Invasive Species Compendium

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Datasheet

Oncorhynchus tshawytscha
(chinook salmon)

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Datasheet

Oncorhynchus tshawytscha (chinook salmon)

Index

Summary

  • Last modified
  • 25 November 2019
  • Datasheet Type(s)
  • Invasive Species
  • Natural Enemy
  • Preferred Scientific Name
  • Oncorhynchus tshawytscha
  • Preferred Common Name
  • chinook salmon
  • Taxonomic Tree
  • Domain: Eukaryota
  •   Kingdom: Metazoa
  •     Phylum: Chordata
  •       Subphylum: Vertebrata
  •         Class: Actinopterygii
  • Summary of Invasiveness

  • Chinook salmon (O. tshawytscha) are the largest of the Pacific salmon group and are found throughout the northern Pacific area from latitudes of 35°N to approximately 70°N. Native areas include Alaska, Canada, nort...

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Pictures

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PictureTitleCaptionCopyright
King salmons (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) swimming upstream. These images (originally from video) were taken in a by-pass channel, which was specifically constructed for salmon enabling them to swim by sluice systems.
TitleSalmon using a by-pass channel
CaptionKing salmons (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) swimming upstream. These images (originally from video) were taken in a by-pass channel, which was specifically constructed for salmon enabling them to swim by sluice systems.
CopyrightAdriaan Gittenberger/GiMaRIS
King salmons (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) swimming upstream. These images (originally from video) were taken in a by-pass channel, which was specifically constructed for salmon enabling them to swim by sluice systems.
Salmon using a by-pass channelKing salmons (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) swimming upstream. These images (originally from video) were taken in a by-pass channel, which was specifically constructed for salmon enabling them to swim by sluice systems.Adriaan Gittenberger/GiMaRIS
King salmons (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) swimming upstream. These images (originally from video) were taken in a by-pass channel, which was specifically constructed for salmon enabling them to swim by sluice systems.
TitleSalmon using a by-pass channel
CaptionKing salmons (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) swimming upstream. These images (originally from video) were taken in a by-pass channel, which was specifically constructed for salmon enabling them to swim by sluice systems.
CopyrightAdriaan Gittenberger/GiMaRIS
King salmons (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) swimming upstream. These images (originally from video) were taken in a by-pass channel, which was specifically constructed for salmon enabling them to swim by sluice systems.
Salmon using a by-pass channelKing salmons (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) swimming upstream. These images (originally from video) were taken in a by-pass channel, which was specifically constructed for salmon enabling them to swim by sluice systems.Adriaan Gittenberger/GiMaRIS

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

  • Oncorhynchus tshawytscha (Walbaum, 1792)

Preferred Common Name

  • chinook salmon

Other Scientific Names

  • Oncorhynchus chouicha Bean, 1894
  • Oncorhynchus cooperi Suckley, 1862
  • Oncorhynchus tschawytscha (Walbaum, 1792)
  • Oncorhynchus tshawytsha (Walbaum, 1792)
  • Salmo cooperi Suckley, 1862
  • Salmo orientalis Pallas, 1814
  • Salmo quinnat Richardson, 1836
  • Salmo richardi Suckley, 1861
  • Salmo tschawytscha Bloch and Schneider, 1801
  • Salmo tshawytscha Walbaum, 1792
  • Salmo warreni Suckley, 1862

International Common Names

  • English: blackmouth; blackmouth salmon; chinook; king; king salmon; locks; lox; Pacific salmon; quinnat; quinnat salmon; salmon; salmon, chinook; smilie; spring; spring salmon; tyee; tyee salmon
  • Spanish: salmon chinook; salmon real; salmón real
  • French: saumon chinook; saumon royal
  • Russian: chavycha

Local Common Names

  • Canada/British Columbia: k'with'thet; k'wolexw; saæup; sa-cin; schaanexw; shamet skelex; shmexwalsh; sináech; sk'wel'eng's schaanexw; slhop' schaanexw; spak'ws schaanexw; st'thokwi; su-ha; taagun; taagun gaaw gaada; taagun gaaw sg'iida; taagwun; t'aown; yee
  • Denmark: kongelaks
  • Finland: kuningaslohi
  • Germany: konigslachs; Königslachs; Quinnat
  • Italy: salmone reale
  • Japan: masunosuke
  • Netherlands: chinook zalm
  • Norway: chinook
  • Poland: czawycza
  • Portugal: salmao-real; salmão-real
  • Sweden: kungslax
  • USA/Alaska: iqallugpak; tarjaxfaq
  • Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro): vrsta lososa

Summary of Invasiveness

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Chinook salmon (O. tshawytscha) are the largest of the Pacific salmon group and are found throughout the northern Pacific area from latitudes of 35°N to approximately 70°N. Native areas include Alaska, Canada, northwestern USA, Russia, and Japan. These salmon have been introduced throughout the world but have established breeding populations only a few select places. Introduced populations have established themselves in New Zealand, Chile, Argentina, and the Great Lakes along the USA-Canada border. All other attempts at introduction have failed. 

This species is not considered invasive. It has been deliberately introduced to provide sport fisheries, to provide a commercial species, and, in the Great Lakes, as a predator to control a population explosion of alewives (Alosa pseudoharengus) that resulted from decimation of the lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) populations by sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus). The extent to which the spread of O. tshawytscha throughout southern South America has damaged galaxiid fish populations is not known.

Taxonomic Tree

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  • Domain: Eukaryota
  •     Kingdom: Metazoa
  •         Phylum: Chordata
  •             Subphylum: Vertebrata
  •                 Class: Actinopterygii
  •                     Order: Salmoniformes
  •                         Family: Salmonidae
  •                             Genus: Oncorhynchus
  •                                 Species: Oncorhynchus tshawytscha

Description

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Morphology

O. tshawytscha are the largest of the Pacific coastal salmon, reaching as much as 125 lbs (56.7 kg). Bodies of the adults are fusiform and laterally compressed, especially in males near spawning. The head is approximately 20% of the total length, although it is longer in mature males. At breeding time, the head of the male is transformed into a ‘kype’, with a deformed, upturned jaw and a hooked nose. The mouth is unable to close after the kype has developed. Both males and females have well-developed, moderately large, sharp teeth in both jaws. Gill rakers are rough and widely spaced with 10-16 rakers on the lower limb and 6-10 on the upper limb.

O. tshawytscha have a long, narrow adipose fin and a centrally located dorsal fin that is soft rayed, has square edges, and contains 10-14 principal rays. The caudal fin is broad, emarginate to shallowly forked. Pectoral fins are low, somewhat pointed and contain 14-17 rays. Anal fins contain 14-19 rays, a characteristic that distinguishes members of the genus Oncorhynchus from other trout.

At spawning, males and females are easily distinguished by their head and body shape. Females have a small, somewhat pointed head and are more rounded laterally. Males have a prolonged, hooked snout, gaping mouth, enlarged teeth and a body which is strongly compressed laterally.

Coloration

Adult O. tshawytscha are identified by fishermen by the black gum tissue next to the lower teeth. Adults captured in the ocean are dark greenish or bluish on top and silver underneath. As they enter freshwater, they take on a golden colour and slowly become darker as they approach spawning time.

Juvenile O. tshawytscha are brownish in colour with 6-12 parr marks, long transverse dark marks on the sides of the fish. Parr marks in O. tshawytscha are longer and wider than those of other salmon juveniles. The first ray of the anal fin is elongate but not as long as that in coho salmon juveniles. As the fish undergo parr-smolt transformation, the parr-marks become obscured by a layer of purines, causing the fish to appear uniformly silver. The caudal fin at this time develops a black band.

Distribution

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Oncorhynchus tshawytscha inhabit streams and rivers along the eastern Pacific Ocean from Point Hope, Alaska to the Ventura River, California, USA, with occasional strays as far south as San Diego, California. In the western Pacific Ocean, they are found in the Bering Sea and the Sea of Okhotsk south to Honshu, Japan, and the Sea of Japan.

