Petiveria alliacea
(guinea hen weed)

Pictures

Picture	Title	Caption	Copyright
Title Habit and flower Caption Habit and flower of Petiveria alliacea Copyright ©Smithsonian Institution/Pedro Acevedo	Habit and flower	Habit and flower of Petiveria alliacea	©Smithsonian Institution/Pedro Acevedo

Identity

Preferred Scientific Name

• Petiveria alliacea L., 1753

Preferred Common Name

• guinea hen weed

Other Scientific Names

• Petiveria alliacea var. grandifolia Moq.
• Petiveria alliacea var. octandra (L.) Moq.
• Petiveria corrientina Rojas
• Petiveria hexandria Sessé & Moc.
• Petiveria ochroleuca Moq.
• Petiveria octandra L.
• Petiveria paraguayensis D. Parodi

International Common Names

• English: Congo root; garlic weed; Guinea hen plant; Guinea-hen weed; gully root; skunk root; skunk weed; strong man's weed
• Spanish: ajillo; anamú; apacina; epasina; hierba gallinita; hierba zorrillo; hoja de zorrillo; ipasina; mapurite; pipí; zorrillo
• French: chasse vermine; chasser vermine; feuilles avé; herbe aux poules; pétivere à odeur d’ail; verveine puante

Local Common Names

• Argentina: calauchín; mikura; sinikila
• Bahamas: garlic-weed; obeah-bush
• Brazil: erva guiné; guiné; mucuracá; tipí
• Dominican Republic: avé; huevo de gato; mal pourri
• El Salvador: hierba de toro
• Guatemala: apacin
• Haiti: avette
• Honduras: ipacina
• Lesser Antilles: conga root; cudjoe root; dandail; danday; douvan neg; douvant-negre; fey douvan; garlic root; gonga root; kudjoe root; marie purie; mawi pouwi; strong man bush
• Mexico: carricillo silvestre; japachumi
• Peru: chanvico; mucura; sacha ajo

Summary of Invasiveness

P. alliacea is a herbaceous perennial herb, with medicinal properties, included in the Global Compendium of Weeds (Randall, 2012). Within its native distribution range, this species is a common weed in pastures, agricultural lands, waste areas, roadsides, and riverbanks. It is listed as an “agricultural weed” in Mexico, Cuba, Colombia, Brazil, Puerto Rico, and Central America where it affects mainly coffee and maize plantations (Cardenas and Coulston, 1967; Garcia et al., 1975; Más and Lugo, 2013). Seeds of P. alliacea can be easily dispersed at local and long-distances attached to animals’ fur and feathers and human clothes by spiky hooks and barbed projections present in the fruits (Mori and Brown, 1998; Nienaber and Thieret, 2003). The species is a fast-growing herb with a wide environmental tolerance which may aid its survival as a successful weed.

Taxonomic Tree

• Domain: Eukaryota
•     Kingdom: Plantae
•         Phylum: Spermatophyta
•             Subphylum: Angiospermae
•                 Class: Dicotyledonae
•                     Order: Caryophyllales
•                         Family: Phytolaccaceae
•                             Genus: Petiveria
•                                 Species: Petiveria alliacea

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Phytolaccaceae is a small family of flowering plants including 18 genera and 65 species of trees, shrubs, herbs, and vines, mostly distributed in tropical and warm temperate areas principally in America, but also in Tropical Africa, