Phasianus colchicus (common pheasant)

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Adult

Phasianus colchicus (common pheasant); adult male. Poland.

©Łukasz Łukasik/via wikipedia - CC BY-SA 3.0

Adult

Phasianus colchicus (common pheasant); adult female, feeding on privet berries (Ligustrum sp). Lodz, Poland. December, 2010.

©Jerzy Strzelecki/Poland - via Wikipedia - CC BY 3.0

Adults

Phasianus colchicus (common pheasant); one male and several female ring-necked pheasants.

©INRA-Tours/Cattiau

Eggs

Phasianus colchicus (common pheasant); typical eggs.

©INRA-Tours/Beguey

Chicks

Phasianus colchicus (common pheasant); day-old chicks.

©INRA-Tours/Beguey

Chick

Phasianus colchicus (common pheasant); two-week old chick.

©INRA-Tours/Beguey

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Phasianus colchicus

Preferred Common Name

common pheasant

International Common Names

English: farmed game production: pheasants; game pheasant; pheasant; pheasant, common; ring-necked pheasant; true pheasant
Spanish: faisán vulgar; faisante
French: faisan; faisan commun; faisan de Colchide
Russian: obyknovennyi fazan
Chinese: huán jing zhì
Portuguese: faisão

Local Common Names

Czech Republic: bažant obecný
Denmark: fasan
Finland: fasaani
Germany: Fasan, Edel-; Fasan, Jagd-; Jagdfasan; Jagdtfasanen
Hungary: facan
Iceland: fashani
Iran: gharghawol
Italy: fagiano comune
Japan: kouraikiji
Netherlands: fazant
Norway: fasan
Poland: bazant
Slovakia: bažant obycajný
Sweden: fasan

DADIS local name

Phasianos

DADIS main name

common Belgian pheasant
ring neck pheasant

EPPO code

PHSNCO (Phasianus colchicus)

Summary of Invasiveness

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P. colchicus is an attractive, colourful medium-sized bird with a native range in Eurasia. In its native range, it shows considerable variation in habitat, being found mainly in the overgrown edges of rivers, hilly areas and close to cultivation. Where it has been introduced, it is closely associated with grassland and agricultural land, often near to woodland edges. Due to its popularity as a game bird, it has been extensively and deliberately introduced to other areas, including Europe, North America, Japan and Australasia. The adverse effects of these introductions are not clear, and in general they appear to be small compared to the size of the introduced population. In the USA, there could be competitive effects on some threatened native birds, and in Japan some sources indicate that the species affects the native P. versicolor by hybridization.

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Metazoa
Phylum: Chordata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Class: Aves
Order: Galliformes
Family: Phasianidae
Genus: Phasianus
Species: Phasianus colchicus

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

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The number of subspecies of Phasianus colchicus is unclear from the literature. According to Switzer (2011) and Zhang et al. (2013), there are 31 subspecies, and these are described according to morphological characters and plumage (Zhang et al., 2013), and often divided into either 5 or 6 groups (see table below).

Kozyrenko et al. (2009) suggested that the number of subspecies could be in the range 31–37, and found very low population genetic differences between three separate populations of Phasianus colchicus pallasi.

Recent phylogenetic investigations do not support the currently described subspecies, and there appears to be widespread hybridization, especially for the Chinese ring-necked pheasants (Qu et al., 2009; Zhang et al., 2013).

The table below has been compiled using the following sources: Avibase (2015); Qu et al. (2009); GBWF (2012).

Group	Scientific Name	Common Name
The Phasianus colchicus colchicus group. Caucasus pheasants or Black-necked pheasants	P.c. colchicus, Linnaeus, 1758	Southern Caucasus Pheasant
	P.c. persicus, Severtsov, 1875	Persian Pheasant
	P.c. septentrionalis, Lorenz, 1888	Northern Caucasian Pheasant
	P.c. talischensis, Lorenz, 1888	Talisch Caucasian Pheasant
The Phasianus colchicus chrysomelas/principalis group White-winged pheasants	P.c. bianchii, Buturlin, 1904	Bianchi’s Pheasant
	P.c. chrysomelas, Severtsov, 1875	Khivan Pheasant
	P.c. principalis, Sclater, PL, 1885	Northern Pheasant / Prince of Wales’ Pheasant
	P.c. zerafschanicus, Tarnovski, 1893	Zerafshan Pheasant
	P.c. zarudnyi, Buturlin, 1904	Zarudny’s Pheasant
The Phasianus colchicus mongolicus group Mongolian ring-necked pheasants/ Kirghiz pheasants	P.c. bergii, Zarudny, 1914 (considered to be identical to P.c. turcestanicus)
	P.c. mongolicus, von Brandt, 1844	Kirghiz Pheasant
	P.c. turcestanicus, Lorenz, 1896	Syr Daria Pheasant
The Phasianus colchicus tarimensis group Tarim pheasants	P.c. shawii, Elliot, 1870	Yarkland Pheasant
The Phasianus colchicus tarimensis group Tarim pheasants	P.c. tarimensis, Pleske, 1889	Tarim Pheasant
The Phasianus colchicus torquatus group Chinese ring-necked pheasants/ Grey-rumped pheasants	P.c. alaschanicus, Alphéraky & Bianchi, 1908	Alashan Pheasant
	P.c. decollatus, Swinhoe, 1870	Kweichow Pheasant
	P.c. elegans, Elliot, 1870	Stone’s Pheasant
	P.c. edzinensis, Sushkin, 1926	Gobi (Ring-necked) Pheasant
	P.c. formosanus, Elliot, 1870	Formosan (Ring-necked) Pheasant
	P.c. hagenbecki, Rothschild, 1901	Kobdo (Ring-necked) Pheasant
	P.c. karpowi, Buturlin, 1904	Korean (Ring-necked) Pheasant
	P.c. kiangsuensis, Buturlin, 1904	Shansi Pheasant
	P.c. pallasi, Rothschild, 1903	Manchurian (Ring-necked) Pheasant
	P.c. rothschildi, La Touche, 1922	Rothschild’s Pheasant
	P.c. satscheuensis, Pleske, 1892	Satchu (Ring-necked) Pheasant
	P.c. sohokotensis, Buturlin, 1908	Sohokhoto Pheasant
	P.c. strauchi, Przevalski, 1876	Strauch’s Pheasant
	P.c. suehschanensis, Bianchi, 1906	Sungpan Pheasant
	P.c. takatsukasae, Delacour, 1927	Tonkinese (Ring-necked) pheasant
	P.c. torquatus, Gmelin, JF, 1789	Chinese (Ring-necked) pheasant
	P.c. vlangalii, Przevalski, 1876	Zaidan Pheasant

The green pheasant, Phasianus versicolor, also known as the Japanese Pheasant, was previously considered to be a subspecies of P. colchicus, although now it is considered to be a separate species (BirdLife International, 2015c; McGowan et al., 2013). In Japan, where P. versicolor is native, introduced P. colchicus does not always thrive, potentially due to competition from P. versicolor, and the two do not hybridize particularly successfully (McGowan et al., 2013). (However, P. c. karpowi is listed as an invasive species with a hybridization impact on P. versicolor by some authorities -- NIES, 2015). In Hawaii, where both P. colchicus and P. versicolor are introduced, hybridization is successful (McGowan et al., 2013).

When considered to be part of P. colchicus, P. versicolor was allocated to a sixth group, the Phasianus colchicus versicolor group with four subspecies (see table below).

Scientific Name	Common Name
Phasianus versicolor versicolor, Vieillot, 1825, (P. c. versicolor)	Kyushu Green (Ring-necked) Pheasant
Phasianus versicolor robustipes, Kuroda Sr, 1919 (P. c. robustipes)	Northern Green (Ring-necked) Pheasant
Phasianus versicolor tanensis, Kuroda Sr, 1919 (P. c. tanensis)	Pacific Green (Ring-necked) Pheasant
Phasianus versicolor tohkaidi, Momiyama, 1922 (P.c. tohkaidi)	Shikoku Green (Ring-necked) Pheasant

Switzer (2011) does consider P. versicolor to be part of P. colchicus, and describes two main groups of P. colchicus: colchicus and versicolor. Colchicus (described as having barred, coppery/red/yellow mantle and underparts, and a prominent neck ring) is found in mainland Eurasia, and versicolor (described as green on the neck, breast and upper belly and without the neck ring) as native to Japan and introduced to Hawaii.

Description

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There is a high degree of sexual dimorphism in P. colchicus, with the male bird being typically larger and more colourful than the smaller brown female. Males typically have multicoloured plumage with long, pointed and barred tails with heads ranging from glossy dark green to iridescent purple (Switzer, 2011). The RSPB (2015) describe the males as having rich chestnut, golden-brown and black markings on the tail and body with a dark green head and red face wattling; there may or may not be a white neck ring, and males are conspicuous and noisy (Elphick and Woodward, 2003). The female is described by the RSPB (2015) as mottled, with paler brown and black (and with a shorter tail and no wattles or pinnae, the latter being the tufts of feathers behind the eyes that the males have – Robertson, 1988).

Males are 75–89 cm long (tail 42.5–59 cm) and weigh 770–1990 g, and females are 53–62 cm long (tail 29–31 cm) and weigh 545–1453 g (McGowan et al., 2013). Wingspan is 70-90 cm (McGowan et al., 2013).

Due to breeding and hybridization with P. versicolor, there are also forms with dark plumage, known as melanistic (mutant) pheasants.

Distribution

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BirdLife International (2015b) lists the native range of European P. colchicus as: Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia, and lists countries in Europe where it was introduced as: Albania; Andorra; Austria; Belarus; Belgium; Bosnia and Herzegovina; Bulgaria; Croatia; Czech Republic; Denmark; Finland; France; Germany; Greece; Hungary; Ireland, Rep. of; Italy; Latvia; Liechtenstein; Lithuania; Luxembourg; Macedonia, the former Yugoslav Republic of; Moldova; Montenegro; Netherlands; Norway; Poland; Portugal; Romania; Russian Federation; Serbia; Slovakia; Slovenia; Spain; Sweden; Switzerland; Turkey; Ukraine; United Kingdom – i.e. most European countries.

Switzer (2011) lists the native range as extending from the Caspian Sea, east across central Asia to China, including Korea, Japan (although this refers to P. versicolor) and Burma [Myanmar]. The species has been introduced to Europe, North America, Hawaii, Australia and New Zealand, and in North America it is mostly established on mid-latitude agricultural land (Switzer, 2011).

Lever (2005) lists the natural range of P. colchicus as the southern Palaearctic and north-eastern Oriental regions -- in Eastern Europe in parts of the Caucasus Mountains, and in Asia from northern Asia Minor east to Korea, China and Taiwan. Lever (2005) lists the naturalized range as Europe (British Isles, Continental Europe), Asia (Japan), North America (Canada, Mexico, USA), West Indies, South America (Chile), Australasia (Australia, New Zealand), Atlantic Ocean (St. Helena), Indian Ocean (Mascarene Islands), and the Pacific Ocean (French Polynesia, Hawaiian Islands), although the continued presence of the species in a few countries is uncertain.

In North America, populations are established on most mid-latitude agricultural lands from southern Canada to Utah and California to the New England states, and south to Virginia (Giudice and Ratti, 2015).

In Japan, P. c. karpowi was introduced for hunting, and its range now is described as: Hokkaido, Honshu (the Pacific side of Kanto to Tokai Districts, Nara), Shikoku (Ehime), Kyushu (Fukuoka, Miyazaki, mainland Kagoshima Prefectures, Tsushima, and Osumi), and Amami, Okinawa, and Sakishima Islands (NIES, 2015).

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 14 Dec 2020

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	First Reported	Invasive	Reference	Notes
Africa
Mauritius	Present	Introduced			eBird (2015)
Réunion	Present				Lever (2005)
Saint Helena	Present	Introduced			Lever (2005)	A small but stable population remains; First reported: 1500s
Asia
Armenia	Present	Native			Clements et al. (2014) BirdLife International (2015)	Phasianus colchicus colchicus in the S; 100–200 pairs
Azerbaijan	Present	Native			Clements et al. (2014) BirdLife International (2015)	Phasianus colchicus colchicus in the NE; 1000–2500 pairs
China	Present, Widespread	Native			Qu et al. (2009) Switzer (2011)	The P.c. torquatus group
-Anhui	Present				Qu et al. (2009) eBird (2015)	The P.c. torquatus group
-Beijing	Present, Widespread				Qu et al. (2009)	The P.c. torquatus group
-Chongqing	Present, Widespread				Qu et al. (2009)	The P.c. torquatus group
-Fujian	Present				Qu et al. (2009) eBird (2015)	The P.c. torquatus group
-Gansu	Present				Qu et al. (2009) Clements et al. (2014) eBird (2015)	The P.c. torquatus group: P.c. satscheuensis in the west, P. c. sohokhotensis at Soho-Khoto Oasis and Qilian Shan, P. c. strauchi in the S
-Guangdong	Present, Widespread				Qu et al. (2009)	The P.c. torquatus group
-Guangxi	Present, Widespread				Qu et al. (2009)	The P.c. torquatus group
-Guizhou	Present, Widespread				Qu et al. (2009) Clements et al. (2014)	The P.c. torquatus group
-Hainan	Absent, Unconfirmed presence record(s)				Qu et al. (2009) Zhang LiXun et al. (2014)
-Hebei	Present				Qu et al. (2009) eBird (2015)	The P.c. torquatus group
-Heilongjiang	Present, Widespread				Qu et al. (2009)	The P.c. torquatus group
-Henan	Present, Widespread				Qu et al. (2009)	The P.c. torquatus group
-Hubei	Present, Widespread				Qu et al. (2009)	The P.c. torquatus group
-Hunan	Present, Widespread				Qu et al. (2009)	The P.c. torquatus group
-Inner Mongolia	Present, Widespread				Qu et al. (2009)	P. c. torquatus group
-Jiangsu	Present				Qu et al. (2009) eBird (2015)	The P.c. torquatus group
-Jilin	Present				Qu et al. (2009) eBird (2015)	The P.c. torquatus group
-Liaoning	Present				Qu et al. (2009) Clements et al. (2014) eBird (2015)	The P.c. torquatus group: P. c. karpowi in the N and P. c. decollatus
-Ningxia	Present				Qu et al. (2009) Clements et al. (2014)	P. c. torquatus group
-Qinghai	Present				Qu et al. (2009) Clements et al. (2014) eBird (2015)	P. c. torquatus group
-Shaanxi	Present, Widespread				Qu et al. (2009) Clements et al. (2014) eBird (2015)	P. c. torquatus group (P. c. kiangsuensis; P. c. strauchi in the S)
-Shandong	Present				Qu et al. (2009) Clements et al. (2014) eBird (2015)
-Shanghai	Present, Widespread				Qu et al. (2009)	P. c. torquatus group
-Shanxi	Present, Widespread				Qu et al. (2009) Clements et al. (2014)	P. c. torquatus group
-Sichuan	Present				Qu et al. (2009) Clements et al. (2014) eBird (2015)	P.c. torquatus group (P. c. suehschanensis in the NW, P. c. elegans in the W, P. c. decollatus)
-Tianjin	Present, Widespread				Qu et al. (2009)	P. c. torquatus group
-Tibet	Present, Widespread				Qu et al. (2009)	P. c. torquatus group
-Xinjiang	Present				Kulikova et al. (2002) Qu et al. (2009)
-Yunnan	Present				Qu et al. (2009) Clements et al. (2014) eBird (2015)	P. c. torquatus group (P. c. decollatus in the NE, P. c. rothschildi in the E)
-Zhejiang	Present, Widespread				Qu et al. (2009)	P. c. torquatus group
Georgia	Present, Localized	Native			Clements et al. (2014) BirdLife International (2015)	P. c. colchicus in the E
Hong Kong	Present				Qu et al. (2009) eBird (2015)	The P.c. torquatus group
Iran	Present, Localized				Zarringhabaie et al. (2012) Clements et al. (2014)
Japan	Present	Introduced			Qu et al. (2009) Switzer (2011)	Native P. versicolor formerly considered to be a subspecies of P. colchicus
-Hokkaido	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Eguchi and Amano (2004) eBird (2015) NIES (National Institute for Environmental Studies) (2015)	Phasianus colchicus karpowi
-Honshu	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Clements et al. (2014) eBird (2015) NIES (National Institute for Environmental Studies) (2015)	P. c. karpowi introduced; native P. versicolor formerly considered to be a subspecies of P. colchicus
-Kyushu	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Clements et al. (2014) eBird (2015) NIES (National Institute for Environmental Studies) (2015)	P. c. karpowi introduced; native P. versicolor formerly considered to be a subspecies of P. colchicus
-Ryukyu Islands	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	NIES (National Institute for Environmental Studies) (2015) eBird (2015)	Phasianus colchicus karpowi on Amami, Okinowa and Sakishima Islands; First reported: 1930s or later
-Shikoku	Present	Introduced		Invasive	NIES (National Institute for Environmental Studies) (2015)	Phasianus colchicus karpowi, Ehime; First reported: 1930s or later
Kazakhstan	Present, Localized				Kulikova et al. (2002) Clements et al. (2014)
Kyrgyzstan	Present, Localized				Kulikova et al. (2002) eBird (2015)	Phasianus colchicus mongolicus at Tian Shan and the Trans-Ile Alatau Mountains
Macau	Present, Widespread				Qu et al. (2009)	P. c. torquatus group
Mongolia	Present, Localized				Clements et al. (2014)	P. c. hagenbecki in the NW, P. c. edzinensis in S, P. c. kiangsuensis in the SE
North Korea	Present	Native			Switzer (2011) Clements et al. (2014) eBird (2015)	P. c. karpowi
South Korea	Present, Widespread	Native			Switzer (2011) eBird (2015) NIES (National Institute for Environmental Studies) (2015)	P. c. karpowi
Taiwan	Present, Widespread				Clements et al. (2014) eBird (2015)	P. c. formosanus
Turkey	Present, Localized	Native			BirdLife International (2015) eBird (2015)	100–500 native pairs; 1000–5000 non-native pairs
United Arab Emirates	Present, Localized				eBird (2015)
Uzbekistan	Present, Localized				Kulikova et al. (2002) Clements et al. (2014)	Phasianus colchicus zerafschanicus in south Uzbekistan (Bukhara and Zerafshan Valley); Phasianus colchicus mongolicus at Tian Shan
Vietnam	Present, Localized				Clements et al. (2014)	P. c. torquatus near the border with China; P. c. rothschildi and P. c. takatsukasae in the N.
Europe
Andorra	Present	Introduced			BirdLife International (2015)	Low numbers
Austria	Present, Widespread	Introduced			BirdLife International (2015) eBird (2015)	50,000–100,000 pairs
Belarus	Present	Introduced			BirdLife International (2015)	30–50 pairs
Belgium	Present	Introduced			BirdLife International (2015)	10,000–50,000 pairs
Bosnia and Herzegovina	Present	Introduced			BirdLife International (2015)	60,000–90,000 pairs
Bulgaria	Present	Introduced			BirdLife International (2015)	8,000–14,000 pairs
Croatia	Present, Widespread	Introduced			eBird (2015) BirdLife International (2015)	50,000–100,000 pairs
Czechia	Present, Localized	Introduced			BirdLife International (2015) eBird (2015)	126,000–252,000 pairs
Denmark	Present	Introduced			IUCN (2015) Jørgensen et al. (1999)
Finland	Present, Localized	Introduced			BirdLife International (2015) eBird (2015)	8400–16,000 pairs
France	Present, Widespread	Introduced			BirdLife International (2015) eBird (2015)	177,000–283,000 pairs
Germany	Present, Widespread	Introduced			Sodeikat et al. (1995) BirdLife International (2015) eBird (2015)	200,000–295,000 pairs
Greece	Present	Introduced			BirdLife International (2015) Sfougaris et al. (1996)	500–2,000 pairs
Hungary	Present, Widespread	Introduced			BirdLife International (2015) eBird (2015)	306,403–339,419 pairs
Ireland	Present	Introduced			BirdLife International (2015)	147,347–350,140 pairs
Italy	Present, Widespread	Introduced			Santilli and Bagliacca (2011) BirdLife International (2015) eBird (2015)	Widespread in N & central areas; 1000–100,000 pairs
Latvia	Present	Introduced			BirdLife International (2015)	Low numbers
Liechtenstein	Present	Introduced			BirdLife International (2015)	Low numbers
Lithuania	Present	Introduced			IUCN (2015)
Luxembourg	Present	Introduced			BirdLife International (2015)	10–30 pairs
Moldova	Present	Introduced			BirdLife International (2015)	8500–10,000 pairs
Montenegro	Present	Introduced			BirdLife International (2015)	50–200 pairs
Netherlands	Present, Widespread	Introduced			BirdLife International (2015) eBird (2015)	47,368–56,842 pairs
North Macedonia	Present	Introduced			BirdLife International (2015)	300–2000 pairs
Norway	Present, Localized	Introduced			BirdLife International (2015) eBird (2015)	In the south; 500 pairs
Poland	Present, Localized	Introduced			BirdLife International (2015) eBird (2015)	340,000–420,000 pairs
Portugal	Present, Localized	Introduced			BirdLife International (2015) eBird (2015)	0–50 pairs
Romania	Present, Localized	Introduced			BirdLife International (2015) eBird (2015)	50,000–250,000 pairs
Russia	Present	Native			BirdLife International (2015)	4500–5850 native pairs; 12,000–25,000 non-native pairs
-Russian Far East	Present				Kulikova et al. (2002) Kozyrenko et al. (2009)	Phasianus colchicus pallasi in the south
-Southern Russia	Present, Localized				Clements et al. (2014)	Phasianus colchicus septentrionalis in the Caucaus region
Serbia	Present, Widespread	Introduced			BirdLife International (2015) eBird (2015)	40,000–50,000 pairs
Slovakia	Present, Localized	Introduced			BirdLife International (2015) eBird (2015)	20,000–40,000 pairs
Slovenia	Present, Localized	Introduced			BirdLife International (2015) eBird (2015)	9000–13,000 pairs
Spain	Present, Localized	Introduced			BirdLife International (2015) eBird (2015)	370 pairs
-Balearic Islands	Present, Localized	Introduced			eBird (2015)	Mallorca
Sweden	Present, Localized	Introduced			BirdLife International (2015) eBird (2015)	In the south; 25,000–45,000 pairs
Switzerland	Present, Localized	Introduced			BirdLife International (2015) eBird (2015)	40-60 pairs
Ukraine	Present, Localized	Introduced			BirdLife International (2015) eBird (2015)	Mostly the south; 23,000–30,000 pairs
United Kingdom	Present, Widespread	Introduced			Stoate (2002) BirdLife International (2015) eBird (2015)	2,300,000 pairs
North America
Bahamas	Present, Localized	Introduced			Lever (2005)	Possibly established on Eleuthera; First reported: 1950s
Canada	Present				CABI (Undated)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Alberta	Present, Localized	Introduced	1908		McLash (2008) eBird (2015)	In the south
-British Columbia	Present, Localized				eBird (2015)	In the south
-Manitoba	Present, Localized				eBird (2015)	In the extreme SW
-New Brunswick	Present, Localized				eBird (2015)	In the south
-Nova Scotia	Present, Widespread				eBird (2015)
-Ontario	Present, Localized				eBird (2015)	In the extreme SW
-Prince Edward Island	Present, Widespread				eBird (2015)
-Quebec	Present, Localized				eBird (2015)	In the extreme south
-Saskatchewan	Present, Localized				eBird (2015)	In the extreme south
Dominican Republic	Present, Localized	Introduced			Lever (2005)	P.c. torquatus may survive in the hills near Cabo Rojo; First reported: 1950s
Mexico	Present	Introduced			Lever (2005)
United States	Present				CABI (Undated)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Alabama	Present				eBird (2015)
-Alaska	Present, Localized				eBird (2015)	Near Homer
-Arizona	Present, Localized				eBird (2015)	In the south
-California	Present, Widespread				eBird (2015)
-Colorado	Present, Widespread				eBird (2015)
-Connecticut	Present, Widespread				eBird (2015)
-Delaware	Present, Widespread				eBird (2015)
-District of Columbia	Present, Widespread				eBird (2015)
-Florida	Present, Localized				eBird (2015)
-Hawaii	Present, Widespread	Introduced	1865		Lever (2005) Qu et al. (2009) Clements et al. (2014) eBird (2015)	On all main islands. P.c. mongolicus introduced in 1865; P.c. torquatus introduced in 1875 to all main islands. P. versicolor also introduced
-Idaho	Present, Widespread				eBird (2015)
-Illinois	Present, Widespread				eBird (2015)
-Indiana	Present, Widespread				eBird (2015)
-Iowa	Present				Riley et al. (1998) eBird (2015)
-Kansas	Present, Widespread				eBird (2015)
-Kentucky	Present, Localized				eBird (2015)
-Maine	Present, Widespread				eBird (2015)
-Maryland	Present, Widespread				eBird (2015)
-Massachusetts	Present, Widespread				eBird (2015)
-Michigan	Present	Introduced	1918		Flegel (1996) eBird (2015)	Introduced as a game bird
-Minnesota	Present, Widespread				eBird (2015)
-Missouri	Present, Widespread				eBird (2015)
-Montana	Present, Widespread				eBird (2015)
-Nebraska	Present				Matthews et al. (2012) eBird (2015)
-Nevada	Present, Localized				eBird (2015)
-New Hampshire	Present, Widespread				eBird (2015)
-New Jersey	Present, Widespread				eBird (2015)
-New Mexico	Present, Widespread				eBird (2015)
-New York	Present, Widespread				eBird (2015)
-North Carolina	Present, Localized				eBird (2015)	Near Uwharrie National Forest, in Croatan National Forest, Currituck National Wildlife Refuge, Bodie Island
-North Dakota	Present, Widespread				eBird (2015)
-Ohio	Present, Widespread				eBird (2015)
-Oklahoma	Present, Localized				eBird (2015)	In the N and W
-Oregon	Present, Widespread	Introduced	1881		McLash (2008) eBird (2015)
-Pennsylvania	Present, Widespread				eBird (2015)
-Rhode Island	Present, Widespread				eBird (2015)
-South Dakota	Present, Widespread				eBird (2015)
-Tennessee	Present, Widespread				eBird (2015)
-Texas	Present, Localized				eBird (2015)
-Utah	Present, Widespread				eBird (2015)
-Vermont	Present, Localized				eBird (2015)
-Virginia	Present, Localized				eBird (2015)
-Washington	Present, Widespread				eBird (2015)
-West Virginia	Present, Localized				eBird (2015)
-Wisconsin	Present, Widespread				eBird (2015)
-Wyoming	Present, Localized				eBird (2015)
Oceania
Australia	Present	Introduced			Qu et al. (2009)
-New South Wales	Present, Localized	Introduced			Lever (2005)	In south and west
-South Australia	Present, Localized	Introduced			Lever (2005) eBird (2015)	Near Adelaide and Mt Lofty Ranges; First reported: 1960/1
-Tasmania	Present	Introduced			Lever (2005) eBird (2015)	First reported: 1910-1960s
-Victoria	Present	Introduced			Lever (2005) eBird (2015)
-Western Australia	Present, Localized	Introduced			Lever (2005) eBird (2015)	Including Rottnest Island; First reported: 1897-1960s
French Polynesia	Absent, Unconfirmed presence record(s)				Lever (2005)	Status unknown
New Zealand	Present	Introduced			Lever (2005) Qu et al. (2009) Clements et al. (2014) eBird (2015)	Widespread on North Island, more localized on South Island
South America
Chile	Present, Localized	Introduced			Jaksic (1998)	Introduced in 1886 in Coquimbo using birds from Britain. Assumed to have died out around 1900. Reintroduced 1914 to Cautín using birds from Germany. Now found near Illapel, Cautín, and Valdivia; First reported: 1886/1914

History of Introduction and Spread

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P. colchicus has been widely introduced, for hunting or food, to Europe, North America and other areas, from its native range in Asia. Since many introductions happened centuries ago, it is difficult to know precisely when this happened. Some of the known introductions are listed in the History of Introduction table or mentioned in the Distribution table. It is possible that the species was introduced to what is now the UK in the 11^th century, since that is when the first documentary evidence of its presence there occurs (as a food source) (Lever, 2005; Yardley, 2009). The UK now has the largest population of P. colchicus in Europe (BirdLife International, 2015a).

Introductions

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Introduced to	Introduced from	Year	Reason	Introduced by	Established in wild through		References	Notes
Introduced to	Introduced from	Year	Reason	Introduced by	Natural reproduction	Continuous restocking	References	Notes
Australia		1855-1960s	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)		Yes		Lever (2005)	Several introductions between 1855 and 1960s. First attempts in Victoria only temporarily successful; later introductions to Tasmania and S. Australia successful
Bahamas		1950s					Lever (2005)	Possibly established on Eleuthera
Chile	UK	1886	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)		No		Jaksic (1998)	Died out by 1900
Chile	Germany	1914	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)		Yes		Jaksic (1998)	Small population: ‘hardly found in the feral state’
Dominican Republic		1950s	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)				Lever (2005)	Some may survive on Hispaniola in the hills near Cabo Rojo
New Zealand		1842-1910			Yes			Several introductions over the years
Oregon		1881	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)		Yes		McLash (2008)
UK		11th cent	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)		Yes		Lever (2005)	Date and reason uncertain; possbly introduced in 11th centrury

Risk of Introduction

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P. colchicus has already been widely introduced to Europe, North America, Hawaii, Australia, New Zealand and other areas. Since it can utilize various habitats (BirdLife International, 2015b), wherever the birds are managed as game near to suitable wild habitat it is possible that they could escape and become naturalized.

Habitat

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P. colchicus occupy grassland and farmland habitats, preferring relatively open cover, such as grass and stubble fields with nearby trees or bushes for cover (Switzer, 2011). As generalists, they will though occupy a range of habitat types, except for dense tropical or alpine forests or very dry areas (Switzer, 2011). They prefer areas near to water although they can obtain water from dew, insects and succulent vegetation (Switzer, 2011).

In its natural range, P. colchicus shows considerable variation in habitat, being found mainly in the overgrown edges of rivers, hilly areas close to cultivation and cultivated flat land (BirdLife International, 2015b).

P. colchicus has a range territory size of 0.8–3.2 km² (Switzer, 2011).

Habitat List

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Category	Sub-Category	Habitat	Presence
Terrestrial
Terrestrial	Managed	Cultivated / agricultural land	Principal habitat
Terrestrial	Managed	Managed forests, plantations and orchards	Principal habitat
Terrestrial	Managed	Managed grasslands (grazing systems)	Principal habitat
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Natural forests	Principal habitat
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Natural grasslands	Principal habitat
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Riverbanks	Principal habitat
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Wetlands	Principal habitat
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Scrub / shrublands	Secondary/tolerated habitat

Biology and Ecology

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Genetics

P. colchicus have a diploid number of 81 and 82 for females and males, respectively, with the sex chromosomes always unpaired in females (Castillo et al., 2010).

The complete mitochondrial genome of P. colchicus is 16,692 bp long and is composed of 13 typical protein coding genes, 22 tRNA genes, 2 rRNA genes and 1 putative control region (Li et al., 2013).

Kozyrenko et al. (2009) suggest that the number of subspecies could be in the range 31–37, and found very low population genetic differences between three separate populations of Phasianus colchicus pallasi. Phylogenetic studies on Chinese subspecies of P. colchicus have not supported the subspecies (Qu et al., 2009; Zhang et al., 2013).

Initially found in the UK, there are melanistic forms of P. colchicus (Heinzel et al., 1998; GBWF, 2012) most likely due to a recessive allele (GBWF, 2012).

P. colchicus may hybridize with P. versicolor (McGowan et al., 2013; NIES, 2015).

Reproductive Biology

P. colchicus have a polygamous mating system, where males have a harem of females and take no part in rearing the chicks (McLash, 2008). Males actively defend a territory and crow in an attempt to attract females to mate with (McLash, 2008). Females chose to mate with males with intermediate similarity of histocompatibility complex (Baratti et al., 2012) and with long tails and ear tufts (Switzer, 2011).

The females are not territorial (Switzer, 2011), construct a nest on the ground, and lay 6-14 eggs (McLash, 2008) (7-15 eggs according to Switzer, 2011; 9-14 eggs in the native range in Azerbaijan, according to BirdLife International, 2015b), laying one egg a day (Switzer, 2011). Larger clutches occur when more than one female lays her eggs in the same nest (Switzer, 2011). The nest is a shallow depression in the ground, often lined with plant material (BirdLife International, 2015b).

Hatching can take 23–28 days and fledging takes 7–12 days, with the time to complete independence being 70–80 days (Switzer, 2011). The young are precocial and are able to run around and eat soon after hatching (McLash, 2008; Switzer, 2011). Sexual maturity occurs at 1 year old (Switzer, 2011).

The breeding season can be highly variable in both native and introduced ranges (McGowan et al., 2013). Breeding occurs once a year and the season extends from March to June (Switzer, 2011). In the native range in Azerbaijan, egg-laying occurs in April and May (BirdLife International, 2015b).

Longevity

P. colchicus can typically live for 11–18 years in captivity, and approximately 3 years in the wild (Switzer, 2011). Males may have an annual survival rate of 7%, compared with 21-46% for females. These figures can be lower where hunting occurs (Switzer, 2011).

Activity Patterns/Behaviour

P. colchicus have a range territory size of 0.8–3.2km², with the range being smaller in winter than during the nesting season. They are social birds and can form flocks in the autumn in areas of food and cover (Switzer, 2011).

They spend most of their time on the ground (where they scratch for food in the undergrowth with their bills) and in trees, and can run swiftly, holding their tails up at a 45 degree angle. They have a strutting gait when walking and are strong fliers, with the ability to take off suddenly. They use dust bathing to help remove skin cells, excess oil and old feathers (Switzer, 2011).

Mass migrations may occur in the native range but in its introduced range the species is sedentary (BirdLife International, 2015b). P. colchicus pallasi in the Russian Far East undergoes seasonal migrations of 200-300 km in a straight line in extremely severe and snowy winters. P. c. mongolicus in the mountains of Central Asia has also been recorded as undergoing seasonal migration (Kulikova et al., 2002).

Population Size and Structure

The estimated global population size of P. colchicus is very large (although decreasing), at 45– 300 million individuals, with the population in Europe estimated at 10.2– 14.1 million (BirdLife International, 2015c).

Nutrition

P. colchicus have a diet consisting of waste grain, weed seeds, fruits, leaves and insects (McLash, 2008). In the native range, they feed on plant matter such as fruits, seeds, leaves, buds and a small amount of animal matter such as insects (BirdLife International, 2015b). Where the species is introduced it is an opportunistic omnivore, feeding on a diverse range of food, but preferring energy-rich items such as cultivated grains, mast and fruits (BirdLife International, 2015b). Crops eaten include maize (Zea mays), wheat (Triticum), barley (Hordeum vulgare) and flax (Linum) (Switzer, 2011). In North America, weed seeds eaten include foxtail (Setaria), ragweed (Ambrosia) and sunflower (Helianthus annuus) (Switzer, 2011). Fruits eaten include wild grape (Vitis), apples (Malus), and blackberries (Rubus). The birds also eat grasshoppers (Orthoptera), caterpillars (Lepidoptera), crickets (Gryllidae), and snails (Gastropoda) (Switzer, 2011).