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 10 Jan 2020
Continent/Country/Region Distribution Last Reported Origin First Reported Invasive Reference Notes

Asia

JapanPresentNative
-HokkaidoPresentNativeOriginal citation: Dore (1990)

Europe

FrancePresentIntroduced
IrelandPresentIntroduced
ItalyPresentIntroduced
NetherlandsPresentIntroduced
RussiaPresentNative
-Eastern SiberiaPresentNativeOriginal citation: Scott and Crossman (1998)
United KingdomPresentIntroduced

North America

CanadaPresentNative
-British ColumbiaPresentNative
-YukonPresentNativeOriginal citation: Dore (1990)
MexicoPresentIntroducedOriginal citation: De La Cruz-Agüero J (1999)
NicaraguaPresentIntroduced
United StatesPresentNative
-AlaskaPresentNative
-CaliforniaPresentNativeOriginal citation: Dore (1990)
-IdahoPresentNativeOriginal citation: Dore (1990)
-IllinoisPresentIntroduced
-MichiganPresentIntroducedOriginal citation: Scott and Crossman (1998)
-MinnesotaPresentIntroducedOriginal citation: Close and et al. (1984)
-New YorkPresentIntroduced
-OregonPresentNativeOriginal citation: Healey (1991)
-WashingtonPresentNativeOriginal citation: Healey (1991)
-WisconsinPresentIntroducedOriginal citation: Close and et al. (1984)

Oceania

AustraliaPresentIntroduced
-TasmaniaPresentIntroducedOriginal citation: Waugh (1980)
New ZealandPresentIntroduced

Sea Areas

Arctic SeaPresentNative
Pacific - Eastern CentralPresentNative
Pacific - NortheastPresentNative
Pacific - NorthwestPresentNative
Pacific - SoutheastPresentIntroducedOriginal citation: Heen and et al. (1993)
Pacific - SouthwestPresentIntroducedOriginal citation: Waugh (1980)

South America

ArgentinaPresentIntroduced
ChilePresentIntroduced

Introductions

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Introduced toIntroduced fromYearReasonIntroduced byEstablished in wild throughReferencesNotes
Natural reproductionContinuous restocking
Argentina USA 1900-1929 Unknown No No FishBase (2004)
Australia New Zealand 1877 Unknown No No FishBase (2004)
Australia USA 1877 Unknown No No FishBase (2004)
Brazil California 1958 International organisation No No Joyner (1980)
Chile USA 1900 Unknown No No FishBase (2004)
Denmark Germany 1897 Unknown No No FishBase (2004)
Finland USA 1930 Unknown No No FishBase (2004)
France USA 1877 Unknown No No FishBase (2004)
Germany 1890-1899 Unknown No No FishBase (2004)
Hawaii California 1876 Unknown No No FishBase (2004)
Japan USA 1881 Unknown No No FishBase (2004)
Madagascar 1955 Unknown No No FishBase (2004)
Netherlands USA 1877 Unknown No No FishBase (2004)
New Zealand USA 1875-1910 Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)Individual No No McDowall (1994); Waugh (1980)
UK USA Aquaculture (pathway cause)Unknown No No FishBase (2004)

Habitat List

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CategorySub-CategoryHabitatPresenceStatus
Terrestrial ManagedProtected agriculture (e.g. glasshouse production) Secondary/tolerated habitat Productive/non-natural
LittoralCoastal areas Principal habitat Natural
LittoralMud flats Secondary/tolerated habitat Natural
LittoralSalt marshes Principal habitat Natural
FreshwaterLakes Secondary/tolerated habitat Productive/non-natural
FreshwaterReservoirs Secondary/tolerated habitat Productive/non-natural
FreshwaterRivers / streams Principal habitat Natural
BrackishEstuaries Principal habitat Natural
MarinePelagic zone (offshore) Principal habitat Natural

