalcogramma | Predator | Aquatic|Larval | Hart (1973) | |||
Uria aalge | Predator | Aquatic|Larval | Bayer (1989) | |||
Zalophus californianus | Predator | Aquatic|Adult; Aquatic|Broodstock; Aquatic|Larval | Morejohn and et al. (1978) |
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Animal production | Used for supplementation in rivers in USA and Canada | Yes | Yes | Heen et al. (1993); Leitritz and Lewis (1976); Thorpe (1989) |
Aquaculture | Reared for production in USA, Canada, New Zeland and Chile | Yes | Yes | Heen et al. (1993); Leitritz and Lewis (1976); Thorpe (1989) |
Biological control | Introduced to control alewife populations in the Great Lakes, US | Yes | Carl (1982); Close et al. (1984) | |
Fisheries | Used for supplementation in rivers in USA, Canada, New Zealand and Chile | Yes | Yes |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Aircraft | Stocked in rivers yearly as juveniles | Yes | Yes | Leitritz and Lewis (1976); Piper et al. (1982) |
Aquaculture stock | Stocked in rivers yearly as juveniles | Yes | Yes | Leitritz and Lewis (1976); Piper et al. (1982) |
Containers and packaging - wood | Stocked in rivers yearly as juveniles | Yes | Leitritz and Lewis (1976); Piper et al. (1982) |
Environmental Impact
Top of pageO. tshawytscha have been widely imported to countries outside their natural range but the introductions have failed to produce viable breeding populations, with a few exceptions. An effort to introduce O. tshawytscha to New Zealand was initiated in 1875 and lasted until 1910. By 1907, a few adults were being caught, although they may have been returning as early as 1898 (Waugh, 1980). A sustainable run of O. tshawytscha, known as quinnat salmon, has developed in the South Island of New Zealand (McDowell, 1994).
In 1958, William Ellis Ripley, a fisheries advisor to the United Nations Development Programme, arranged for 400,000 eggs from Nimbus Hatchery on the American River, California, to be planted in the Rio Grande de Sul in Brazil (Joyner, 1980). Four years later, fish unknown to the residents were seen trying to leap the unnavigable falls at Salto on the Rio Uruguay. The fish were seen for 2 to 3 weeks, then were never seen again. A local fish biologist tentatively identified them as O. tshawytscha.
Sustainable runs of O. tshawytscha have been mentioned from time to time that have resulted from escapees from pen culture in Chile. Returns have been reported from sea-ranching operations there (Lindbergh, 1982). In recent years, a number of papers have reported the spread of feral O. tshawytscha throughout Chile and through the Straits of Magellan to Argentina (Becker et al., 2007; Correa and Gross, 2007; Soto et al., 2007). There is insufficient information to determine whether these fish will compete with native galaxiid fishes. The authors are confident, however, that these runs will cause substantial disruption of ecosystems.
Various efforts have been made to introduce O. tshawytscha into the Great Lakes, North America. Some of the latest introductions have resulted in naturally spawning populations (Carl, 1982). Naturally produced and cultured O. tshawytscha are valuable components of the sport fishery in the Great Lakes at present [2004].
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Has a broad native range
- Abundant in its native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Capable of securing and ingesting a wide range of food
- Highly mobile locally
- Long lived
- Fast growing
- Has high reproductive potential
- Gregarious
- Reproduces asexually
- Altered trophic level
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Modification of natural benthic communities
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Pest and disease transmission
- Predation
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Uses List
Top of pageAnimal feed, fodder, forage
- Eggs cured for bait
- Meat and bonemeal
General
- Laboratory use
- Ritual uses
- Sport (hunting, shooting, fishing, racing)
Human food and beverage
- Canned meat
- Cured meat
- Eggs (roe)
- Fish meal
- Fish oil
- Fresh meat
- Frozen meat
- Meat/fat/offal/blood/bone (whole, cut, fresh, frozen, canned, cured, processed or smoked)
- Whole
Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
Top of pageThe spread of O. tshawytscha populations throughout the southern part of South America may be threatening indigenous species, especially the threatened galaxiid fishes. Immediate research needs include the following:
- A survey of the extent to which O. tshawytscha have utilized southern river systems.