Environmental Requirements

P. colchicus prefer areas near to water, although they can obtain water from dew, insects and succulent vegetation (Switzer, 2011).

Climate

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Climate	Status	Description
Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year	Tolerated	Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer	Preferred	Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter	Preferred	Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters)
Ds - Continental climate with dry summer	Tolerated	Continental climate with dry summer (Warm average temp. > 10°C, coldest month < 0°C, dry summers)

Latitude/Altitude Ranges

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Latitude North (°N)	Latitude South (°S)	Altitude Lower (m)	Altitude Upper (m)
66	46

Natural enemies

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Natural enemy	Type	Specificity
Accipiter cooperii	Predator	not specific
Accipiter gentilis	Predator	not specific
Accipiter nisus	Predator	not specific
Amyrsidea perdicis	Parasite
Ascaridia	Parasite	not specific
Borrelia burgdorferi	Parasite	not specific
Bubo virginianus	Predator	not specific
Buteo buteo	Predator	not specific
Buteo jamaicensis	Predator	not specific
Buteo lagopus	Predator	not specific
Buteo lineatus	Predator	not specific
Canis latrans	Predator	not specific
Canis lupus familiaris	Predator	not specific
Capillaria	Parasite	not specific
Chelydra serpentina	Predator	not specific
Circus hudsonius	Predator	not specific
Coronavirus	Pathogen	not specific
Corvidae	Predator	not specific
Eimeria	Parasite	not specific
Falco peregrinus	Predator	not specific
Heterakis	Parasite	not specific
Ixodes ricinus	Parasite	not specific
Meles meles	Predator	not specific
Mephitis mephitis	Predator	not specific
Mustela	Predator	not specific
Neovison vison	Predator	not specific
Newcastle disease virus	Pathogen	not specific
Procyon lotor	Predator	not specific
Raillietina	Parasite	not specific
Siphonaptera	Parasite	not specific
Strigiformes	Predator	not specific
Syngamus	Parasite	not specific
Vulpes vulpes	Predator	not specific

Notes on Natural Enemies

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Pheasants are susceptible to the viral infection Newcastle disease (ND) (Jørgensen et al., 1999; Aldous and Alexander, 2008). Between 1994 and 2005, outbreaks of ND in pheasants were recorded in Denmark, Finland, France, Great Britain, Ireland, Italy and Northern Ireland (Aldous and Alexander, 2008). Pheasants are also susceptible to respiratory diseases caused by coronaviruses, which have been found to have a high degree of genetic similarity with the coronaviruses of chickens and turkeys (Cavanagh et al., 2002). In captivity, P. colchicus may be susceptible to marble spleen disease caused by type II avian adenovirus (Lee et al., 2001).

P. colchicus are susceptible to several nematode parasites (Gassal and Schmäschke, 2006; Santilli and Bagliacca, 2011). Other parasites include: Borrelia burgdorferi, ticks (Ixodes ricinus), fleas (Siphonaptera), tapeworms (Railletina) (Switzer, 2011) and lice (Mallophaga) (Dik and Uslu, 2006, referring to captive birds in Turkey; Rak et al., 1975, reporting Amyrsidea hexapilosus [Amyrsidea (Argimenopon) perdicis] in wild birds in Iran).

In the UK, P. colchicus are predated by buzzards (Buteo buteo), owls, sparrowhawks (Accipiter nisus), red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and other mammals (Parrott, 2015; Kenward et al., 2001). A study in the UK and Austria found nest predation by corvids, foxes (Vulpes vulpes), badgers (Meles meles) and other mammals (Draycott et al., 2008). In Sweden, goshawks (Accipiter gentilis) have also been shown to predate P. colchicus (Kenward et al., 1981). Predators recorded in North America include: domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris), coyotes (Canis latrans), mink (Neovison vison), weasels (Mustela spp.), striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis), raccoons (Procyon lotor), great horned owls (Bubo virginianus), red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis), red-shouldered hawks (Buteo lineatus), rough-legged hawks (Buteo lagopus), Cooper’s hawks (Accipiter cooperii), peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus), northern harriers (Circus cyaneus [Circus hudsonius]) and snapping turtles (Chelydra serpentina) (Switzer, 2011).

Means of Movement and Dispersal

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Accidental Introduction

Most introductions appear to be deliberate.

Intentional Introduction

P. colchicus has been knowingly and extensively introduced to Europe, North America, Hawaii and other regions of the world as a game bird that has naturalized. In areas where it is managed as a game bird, it is intentionally released from pens into surrounding estates/countryside in large numbers for hunting (GWCT, 2015).

Pathway Causes

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Cause	Notes	Long Distance	Local
Animal production	Deliberate introduction as gamebird from Asia to Europe, N. America, Chile, Australia & New Zealand	Yes	Yes
Hunting, angling, sport or racing	Deliberate introduction as gamebird from Asia to Europe, N. America, Chile, Australia & New Zealand	Yes	Yes
Intentional release	Deliberate introduction as gamebird from Asia to Europe, N. America, Chile, Australia & New Zealand	Yes	Yes

Impact Summary

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Category	Impact
Cultural/amenity	Positive
Economic/livelihood	Positive
Environment (generally)	Positive and negative

Economic Impact

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P. colchicus has no major effects on crops, although there may be localized effects after captive-bred releases. Any small amount of local damage to crop plants in Europe and the USA is far outweighed by the economic value of the species (Lever, 2005). The species was said to be an agricultural pest on St Helena in the 1950s, although the population has declined substantially since then (Lever, 2005).

Due to the susceptibility of P. colchicus to Newcastle disease, and its potential to spread this to other birds, it can be a cause of economic losses if an embargo on poultry sales is imposed as a result of an outbreak (Switzer, 2011).

Environmental Impact

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Impact on Habitats

Where large numbers of pheasants are released for the hunting season, this sudden influx of birds could potentially affect local ecosystems. They could potentially deplete food sources for other animals, affect ground/hedge flora, and attract more predators to the environment (GWCT, 2015). Some research suggests that captive bred P. colchicus that are released into suitable habitat have an extremely low survival rate (Sodeikat, 1995), and that those that survive the shooting season do not breed well (GWCT, 2015), which might limit their effect.

It has been suggested that P. colchicus spread seeds of non-native plants on Hawaii, although they may also facilitate the dispersal and germination of indigenous species (Lever, 2005).

Impact on Biodiversity

Where large numbers are released to boost wild populations for the hunting season, this influx of birds could potentially reduce the diversity of ground/hedge flora, other grain- and seed-eating birds, and amphibians and reptiles (GWCT, 2015), although as mentioned above released birds may not survive or breed well.

Farm-reared P. colchicus that are managed and released could potentially spread parasites to wild populations (Santilli and Bagliacca, 2011).

A UK-based study found that management of wild P. colchicus as a gamebird on farmland had no effect on farmland passerine diversity, although for some species, individual numbers increased (Stoate, 2002). Areas that are managed as suitable habitat for P. colchicus may attract wildlife and so could have a positive impact on biodiversity. On the other hand, in the UK there are reports of continued persecution of raptors near game bird rearing and release sites (Smart et al., 2010).

In the USA, P. colchicus may have an inhibitory effect (as a competitor) on the Northern Bobwhite Colinus virginianus (classified as Near Threatened – IUCN, 2015) and may also affect the Greater Prairie-chicken Tympanuchus cupido (in whose nests they sometimes lay their own eggs, and which is classified as Vulnerable) (Lever, 2005). P. colchicus has also been recorded as a brood parasite of the Vulnerable Lesser Prairie-chicken T. pallidicinctus in Kansas, USA (Hagen et al., 2002). It is possible that exotic introductions have an effect on Attwater’s Greater Prairie-chicken Tympanuchus cupido attwateri, which is on the US list of endangered species, and prohibiting the introduction to public lands of exotic species such as P. colchicus has been proposed as an action to aid recovery of T. c. attwateri (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010).

P. colchicus may negatively affect Perdix perdix (grey partridge) through nest parasitism, habitat competition, disease transmission and aggressive behaviour (Switzer, 2011).

P. colchicus karpowi is listed as an invasive species with a hybridization impact on the native Japanese species P. versicolor by some authorities (NIES, 2015), although according to McGowan et al. (2013) the two do not hybridize particularly successfully.

If as has been suggested P. colchicus spread seeds of non-native plants on Hawaii (Lever, 2005), this could have an adverse effect on native biodiversity, although they may also facilitate the dispersal and germination of indigenous species (Lever, 2005). The species has had neglible impact on terrestrial invertebrates in Hawaii and does not compete with endemic bird species there (Lever, 2005).