Climate

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ClimateStatusDescriptionRemark
C - Temperate/Mesothermal climate Preferred Average temp. of coldest month > 0°C and < 18°C, mean warmest month > 10°C
Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year Preferred Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer Preferred Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter Tolerated Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters)
D - Continental/Microthermal climate Preferred Continental/Microthermal climate (Average temp. of coldest month < 0°C, mean warmest month > 10°C)
Df - Continental climate, wet all year Preferred Continental climate, wet all year (Warm average temp. > 10°C, coldest month < 0°C, wet all year)
Ds - Continental climate with dry summer Tolerated Continental climate with dry summer (Warm average temp. > 10°C, coldest month < 0°C, dry summers)
Dw - Continental climate with dry winter Tolerated Continental climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, coldest month < 0°C, dry winters)
E - Polar climate Preferred Polar climate (Average temp. of warmest month < 10°C)

Latitude/Altitude Ranges

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Latitude North (°N)Latitude South (°S)Altitude Lower (m)Altitude Upper (m)
70 53

Air Temperature

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Parameter Lower limit Upper limit
Mean annual temperature (ºC) 0
Mean maximum temperature of hottest month (ºC) 16 22
Mean minimum temperature of coldest month (ºC) -7 0

Water Tolerances

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ParameterMinimum ValueMaximum ValueTypical ValueStatusLife StageNotes
Ammonia [unionised] (mg/l) >0.0125 Harmful Egg
Ammonia [unionised] (mg/l) 0 Optimum Egg
Ammonia [unionised] (mg/l) 0-0.005 Optimum 0.005-0.0125 tolerated
Ammonium [ionised] (mg/l) 0 (not toxic) Optimum Tolerance depends on temperature and pH
Cadmium (mg/l) <0.004 Optimum Egg
Cadmium (mg/l) >0.003 Harmful Egg
Chlorine (mg/l) 0 Optimum Egg
Chlorine (mg/l) 0.05 Harmful Egg
Copper (mg/l) 0 Optimum Egg
Copper (mg/l) 0.006 Harmful Egg
Cyanide (mg/l) >0.02 Harmful Egg
Cyanide (mg/l) 0 Optimum Egg
Depth (m b.s.l.) 20-50 Optimum 0.03-110 tolerated
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l) <3.0 Harmful Egg
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l) 6 saturated Optimum 3-6 tolerated
Hardness (mg/l of Calcium Carbonate) Optimum Tolerance depends on temperature, pH and ammonia
Hydrogen sulphide (mg/l) 0 Optimum Egg
Hydrogen sulphide (mg/l) 0.002 Harmful Egg
Lead (mg/l) 0 Optimum Egg
Lead (mg/l) 0.03 Harmful Egg
Mercury (mg/l) <0.00005 Optimum Egg
Mercury (mg/l) >0.002 Harmful Egg
Phenols (mg/l) >5.0 Harmful Egg
Phenols (mg/l) 0 Optimum Egg
Polychlorinated biphenyls (mg/l) >0.002 Harmful Egg
Polychlorinated biphenyls (mg/l) 0 Optimum Egg
Salinity (part per thousand) 30 Optimum Egg
Salinity (part per thousand) 35 Harmful Egg
Salinity (part per thousand) 0-30 Optimum Tolerance depends on state of development, 30-37 tolerated
Total Nitrogen (mg/l) >110 Harmful Egg nitrogen supersaturation
Total Nitrogen (mg/l) 0 Optimum Egg nitrogen supersaturation
Turbidity (JTU turbidity) Optimum At highest levels water is opaque. 0-4000 mg/L preferred; 4000-11,000 mg/L tolerated
Water pH (pH) >9.0 Harmful Egg
Water pH (pH) 6.5 9 Optimum Egg
Water pH (pH) 6.5-8.0 Optimum 6.0-8.5 tolerated
Water temperature (ºC temperature) <6 >14 Harmful Egg
Water temperature (ºC temperature) 6 14 Optimum Egg
Water temperature (ºC temperature) 6-14 Optimum Cannot withstand freezing, <6 and 14-22 tolerated
Zinc (mg/l) 0 Optimum Egg
Zinc (mg/l) 0.03 Harmful Egg