- Interaction of juvenile salmon with the native fishes.
- Competition of juvenile salmon with native fishes for food and territory.
- Utilization of the salmon for sport or food sources.
- Determination of the extent to which O. tshawytscha present a problem for native fishes.
References
Top of pageAlexander GR, 1979. Predators of fish in coldwater streams. In: Stroud RH, Clepper H, eds. Predator-prey Systems in Fisheries Management. Washington DC: Sport Fishing Institute, 153-170
Bayer RD, 1986. Seabirds near an Oregon estuarine salmon hatchery in 1982 and during the 1983 El Nino. Fisheries Bulletin, 84:279-286
Bayer RD, 1989. The Cormorant/Fisherman Conflict, Tillamook County, Oregon. Studies in Oregon Ornithology No. 6. Newport: Oregon: Gahmken Press, 99 pp
Beacham TD, Murray CB, Withler RE, 1989. Age, morphology, and biochemical genetic variation of Yukon River chinook salmon. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 118:46-63
Bean TH, 1894. Life history of the salmon. Bulletin of the US Fish Commission, 12:21-38
Becker CD, 1973. Food and growth parameters of juvenile chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, in central Columbia River. Fishery Bulletin, 71:387-400
Birtwell IK, 1978. Studies on the relationship between juvenile chinook salmon and water quality in the industrialized estuary of the Somass River. In: Shepherd BG, Ginetz RMJ, eds. Proceedings of the 1977 Northeast Pacific Chinook and Coho Salmon Workshop. Fisheries and Marine Service, Canada, Technical Report 759, 58-78
Boerson G, Westers H, 1986. Waste solids control in hatchery raceways. Progressive Fish-Culturist, 48:151-154
Burrows RE, Chenoweth HH, 1970. The rectangular circulating rearing pond. Progressive Fish-Culturist, 32:67-80
Carl LM, 1982. Natural reproduction of coho salmon and chinook salmon in some Michigan streams. North American Journal of Fisheries Management, 2:375-380
Close TL, Colvin SE, Hassinger RL, 1984. Chinook salmon in the Minnesota sport fishery of Lake Superior. Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, Fisheries Section Investigational Report No. 380, 31 pp
Combs BD, Burrows RE, 1957. Threshold temperatures for the normal development of chinook salmon eggs. Progressive Fish-Culturist, 19:3-6
Cottam C, Uhler FM, 1936. The role of fish-eating birds. Progressive Fish-Culturist No. 14, Memorandum I-131, 1-14 pp
Crawford DL, Law DK, McKee TB, Westgate JW, 1974. Nutritional characteristics of Oregon pellet rations containing meals of different fish species. Progressive Fish-Culturist, 36:3-7
De La Cruz-Agüero J, 1999. A first mexican record of the chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha. Calif. Fish Game, 85(2):77-78
Dore I, 1990. Salmon. The Illustrated Handbook for Commercial Users. New York, USA: Van Nostrand Reinholdt, 287 pp
Ewing RD, 1994. Willamette oxygen supplementation studies. Ammonia analysis and adult returns, Annual Report. Portland, Oregon, USA: Bonneville Power Administration, 206 pp
Ewing RD, Lewis MA, Sheahan JE, Ewing SK, 1998. Evaluation of inventory procedures for hatchery fish. III. Nonrandom distributions of chinook salmon in raceways. Progressive Fish-Culturist, 60:159-166
FAO, 2004. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, Italy. Online at www.fao.org
FishBase, 2004. Entry for Oncorhynchus tshawytscha. Main ref. Page LM, Burr BM, 1991. A field guide to freshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Boston, USA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 52. Online at www.fishbase.org. Accessed 3 November 2004
Fowler LG, 1980. Starting diets for chinook salmon fry. Progressive Fish-Culturist, 42(3):165-166
Fowler LG, McCormick JH Jr, Thomas AE, 1966. Studies of caloric and vitamin levels of salmon diets. Technical Papers of the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife Number 6, 12 pp