Threatened Species

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Threatened Species	Conservation Status	Where Threatened	Mechanism	References
Colinus virginianus	NT (IUCN red list: Near threatened)	USA	Competition	Lever, 2005
Tympanuchus cupido	VU (IUCN red list: Vulnerable)	USA	Competition; Pest and disease transmission	Lever, 2005; Switzer, 2011
Tympanuchus cupido attwateri (Attwater's greater prairie chicken)	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Texas		US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010
Tympanuchus pallidicinctus	VU (IUCN red list: Vulnerable)	Kansas		Hagen et al., 2002

Risk and Impact Factors

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Invasiveness

Proved invasive outside its native range
Highly adaptable to different environments
Is a habitat generalist
Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
Capable of securing and ingesting a wide range of food
Highly mobile locally
Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
Gregarious

Impact outcomes

Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
Threat to/ loss of endangered species
Threat to/ loss of native species

Impact mechanisms

Competition (unspecified)
Hybridization

Likelihood of entry/control

Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately

Uses

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Economic Value

P. colchicus is a food source throughout its range. Where it is managed for hunting, it is of economic benefit to land owners and local communities by attracting paying visitors to the area. There is a considerable national and international trade in chicks and viable eggs (Aldous and Alexander, 2008). A recent report (PACEC, 2012) found that game shooting (predominantly of pheasants) on Exmoor, UK, contributed £18 million per year to the UK economy, of which £4 million remained in the local area.

Social Benefit

During the hunting/shooting season there is presumably a positive social benefit for the people involved. Since pheasants are attractive birds, they also have positive social benefits to people who are walking, birdwatching etc. in the countryside where they are likely to encounter them.

P. colchicus meat is a good nutritional source of iron -- 100g of drumstick can provide 23.6% of the recommended daily intake (Franco and Lorenzo, 2013).

Environmental Services

It has been suggested that P. colchicus in Hawaii facilitate the dispersal and germination of indigenous plant species as well as introduced ones. In this way, it has been suggested that the species may help to restore degraded ecosystems on Maui (Lever, 2005).

Management of land for pheasants may benefit other species as well.

Uses List

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General

Sport (hunting, shooting, fishing, racing)

Human food and beverage

Meat/fat/offal/blood/bone (whole, cut, fresh, frozen, canned, cured, processed or smoked)

Materials

Feathers

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

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P. colchicus is closely related to the Green Pheasant, Phasianus versicolor (once considered a subspecies of P. colchicus) (BirdLife International, 2015c). Male P. versicolor are described as having green necks, breasts and upper bellies, and do not have the white neck ring (Switzer, 2011). Similar species in Europe include the Golden pheasant (Chrysolophus pictus), distinguished by its shyer nature, and very bright red underparts, yellow head and lower back and finely barred tail (RSPB, 2015), and Lady Amherst’s pheasant (Chrysolophus amherstiae), easily distinguished by its white underbelly, yellow lower back edged in red and bare blueish skin on the face and legs (RSPB, 2015; Heinzel et al., 1998).

Females and juveniles of P. colchicus could potentially be mistaken for other pheasants (or other species such as partridges, although the long pointed tail should set them apart).

Prevention and Control

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Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

There are no reports in the literature of any prevention and control measures against P. colchicus (even in Japan where P. c. karpowi is considered invasive), except for the suggestion in the USA that its introduction to public lands, along with that of other exotic species, should be prohibited to aid the recovery of the endangered Attwater's Greater Prairie-Chicken (Tympanuchus cupido attwateri) (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010). It is unlikely that the general public is aware of any issues with the bird as an introduced species, unless they are involved in activities where its presence would be noticed.

Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs

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Several gaps in knowledge regarding the impacts of game bird management on non-target species have been identified by Mustin et al. (2001), including: ecological, economic and social trade-offs; effects of medications on non-target organisms; effects of predator control; the persecution of raptors; and biodiversity impacts (at a landscape level) of the release of game birds.

References

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Aldous EW; Alexander DJ, 2008. Newcastle disease in pheasants (Phasianus colchicus): a review. Veterinary Journal, 175(2):181-185. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/10900233

Avibase, 2015. Avibase - the world bird database. http://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/avibase.jsp?lang=EN

Bagliacca M et al., 1996. Effect of dietary fibre content on intestinal development and metabolic profile in growing pheasants. Rivista di Avicoltura, 65:33-39.

Baratti M; Dessì-Fulgheri F; Ambrosini R; Bonisoli-Alquati A; Caprioli M; Goti E; Matteo A; Monnanni R; Ragionieri L; Ristori E; Romano M; Rubolini D; Scialpi A; Saino N, 2012. MHC genotype predicts mate choice in the ring-necked pheasant Phasianus colchicus. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 25(8):1531-1542. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1111/(ISSN)1420-9101

Benchiekh N, 1988. Réponse dirrecte et corrélée à une sélection pour la reproduction chez le fasian. DEA, Univ. Rennes, 68pp.

BirdLife International, 2015. Phasianus colchicus (Common Pheasant). European Red List of Birds. Supplementary Material. Luxembourg, Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 17 pp. http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/userfiles/file/Species/erlob/supplementarypdfs/45100023_phasianus_colchicus.pdf

BirdLife International, 2015. Phasianus colchicus (Linnaeus, 1758), European Red List Assessment. Cambridge, UK: BirdLife International, 3 pp. http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/userfiles/file/Species/erlob/summarypdfs/45100023_phasianus_colchicus.pdf

BirdLife International, 2015. Species factsheet: Phasianus colchicus. Cambridge, UK: BirdLife International. http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/speciesfactsheet.php?id=1016870

Boyer JP; Melin JM, 1974. Behavioral genetics: activity, growth and flying length in female pheasants - their significance. In: XV World Poultry Congress, 1974/08/11-16. New Orleans (USA), 262-263.

Briganti F; Papeschi A; Mugnai T; Dessi Fulgheri F, 1999. Effect of testosterone on male traits and behaviour in juvenile pheasants. Ethology, Ecology and Evolution, 11:171-178.

Castillo A; Romboli I; Marzoni M; Stanyon R, 2010. Karyotype of chicken-pheasant hybrids. Avian Biology Research, 3(1):17-21.

Cavanagh D; Mawditt K; Welchman D de B; Britton P; Gough RE, 2002. Coronaviruses from pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) are genetically closely related to coronaviruses of domestic fowl (infectious bronchitis virus) and turkeys. Avian Pathology, 31(1):81-93.

Cetin O; Kirikci K; Tepeli C, 1997. Breeding possibilities for pheasants (P. colchicus) under intensive conditions in a cold climate zone: 2. Growth and carcass characters. Veteriner Bilimleri Dergisi, 13(1):69-76; 24 ref.

Clements JF; Schulenberg TS; Iliff MJ; Robertson TA; Fredericks TA; Sullivan BL; Wood CL, 2014. The ebird/Clements checklist of birds of the world: Version 6.9. Ithaca, New York, USA: Cornell Lab of Ornithology. http://www.birds.cornell.edu/clementschecklist/download/

Delacour J, 1977. The Pheasants of the World. Alton, UK: Nimrod Press Ltd, 119-136.

Dik B; Uslu U, 2006. Cuclotogaster heterographus (Mallophaga: Lipeuridae) infestation on ring-necked pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) in Konya. (Konya'da halkali sülünlerde (Phasianus colchicus) Cuclotogaster heterographus (Mallophaga: Lipeuridae) enfestasyonu.) Türkiye Parazitoloji Dergisi, 30(2):125-127. http://www.tparazitolderg.org

Draycott RAH; Hoodless AN; Ludiman MN; Robertson PA, 1998. Effects of spring feeding on body condition of captive-reared ring-necked pheasants in Great Britain. Journal of Wildlife Management, 62(2):557-563; 26 ref.

Draycott RAH; Hoodless AN; Woodburn MIA; Sage RB, 2008. Nest predation of Common Pheasants Phasianus colchicus. Ibis (London), 150(s1):37-44. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/121384197/HTMLSTART

Draycott RAH; Pock K; Carroll JP, 2002. Sustainable management of a wild pheasant population in Austria. Zeitschrift für Jagdwissenschaft, 48(s1):346-353.

eBird, 2015. eBird. USA: Cornell Lab of Ornithology and National Audubon Society. http://ebird.org/content/ebird/

Eguchi K; Amano HE, 2004. Spread of exotic birds in Japan. Ornithological Science, 3(1):3-11.

Elphick J; Woodward J, 2003. Pocket Birds. London, UK: Dorling Kindersley.

Flegel CS, 1996. Genetic heterogeneity and differentiation resulting from Sichuan pheasant (Phasianus colchicus strauchi) introductions in southern Michigan [PhD Thesis]. East Lansing, Michigan, USA: University of Michigan.

Franco D; Lorenzo JM, 2013. Meat quality and nutritional composition of pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) reared in an extensive system. British Poultry Science, 54(5):594-602. http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/cbps20

Gassal S; Schmäschke R, 2006. The helminth and coccidial fauna of pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) in view of the specific environmental conditions in pheasantries and in the wild. (Zur Helminthen- und Kokzidienfauna des Jagdfasans (Phasianus colchicus) unter Berücksichtigung der spezifischen Umweltbedingungen in Fasanerien und in freier Wildbahn.) Berliner und Münchener Tierärztliche Wochenschrift, 119(7-8):295-302. https://vetline.de/8963056/150/3130/69443

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GBWF, 2012. Common Pheasant (Phasianus colchicus). http://www.gbwf.org/pheasants/phasianus_colchicus.html

Giesel JT; Brazeau D; Koppelman R; Shiver D, 1997. Ring-necked pheasant population genetic structure. Journal of Wildlife Management, 61:1332-1338.

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Guderley H; Jacques L, 1987. Liver specific pyruvate kinase in pheasants Phasianus colchicus. The International Journal of Biochemistry, 19(6):561-564.

GWCT (Game & Wildlife Conservation Trust), 2015. The impact of pheasant releases. Fordingbridge, UK: Game & Wildlife Conservation Trust. http://www.gwct.org.uk/game/research/species/pheasant/the-impact-of-pheasant-releases/

Hagen CA; Jamison BE; Robel RJ; Applegate RD, 2002. Ring-necked pheasant parasitism of lesser prairie-chicken nests in Kansas. Wilson Bulletin, 114(4):522-524.

Heinzel H; Fitter R; Parslow J, 1998. Birds of Britain and Europe with North Africa and the Middle East. London, UK: HarperCollins Publishers.

IUCN, 2015. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. http://www.iucnredlist.org/

Jaksic FM, 1998. Vertebrate invaders and their ecological impacts in Chile. Biodiversity and Conservation, 7(11):1427-1445.

Jørgensen PH; Handberg KJ; Ahrens P; Hansen HC; Manvell RJ; Alexander DJ, 1999. An outbreak of Newcastle disease in free-living pheasants (Phasianus colchicus). Journal of Veterinary Medicine. Series B, 46(6):381-387.

Kenward RE; Hall DG; Walls SS; Hodder KH, 2001. Factors affecting predation by buzzards Buteo buteo on released pheasants Phasianus colchicus. Journal of Applied Ecology, 38(4):813-822.

Kenward RE; Marcström V; Karlbom M, 1981. Goshawk winter ecology in Swedish pheasant habitats. The Journal of Wildlife Management, 45(2):397-408.

Kim DC; Yang YH, 1998. Heritability and genetic correlation of 20-week body weight and various body measurements in the growing period in Korean ring-necked pheasant. Korean Journal of Animal Science, 40:145-150.

Kozyrenko MM; Fisenko PV; Zhuravlev YuN, 2009. Genetic variation of Manchurian pheasant (Phasianus colchicus pallasi Rotshild, 1903) inferred from mitochondrial DNA control region sequences. Russian Journal of Genetics, 45(4):460-468. http://www.springerlink.com/content/vj3232k254k23r07/?p=a78690fe38094512a7f538616f03f051&pi=10

Kulikova IV; Chelomina GN; Zhuralev YN, 2002. RAPD-PCR analysis of genetic diversity in the Manchurian pheasant. Russian Journal of Genetics, 38(6):699-703.

Lee JungKeun; Choi JaeHoon; Lee DongWoo; Kim SunJoong; Fitzgerald SD; Lee YongSoon; Kim DaeYong, 2001. Marble spleen disease in pheasants in Korea. Journal of Veterinary Medical Science, 63(6):699-701.

Lever C, 2005. Naturalised birds of the world. London, UK: T & AD Poyser.

Li X; Ren Q; Kan X; Qian C; Li X; Qian M, 2013. Complete mitochondrial genome of the ring-necked pheasant, Phasianus colchicus (Galliformes: Phasianidae). Mitochondrial DNA, 24(2):89-90.

Mantovani C; Cerolini S; Mangiagalli MG; Bellagamba F; Rizzi R, 1993. Egg laying of caged pheasants in a controlled environment. Rivista di Avicoltura, 62(7-8):39-42; 14 ref.

Matthews TW; Taylor JS; Powell LA, 2012. Ring-necked pheasant hens select managed Conservation Reserve Program grasslands for nesting and brood-rearing. Journal of Wildlife Management, 76(8):1653-1660. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)1937-2817

McGowan PJK; Kirwan GM; Boesman P, 2013. Common Pheasant (Phasianus colchicus). Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive [ed. by Hoyo, J. del \Elliott, A. \Sargatal, J. \Christie, D. A. \Juana, E. de]. Barcelona, Spain: Lynx Edicions. http://www.hbw.com/species/common-pheasant-phasianus-colchicus

McLash TL, 2008. Ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) habitat selection in southeastern Alberta [MSc thesis]. Edmonton, Alberta, Canada: University of Alberta.

Melin JM; Damange JP, 1997. Gli allevamenti di selvaggina in Francia. Tocchini M, Banti P, Mori L, eds. Seminario di informazione: L'organizzazione dei servizi di gestione della fauna e della caccia in Francia. Arsia Firenze (Italy), 155-159.

Melin JM; Larbier M, 1988. Effect of the amount of protein in starter diets on growth and feathering performances in pheasants. Annales de Zootechnie, 37(3):143-50; 5 ref.

Mullin JM, 2000. Game Bird Propagation Wildlife System, edition 6. ISBN: 0-929902-00-10.

Mustin K; Newey S; Irvine J; Arroyo B; Redpath S, 2011. Biodiversity impacts of game bird hunting and associated management practices in Europe and North America. Aberdeen, UK: James Hutton Institute, 71 pp. http://www.hutton.ac.uk/sites/default/files/files/RSPB_ReportFINAL_Covers.pdf

NIES (National Institute for Environmental Studies), 2015. Invasive Species of Japan. Tsukuba, Japan: National Institute for Environmental Studies. http://www.nies.go.jp/biodiversity/invasive/index-en.html

PACEC (Public and Corporate Economic Consultants), 2012. The role of game shooting in Exmoor. Final Report. Cambridge, UK: Public and Corporate Economic Consultants, vii + 55 pp. http://www.exmoor-nationalpark.gov.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/271653/GESAPACECreport231006-3.pdf

Parrott D, 2015. Impacts and management of common buzzards Buteo buteo at pheasant Phasianus colchicus release pens in the UK: a review. European Journal of Wildlife Research, 61(2):181-197. http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10344-014-0893-1

Penkov V, 1996. On the fertility of the common pheasant (Phasianus colchicus L.). The game and the man. Proceedings International Union of Game Biologists 22nd congress Sofia, Bulgaria, 4-8 September 1995., 83-88; 8 ref.

Petitjean M; Bencheikh N; Malineau G, 1990. A study of the variability of standards for growth and fertility in pheasants. In: Control of fertility in domestic birds, Tours, France, 2-4 July 1990. Colloques de l'INRA, 1990, No. 54. Paris, France: Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, 157-165.

Qu J; Liu N; Bao X; Wong X, 2009. Phylogeography of the ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchius) in China. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 52(1):125-132.

Rak H; Anwar M; Niak A, 1975. The species of Mallophaga in wild birds in Iran. Bulletin de la Societe de Pathologie Exotique, 68(6):588-591.

Ricard FH; Petitjean MJ; Melin JM; Marche G; Malineau G, 1991. Growth rate and abdominal fat of young pheasants reared in aviaries or in confinement. Productions Animales, 4(2):117-121; 7 ref.

Riley TZ; Clark WR; Ewing DE; Vohs PA, 1998. Survival of ring-necked pheasant chicks during brood rearing. Journal of Wildlife Management, 62(1):36-44.

Rizzi R et al., 1994. Heritabilities and genetic correlations of conformation and plumage characteristics in pheasant (Phasianus colchicus). Poultry Science, 73:1204-1210.

Robertson PA, 1988. In: The Pheasants. Flegg and Chumphries. ISBN: 0-852639503.

RSPB (Royal Society for the Protection of Birds), 2015. Bird Guide. Sandy, UK: Royal Society for the Protection of Birds. http://www.rspb.org.uk/discoverandenjoynature/discoverandlearn/birdguide

Santilli F; Bagliacca M, 2011. Occurrence of eggs and oocysts of intestinal parasites of pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) in droppings collected in differently managed protected areas of Tuscany (Italy). European Journal of Wildlife Research, 58(1):369-372.

Schulze JE, 1992. Comparison of the bodily condition of artificially reared and free-living pheasants. Vergleichende Untersuchungen zur Kondition von menschenaufgezogenen und wild lebenden Fasanen (Phasianus colchicus L.)., 92 pp.; 99 ref.

Sfougaris AI; Nastis AS; Papageorgiou NK, 1996. Food resources and quality for the introduced Cretan wild goat or agrimi Capra aegagrus cretica on Atalandi Island, Greece, and implications for ecosystem management. Biological Conservation, 78(3):239-245.

Smart J; Amar A; Sim IMW; Etheridge B; Cameron D; Christie G; Wilson JD, 2010. Illegal killing slows population recovery of a re-introduced raptor of high conservation concern - the red kite Milvus milvus. Biological Conservation, 143(5):1278-1286. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V5X-4YR29J3-1&_user=10&_coverDate=05%2F31%2F2010&_rdoc=31&_fmt=high&_orig=browse&_srch=doc-info(%23toc%235798%232010%23998569994%231910715%23FLA%23display%23Volume)&_cdi=5798&_sort=d&_docanchor=&_ct=37&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=a061640bb8553c3f800ac21d5a09a11c

Sodeikat G; Niepel L; Fehlberg U; Pohlymeyer K, 1995. Comparative study on survival of released pheasants (Phasianus colchicus spec.) reared under intensive and extensive conditions. (Vergleichende Untersuchung zur Auswilderung und Überlebensfähigkeit von Jagdfasanen (Phasianus colchicus spec.) aus Intensiv- und Extensivhaltung.) Deutsche Tierärztliche Wochenschrift, 102(3):112-116.

Stoate C, 2002. Multifunctional use of a natural resource on farmland: wild pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) management and the conservation of farmland passerines. Biodiversity and Conservation, 11(4):561-573.

Switzer C, 2011. Phasianus colchicus. In: Animal Diversity Web. Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA: University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. http://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Phasianus_colchicus/

Tserveni Gousi AS; Yannakopoulos AL, 1990. Quality characteristics of pheasant eggs and effect of egg weight and shell quality on chick weight. Archiv fur Geflugelkunde, 54:54-56.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010. Attwater's Prairie-Chicken Recovery Plan, Second Revision. Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA: US Fish and Wildlife Service, ix + 107 pp.

Westerov K, 1986. Productivity of New-Zealand pheasants population. New Zealand Department of Internal Affairs. Wildlife Publications, 408:1-144.

Woodard AE; Vohra P; Danton V, 1993. Commercial and ornamental. Game bird breeders. Eds: Hancock House Publishers. ISBN: 0-88839-311-3.

Yang YH; Kim KI, 1993. Artificial light and improved feed formulation for pheasant production. II. Effect of artificial light control on fertility and hatchability. Korean Journal of Animal Sciences, 35:279-284.

Yang YH; Kim KI, 1993. Artificial light control and improved feed formulation for pheasant production. I. Effect of artificial light control on sexual maturity and egg production. Korean Journal of Animal Sciences, 35(4):271-277; 12 ref.

Yardley M, 2009. The history of the pheasant. The Field. http://www.thefield.co.uk/features/the-history-of-the-pheasant-22364

Zarringhabaie GE; Javanmard A; Pirahary O, 2012. Random amplified polymorphic markers as indicator for genetic conservation program in Iranian pheasant (Phasianus colchicus). The Scientific World Journal, 2012:article 640381. http://www.hindawi.com/journals/tswj/2012/640381/abs/

Zhang LiXun; An Bei; Backström N; Liu NaiFa, 2014. Phylogeography-based delimitation of subspecies boundaries in the common pheasant (Phasianus colchicus). Biochemical Genetics, 52(1/2):38-51. http://rd.springer.com/journal/10528

Distribution References

BirdLife International, 2015. Phasianus colchicus (Common Pheasant). In: European Red List of Birds. Supplementary Material, Luxembourg, Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. 17 pp. http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/userfiles/file/Species/erlob/supplementarypdfs/45100023_phasianus_colchicus.pdf

CABI, Undated. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI

CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI

Clements JF, Schulenberg TS, Iliff MJ, Roberson D, Fredericks TA, Sullivan BL, Wood CL, 2014. The eBird/Clements checklist of birds of the world: Version 6., http://www.birds.cornell.edu/clementschecklist/download/

eBird, 2015. eBird., USA: Cornell Lab of Ornithology and National Audubon Society. https://ebird.org/home

Eguchi K, Amano H E, 2004. Spread of exotic birds in Japan. Ornithological Science. 3 (1), 3-11. DOI:10.2326/osj.3.3

Flegel CS, 1996. Genetic heterogeneity and differentiation resulting from Sichuan pheasant (Phasianus colchicus strauchi) introductions in southern Michigan [PhD Thesis]., East Lansing, Michigan, USA: University of Michigan.

IUCN, 2015. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species., http://www.iucnredlist.org/

Jaksic F M, 1998. Vertebrate invaders and their ecological impacts in Chile. Biodiversity and Conservation. 7 (11), 1427-1445. DOI:10.1023/A:1008825802448

Jørgensen P H, Handberg K J, Ahrens P, Hansen H C, Manvell R J, Alexander D J, 1999. An outbreak of Newcastle disease in free-living pheasants (Phasianus colchicus). Journal of Veterinary Medicine. Series B. 46 (6), 381-387. DOI:10.1046/j.1439-0450.1999.00243.x

Kozyrenko M M, Fisenko P V, Zhuravlev Yu N, 2009. Genetic variation of Manchurian pheasant (Phasianus colchicus pallasi Rotshild, 1903) inferred from mitochondrial DNA control region sequences. Russian Journal of Genetics. 45 (4), 460-468. http://www.springerlink.com/content/vj3232k254k23r07/?p=a78690fe38094512a7f538616f03f051&pi=10 DOI:10.1134/S1022795409040115

Kulikova IV, Chelomina GN, Zhuralev YN, 2002. RAPD-PCR analysis of genetic diversity in the Manchurian pheasant. In: Russian Journal of Genetics, 38 (6) 699-703.

Lever C, 2005. Naturalised birds of the world. London, UK: T & AD Poyser.

Matthews T W, Taylor J S, Powell L A, 2012. Ring-necked pheasant hens select managed Conservation Reserve Program grasslands for nesting and brood-rearing. Journal of Wildlife Management. 76 (8), 1653-1660. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)1937-2817 DOI:10.1002/jwmg.410

McLash TL, 2008. Ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) habitat selection in southeastern Alberta [MSc thesis]., Canada, Edmonton, Alberta: University of Alberta.

NIES (National Institute for Environmental Studies), 2015. Invasive Species of Japan., Tsukuba, Japan: National Institute for Environmental Studies. http://www.nies.go.jp/biodiversity/invasive/index-en.html

Qu J, Liu N, Bao X, Wong X, 2009. Phylogeography of the ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchius) in China. In: Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 52 (1) 125-132.

Riley T Z, Clark W R, Ewing D E, Vohs P A, 1998. Survival of ring-necked pheasant chicks during brood rearing. Journal of Wildlife Management. 62 (1), 36-44. DOI:10.2307/3802262

Santilli F, Bagliacca M, 2011. Occurrence of eggs and oocysts of intestinal parasites of pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) in droppings collected in differently managed protected areas of Tuscany (Italy). In: European Journal of Wildlife Research, 58 (1) 369-372.

Sfougaris A I, Nastis A S, Papageorgiou N K, 1996. Food resources and quality for the introduced Cretan wild goat or agrimi Capra aegagrus cretica on Atalandi Island, Greece, and implications for ecosystem management. Biological Conservation. 78 (3), 239-245. DOI:10.1016/S0006-3207(96)00054-7

Sodeikat G, Niepel L, Fehlberg U, Pohlymeyer K, 1995. Comparative study on survival of released pheasants (Phasianus colchicus spec.) reared under intensive and extensive conditions. (Vergleichende Untersuchung zur Auswilderung und Überlebensfähigkeit von Jagdfasanen (Phasianus colchicus spec.) aus Intensiv- und Extensivhaltung.). Deutsche Tierärztliche Wochenschrift. 102 (3), 112-116.

Stoate C, 2002. Multifunctional use of a natural resource on farmland: wild pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) management and the conservation of farmland passerines. Biodiversity and Conservation. 11 (4), 561-573. DOI:10.1023/A:1015564806990

Switzer C, 2011. Phasianus colchicus. In: Animal Diversity Web, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA: University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. http://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Phasianus_colchicus/

Zarringhabaie GE, Javanmard A, Pirahary O, 2012. Random amplified polymorphic markers as indicator for genetic conservation program in Iranian pheasant (Phasianus colchicus). In: The Scientific World Journal, 2012:article 640381, http://www.hindawi.com/journals/tswj/2012/640381/abs/

Zhang LiXun, An Bei, Backström N, Liu NaiFa, 2014. Phylogeography-based delimitation of subspecies boundaries in the common pheasant (Phasianus colchicus). Biochemical Genetics. 52 (1/2), 38-51. http://rd.springer.com/journal/10528 DOI:10.1007/s10528-013-9626-5

Links to Websites

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Website	URL	Comment
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway	https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6	Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list.
Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS)	http://griis.org/	Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list.

Principal Source

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Draft datasheet under review

Contributors

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07/06/15 Original text for Invasive Species Compendium sections by:

Vicki Cottrell, consultant, UK

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Datasheet

Phasianus colchicus (common pheasant)

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