Natural enemies

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Natural enemyTypeLife stagesSpecificityReferencesBiological control inBiological control on
Acipenser transmontanus Predator Larval Merrell (1961)
Ardea herodias Predator Fry/Larval Myers (1980)
Brachyramphus marmoratus Predator Larval Mace (1983)
Cepphus columba Predator Larval Bayer (1986)
Cerorhinca monocerata Predator Larval Simenstad and et al. (1979)
Cottus Predator Fry Patten (1971)
Enophrys bison Predator Larval Macdonald and et al. (1988)
Eumetopias jubatus Predator Adult/Broodstock/Larval Mate (1981)
Gavia pacifica Predator Larval Mace (1983)
Histrionicus histrionicus Predator Larval Mace (1983)
Homo sapiens Predator Adult/Broodstock/Larval Bayer (1989)
Lagenorhynchus obliquidens Predator Larval Mitchell (1975)
Lampetra ayresii Predator Adult/Larval Roos and et al. (1973)
Lampetra tridentata Predator Adult/Larval Roos and et al. (1973)
Larus delawarensis Predator Larval Bayer (1989)
Larus glaucescens Predator Larval Mace (1983)
Larus heermanni Predator Larval Bayer (1989)
Larus occidentalis Predator Larval Bayer (1986)
Larus philadelphia Predator Larval Mace (1983)
Lutra canadensis Predator Adult/Broodstock/Larval Alexander (1979)
Megaceryle alcyon Predator Fry/Larval Cottam and Uhler (1936)
Melanitta fusca Predator Larval Mace (1983)
Melanitta nigra Predator Larval Mace (1983)
Melanitta perspicillata Predator Larval Mace (1983)
Mergus merganser Predator Larval Wood (1987)
Merluccius productus Predator Larval Bayer (1986)
Micropterus dolomieu Predator Larval Vigg and et al. (1988)
Mirounga angustirostris Predator Larval Morejohn and et al. (1978)
Morone saxatilis Predator Larval Stevens (1966)
Oncorhynchus kisutch Predator Fry/Larval Fresh and et al. (1981)
Oncorhynchus mykiss Predator Egg/Fry/Larval Fresh and et al. (1981)
Oncorhynchus tshawytscha Predator Fry/Larval McCabe and et al. (1983)
Ophiodon elongatus Predator Larval Olla and Davis (1989)
Pelecanus occidentalis Predator Larval Bayer (1986)
Phalacrocorax auritus Predator Larval Bayer (1989)
Phalacrocorax pelagicus Predator Larval Bayer (1986)
Phalacrocorax penicillatus Predator Larval Bayer (1986)
Phoca vitulina Predator Larval Graybill (1981)
Phocoena phocoena Predator Adult/Broodstock/Larval Smith and Gaskin (1974)
Ptychocheilus oregonensis Predator Larval Thompson (1959)
Sander vitreus Predator Larval Vigg and et al. (1988)
Sebastes Predator Larval Bayer (1986)
Sebastes melanops Predator Larval Bayer (1986)
Sterna caspia Predator Larval Bayer (1986)
Synthliboramphus antiquus Predator Larval Mace (1983)
Theragra chalcogramma Predator Larval Hart (1973)
Uria aalge Predator Larval Bayer (1989)
Zalophus californianus Predator Adult/Broodstock/Larval Morejohn and et al. (1978)

Pathway Causes

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CauseNotesLong DistanceLocalReferences
Animal productionUsed for supplementation in rivers in USA and Canada Yes Yes Heen et al. (1993); Leitritz and Lewis (1976); Thorpe (1989)
AquacultureReared for production in USA, Canada, New Zeland and Chile Yes Yes Heen et al. (1993); Leitritz and Lewis (1976); Thorpe (1989)
Biological controlIntroduced to control alewife populations in the Great Lakes, US Yes Carl (1982); Close et al. (1984)
FisheriesUsed for supplementation in rivers in USA, Canada, New Zealand and Chile Yes Yes

Pathway Vectors

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VectorNotesLong DistanceLocalReferences
AircraftStocked in rivers yearly as juveniles Yes Yes Leitritz and Lewis (1976); Piper et al. (1982)
Aquaculture stockStocked in rivers yearly as juveniles Yes Yes Leitritz and Lewis (1976); Piper et al. (1982)
Containers and packaging - woodStocked in rivers yearly as juveniles Yes Leitritz and Lewis (1976); Piper et al. (1982)

Environmental Impact

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O. tshawytscha have been widely imported to countries outside their natural range but the introductions have failed to produce viable breeding populations, with a few exceptions. An effort to introduce O. tshawytscha to New Zealand was initiated in 1875 and lasted until 1910. By 1907, a few adults were being caught, although they may have been returning as early as 1898 (Waugh, 1980). A sustainable run of O. tshawytscha, known as quinnat salmon, has developed in the South Island of New Zealand (McDowell, 1994).

In 1958, William Ellis Ripley, a fisheries advisor to the United Nations Development Programme, arranged for 400,000 eggs from Nimbus Hatchery on the American River, California, to be planted in the Rio Grande de Sul in Brazil (Joyner, 1980). Four years later, fish unknown to the residents were seen trying to leap the unnavigable falls at Salto on the Rio Uruguay. The fish were seen for 2 to 3 weeks, then were never seen again. A local fish biologist tentatively identified them as O. tshawytscha.

Sustainable runs of O. tshawytscha have been mentioned from time to time that have resulted from escapees from pen culture in Chile. Returns have been reported from sea-ranching operations there (Lindbergh, 1982). In recent years, a number of papers have reported the spread of feral O. tshawytscha throughout Chile and through the Straits of Magellan to Argentina (Becker et al., 2007; Correa and Gross, 2007; Soto et al., 2007). There is insufficient information to determine whether these fish will compete with native galaxiid fishes. The authors are confident, however, that these runs will cause substantial disruption of ecosystems.

Various efforts have been made to introduce O. tshawytscha into the Great Lakes, North America. Some of the latest introductions have resulted in naturally spawning populations (Carl, 1982). Naturally produced and cultured O. tshawytscha are valuable components of the sport fishery in the Great Lakes at present [2004].

Risk and Impact Factors

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Invasiveness
  • Has a broad native range
  • Abundant in its native range
  • Highly adaptable to different environments
  • Pioneering in disturbed areas
  • Capable of securing and ingesting a wide range of food
  • Highly mobile locally
  • Long lived
  • Fast growing
  • Has high reproductive potential
  • Gregarious
  • Reproduces asexually
Impact outcomes
  • Altered trophic level
  • Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
  • Modification of natural benthic communities
  • Threat to/ loss of native species
Impact mechanisms
  • Competition - monopolizing resources
  • Pest and disease transmission
  • Predation
Likelihood of entry/control
  • Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately

Uses List

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Animal feed, fodder, forage

  • Eggs cured for bait
  • Meat and bonemeal

General

  • Laboratory use
  • Ritual uses
  • Sport (hunting, shooting, fishing, racing)

Human food and beverage

  • Canned meat
  • Cured meat
  • Eggs (roe)
  • Fish meal
  • Fish oil
  • Fresh meat
  • Frozen meat
  • Meat/fat/offal/blood/bone (whole, cut, fresh, frozen, canned, cured, processed or smoked)
  • Whole

Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs

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The spread of O. tshawytscha populations throughout the southern part of South America may be threatening indigenous species, especially the threatened galaxiid fishes. Immediate research needs include the following:

  • A survey of the extent to which O. tshawytscha have utilized southern river systems.
  • Interaction of juvenile salmon with the native fishes.
  • Competition of juvenile salmon with native fishes for food and territory.
  • Utilization of the salmon for sport or food sources.
  • Determination of the extent to which O. tshawytscha present a problem for native fishes.