Fresh KL, Cardwell RD, Koons RR, 1981. Food habits of Pacific salmon, baitfish, and their potential predators in the marine waters of Washington, August 1978 to September 1979. Olympia, Washington, USA: State of Washington Department of Fisheries Progress Report Number 145
Froese R, Pauly D, 2004. FishBase DVD. Penang, Malaysia: Worldfish Center. Online at www.fishbase.org
Gowen RJ, Weston DP, Ervik A, 1991. Aquaculture and the benthic environment: A review. In: Cowey CB, Cho CY, eds. Nutritional Strategies and Aquaculture Waste. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Nutritional Strategies in Management of Aquacultural Waste. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: University of Guelph, 187-205
Graybill MR, 1981. Haul out patterns and diet of harbor seals, Phoca vitulina, in Coos County, Oregon. MSc Thesis. Eugene, Oregon: University of Oregon
Halver JE, 1972. The vitamins. In: Halver JE, ed. Fish Nutrition. New York, USA: Academic Press, 29-103
Hart JL, 1973. Pacific fishes of Canada. Fish. Res. Board Can. Bull., 180:1-740
Healey MC, 1980. Utilization of the Nanaimo River estuary by juvenile chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha. Fishery Bulletin, 77:653-668
Healey MC, 1991. Life history of chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha). In: Groot C, Margolis L, eds. Pacific Salmon Life Histories. Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada: University of British Columbia Press, 319-393
Heen K, Thorpe J, Ridler N, Monahan RL, Mahnken C, Lindbergh J, 1993. The distribution of salmon aquaculture. In: Heen K, Monahan RL, Utter F, eds. Salmon Aquaculture. New York, USA: Halstead Press, 10-58
Hodges JD, 2004. Online at www.jdhodges.com. Accessed 3 November 2004
Hublou WF, 1963. Oregon pellets. Progressive Fish-Culturist, 25:176-180
Jobling M, 1993. Nutrition, diet formulation, and feeding practices. In: Heen K, Monahan RL, Utter F, eds. Salmon Aquaculture. New York, USA: Halstead Press, 83-126
Joyner T, 1980. Salmon ranching in South America. In: Thorpe JE, ed. Salmon Ranching. New York, USA: Academic Press, 261-276
Lee DJ, Sinnhuber RO, 1972. Lipid requirements. In: Halver JE, ed. Fish Nutrition. New York, USA: Academic Press, 145-180
Leitritz E, Lewis RC, 1976. Trout and Salmon Culture (Hatchery Methods). Fish Bulletin 164, Sacramento, California, USA: California Department of Fish and Game, 197 pp
Lindbergh JM, 1982. A successful transplant of Pacific salmon to Chile. Proceedings of the Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute, 34:81-87
Macdonald JS, Levings CD, McAllister CD, Fagerlund UHM, McBride JR, 1988. A field experiment to test the importance of estuaries for chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) survival: short term results. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 45:1366-1377
Mace PM, 1983. Bird predation on juvenile salmonids in the Big Qualicum Estuary, Vancouver Island. Canadian Technical Reports of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences No. 1176
Mate BR, 1981. Marine mammals. In: Maser C, Mate BR, Franklin JF, Dyrness CT, eds. Natural History of Oregon Coast Mammals. Technical Report PNW-133. Washington DC, USA: US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 372-457
McCabe GT Jr, Muir WD, Emmett WD, Durkin JT, 1983. Interrelationships between juvenile salmonids and nonsalmonid fish in the Columbia River Estuary. Fishery Bulletin, 81:815-823
McKee JE, Wolf HW, 1963. Water Quality Criteria. Second Edition. Sacramento, California, USA: State Water Quality Control Board
Merkens JC, 1958. Studies on the toxicity of chlorine and chloramines to the rainbow trout. Water and Waste Treatment Journal 7:150-155
Merrell TR, 1961. Unusual white sturgeon diet. Fish Commission of Oregon Research Briefs, 8:77
Mertz ET, 1969. Amino acid and protein requirements of fish. In: Neuhaus OW, Halver JE, eds. Fish in Research. New York, USA: Academic Press, 233-244
Mitchell E, 1975. Review of biology and fisheries for smaller cetaceans. Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada, 32:889-983
Morejohn GV, Harvey JT, Krasnow LT, 1978. The importance of Loligo opalescens in the food web of marine vertebrates in Monterey Bay, California. California Fish and Game Fish Bulletin, 169:67-98
Myers KW, 1980. An investigation of the utilization of four study areas in Yaquina Bay, Oregon, by hatchery and wild juvenile salmonids. MSc Thesis. Corvallis, Oregon USA: Oregon State University
Nielson JD, Banford CE, 1983. Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) spawner characteristics in relation to redd physical features. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 61:1524-1531
Nielson JD, Geen GH, 1981. Enumeration of spawning salmon from spawner residence time and aerial counts. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 110:554-556
Olla BL, Davis MW, 1989. The role of learning and stress in predator avoidance of hatchery reared coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) juveniles. Aquaculture, 76: 209-214
Pallas PS, 1814. Zoolographia Rosso-Asiatica, sistens omnium animalium
Patten BG, 1971. Predation by sculpins on fall chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, fry of hatchery origin. US National Marine Fisheries Service Special Scientific Reports, Fisheries, Number 621, 14 pp
Piper RG, McElwain IB, Orme LE, McCraren JP, Fowler LG, Leonard JR, 1982. Fish Hatchery Management. Washington, DC, USA: US Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, 317 pp
Reisenbichler RR, Phelps SR, 1987. Genetic variation in chinook, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, and coho, O. kisutch, salmon from the north coast of Washington. Fishery Bulletin, 85:681-701
Richardson J, 1836. Fauna Boreali-Americana; or the zoology of the northern parts of British America: part three: The Fish. London, UK: Richard Bentley, 327 pp
Roos JF, Gilhousen P, Killick SR, Zyblut ER, 1973. Parasitism on juvenile Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus) and Pacific herring (Clupea harengus pallasi) in the Strait of Georgia by the river lamprey (Lampetra ayresi). Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada, 30:565-568
Samuelsen O, Ervik A, Solheim E, 1988. A qualitative and quantitative analysis of the sediment gas and diethylether extract of the sediment from salmon farms. Aquaculture, 74:277-285
Scott WB, Crossman EJ, 1998. Freshwater Fishes of Canada. Oakville, Ontario, Canada: Galt House Publications Ltd, 966 pp
Seamarkets, 2004. Online at http://seamarkets.alaska.edu. Accessed 3 October 2004
Sedgwick SD, 1982. The salmon handbook. The life and cultivation of fishes of the salmon family. The salmon handbook. The life and cultivation of fishes of the salmon family., xvi + 247pp
Simenstad CA, Miller BS, Nyblade CF, Thorburgh K, Bledsoe LJ, 1979. Food web relationships of northern Puget Sound and the Strait of Juan de Fuca. MESA Puget Sound Project, Environmental Research Laboratories. DOC/EPA Interagency Energy/Environment Research and Development Report, EPA-600/7-79-259
Smith GJD, Gaskin DE, 1974. The diet of harbour porpoises (Phocoena phocoena (L.)) in coastal waters of eastern Canada, with special reference to the Bay of Fundy. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 52:777-782
Stevens DE, 1966. Food habits of striped bass, Roccus saxatilis, in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta. California Fish and Game Fish Bulletin, 136:68-96
Suckley G, 1862. Description of several new species of Salmonidae from the northwest coast of America. Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York, 7:1-10
Thompson RB, 1959. Food of the squawfish, Ptychocheilus oregonensis (Richardson), of the lower Columbia River. Fishery Bulletin, 60:43-58