References

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Alexander GR, 1979. Predators of fish in coldwater streams. In: Stroud RH, Clepper H, eds. Predator-prey Systems in Fisheries Management. Washington DC: Sport Fishing Institute, 153-170

Bayer RD, 1986. Seabirds near an Oregon estuarine salmon hatchery in 1982 and during the 1983 El Nino. Fisheries Bulletin, 84:279-286

Bayer RD, 1989. The Cormorant/Fisherman Conflict, Tillamook County, Oregon. Studies in Oregon Ornithology No. 6. Newport: Oregon: Gahmken Press, 99 pp

Beacham TD, Murray CB, Withler RE, 1989. Age, morphology, and biochemical genetic variation of Yukon River chinook salmon. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 118:46-63

Bean TH, 1894. Life history of the salmon. Bulletin of the US Fish Commission, 12:21-38

Becker CD, 1973. Food and growth parameters of juvenile chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, in central Columbia River. Fishery Bulletin, 71:387-400

Becker LA, Pascual MA, Basso NG, 2007. Colonization of the Southern Patagonia ocean by exotic Chinook salmon. Conservation Biology, 21(5):1347-1352. http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/loi/cbi

Birtwell IK, 1978. Studies on the relationship between juvenile chinook salmon and water quality in the industrialized estuary of the Somass River. In: Shepherd BG, Ginetz RMJ, eds. Proceedings of the 1977 Northeast Pacific Chinook and Coho Salmon Workshop. Fisheries and Marine Service, Canada, Technical Report 759, 58-78

Boerson G, Westers H, 1986. Waste solids control in hatchery raceways. Progressive Fish-Culturist, 48:151-154

Burrows RE, Chenoweth HH, 1970. The rectangular circulating rearing pond. Progressive Fish-Culturist, 32:67-80

Carl LM, 1982. Natural reproduction of coho salmon and chinook salmon in some Michigan streams. North American Journal of Fisheries Management, 2:375-380

Close TL, Colvin SE, Hassinger RL, 1984. Chinook salmon in the Minnesota sport fishery of Lake Superior. Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, Fisheries Section Investigational Report No. 380, 31 pp

Combs BD, Burrows RE, 1957. Threshold temperatures for the normal development of chinook salmon eggs. Progressive Fish-Culturist, 19:3-6

Correa C, Gross MR, 2007. Chinook salmon invade southern South America. Biological Invasions. http://www.biodiversity.cl/subidos/salmones

Cottam C, Uhler FM, 1936. The role of fish-eating birds. Progressive Fish-Culturist No. 14, Memorandum I-131, 1-14 pp

Crawford DL, Law DK, McKee TB, Westgate JW, 1974. Nutritional characteristics of Oregon pellet rations containing meals of different fish species. Progressive Fish-Culturist, 36:3-7

De La Cruz-Agüero J, 1999. A first mexican record of the chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha. Calif. Fish Game, 85(2):77-78

Dore I, 1990. Salmon. The Illustrated Handbook for Commercial Users. New York, USA: Van Nostrand Reinholdt, 287 pp

Eschenrode RL, Holey ME, Gorenflo TK, Clark RD, 1995. Fish community objectives for Lake Michigan. Great Lakes Fisheries Commission Special Publication, 95(3):56 pp

Ewing RD, 1994. Willamette oxygen supplementation studies. Ammonia analysis and adult returns, Annual Report. Portland, Oregon, USA: Bonneville Power Administration, 206 pp

Ewing RD, Ewing GS, 2002. Bimodal length distributions of cultured chinook salmon and the relationship of length modes to adult survival. Aquaculture, 209(1/4):139-155