Thorpe JE, 1989. Downstream migration of young salmon: recent findings, with special reference to Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar. In: Brannon EL, Jonsson B, eds. Salmonid Migration and Distribution Symposium. Seattle, Washington, USA: University of Washington, 81-86
Utter F, Milner G, Stahl G, Teel D, 1989. Genetic population structure of chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, in the Pacific Northwest. Fishery Bulletin, 87:239-264
Van Hyning JM, 1973. Factors affecting the abundance of fall chinook salmon in the Columbia River. Research Reports of the Fish Commission of Oregon, 4:3-87
Vigg S, Poe TP, Prendergast LA, Hansel HC, 1988. Predation by resident fish on juvenile salmonids in a mainstem Columbia River reservoir. Part II. Consumption rates of northern squawfish, walleye, smallmouth bass, and channel catfish. In: Poe TP, Rieman BE, eds. Predation by resident fish on juvenile salmonids in John Day Reservoir, 1983-1986. Final Report. Portland, Oregon, USA: Bonneville Power Administration, 56-115
Waugh GD, 1980. Salmon in New Zealand. In: Thorpe JE, ed. Salmon Ranching. New York, USA: Academic Press, 277-303
Westers H, 1991. Operational waste management in aquaculture effluents. In: Cowey CB, Cho CY, eds. Nutritional Strategies and Aquaculture Waste. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Nutritional Strategies in Management of Aquacultural Waste. Guelph, Canada: University of Guelph, 231-238
Winton JR, Rohovec JS, Fryer JL, 1983. Bacterial and viral diseases of cultured salmonids in the Pacific Northwest. In: Crosa JH, ed. Bacterial and Viral Diseases of Fish: Molecular Studies. Seattle, Washington, USA: Sea Grant Program, University of Washington
Wood CC, 1987. Predation of juvenile Pacific salmon by the common merganser (Mergus merganser) on Eastern Vancouver Island. I. Predation during the seaward migration. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 44:941-949
Yasutake WT, Wales JH, 1983. Microscopic Anatomy of Salmonids: An Atlas. Resource Publication 150. Washington DC, USA: US Fish and Wildlife Service, 189 pp
Distribution References
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Froese R, Pauly D, 2004. FishBase. http://www.fishbase.org
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
Alaska Department of Fish and Game | http://www.adfg.state.ak.us/geninfo/enhance/enhance.php | |
California Department of Fish and Game | http://www.dfg.ca.gov/about/wildlife.html | |
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations | http://www.fao.org/ | |
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS) | http://griis.org/ | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Idaho Department of Fish and Game | http://www.fishandgame.idaho.gov/apps/stocking | |
Illinois Department of Natural Resources | http://www.dnr.state.il.us/fish | |
J D Hodges | http://www.jdhodges.com | |
Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife | http://www.dfw.state.or.us/fish/nfcp | |
Seamarkets - University of Alaska | http://seamarkets.alaska.edu | |
Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife | http://wdfw.wa.gov | |
Wisconsin Dept. of Natural Resources: Invasive Species | http://dnr.wi.gov/invasives/ | |
Wisconsin Sea Grant | http://www.seagrant.wisc.edu |
Contributors
Top of page04/12/2007 Updated by:
Richard Ewing, Biotech Research & Consulting, Inc., 2340 SE Ryan Street, Corvallis, OR 97333, USA
Main Author
Richard Ewing
Biotech Research & Consulting, Inc., 2340 SE Ryan Street, Corvallis, OR 97333, USA
Distribution Maps
Top of pageSelect a dataset
Map Legends
-
CABI Summary Records
Map Filters
Unsupported Web Browser:
One or more of the features that are needed to show you the maps functionality are not available in the web browser that you are using.
Please consider upgrading your browser to the latest version or installing a new browser.
More information about modern web browsers can be found at http://browsehappy.com/