Ewing RD, Lewis MA, Sheahan JE, Ewing SK, 1998. Evaluation of inventory procedures for hatchery fish. III. Nonrandom distributions of chinook salmon in raceways. Progressive Fish-Culturist, 60:159-166

FAO, 2004. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, Italy. Online at www.fao.org

FishBase, 2004. Entry for Oncorhynchus tshawytscha. Main ref. Page LM, Burr BM, 1991. A field guide to freshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Boston, USA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 52. Online at www.fishbase.org. Accessed 3 November 2004

Fowler LG, 1980. Starting diets for chinook salmon fry. Progressive Fish-Culturist, 42(3):165-166

Fowler LG, McCormick JH Jr, Thomas AE, 1966. Studies of caloric and vitamin levels of salmon diets. Technical Papers of the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife Number 6, 12 pp

Fresh KL, Cardwell RD, Koons RR, 1981. Food habits of Pacific salmon, baitfish, and their potential predators in the marine waters of Washington, August 1978 to September 1979. Olympia, Washington, USA: State of Washington Department of Fisheries Progress Report Number 145

Froese R, Pauly D, 2004. FishBase DVD. Penang, Malaysia: Worldfish Center. Online at www.fishbase.org

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Hart JL, 1973. Pacific fishes of Canada. Fish. Res. Board Can. Bull., 180:1-740

Healey MC, 1980. Utilization of the Nanaimo River estuary by juvenile chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha. Fishery Bulletin, 77:653-668

Healey MC, 1991. Life history of chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha). In: Groot C, Margolis L, eds. Pacific Salmon Life Histories. Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada: University of British Columbia Press, 319-393

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Lindbergh JM, 1982. A successful transplant of Pacific salmon to Chile. Proceedings of the Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute, 34:81-87

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Mace PM, 1983. Bird predation on juvenile salmonids in the Big Qualicum Estuary, Vancouver Island. Canadian Technical Reports of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences No. 1176

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Distribution References

Anon, 1988. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. [ed. by Welcomme R L]. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. x + 318 pp.

CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI

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Johnson J H, Nack C C, McKenna J E Jr, 2010. Migratory salmonid redd habitat characteristics in the Salmon River, New York. Journal of Great Lakes Research. 36 (2), 387-392. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B984D-4YNT961-1&_user=3325428&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F2010&_rdoc=23&_fmt=high&_orig=browse&_srch=doc-info(%23toc%2359068%232010%23999639997%232058759%23FLA%23display%23Volume)&_cdi=59068&_sort=d&_docanchor=&_ct=24&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=3325428&md5=17bebec1aca7861fb1492378d411bd9a DOI:10.1016/j.jglr.2010.02.012

Links to Websites

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WebsiteURLComment
Alaska Department of Fish and Gamehttp://www.adfg.state.ak.us/geninfo/enhance/enhance.php
California Department of Fish and Gamehttp://www.dfg.ca.gov/about/wildlife.html
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nationshttp://www.fao.org/
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gatewayhttps://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list.
Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS)http://griis.org/Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list.
Idaho Department of Fish and Gamehttp://www.fishandgame.idaho.gov/apps/stocking
Illinois Department of Natural Resourceshttp://www.dnr.state.il.us/fish
J D Hodgeshttp://www.jdhodges.com
Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlifehttp://www.dfw.state.or.us/fish/nfcp
Seamarkets - University of Alaskahttp://seamarkets.alaska.edu
Washington Department of Fish and Wildlifehttp://wdfw.wa.gov
Wisconsin Dept. of Natural Resources: Invasive Specieshttp://dnr.wi.gov/invasives/
Wisconsin Sea Granthttp://www.seagrant.wisc.edu

Contributors

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04/12/2007 Updated by:

Richard Ewing, Biotech Research & Consulting, Inc., 2340 SE Ryan Street, Corvallis, OR 97333, USA

Main Author
Richard Ewing
Biotech Research & Consulting, Inc., 2340 SE Ryan Street, Corvallis, OR 97333, USA

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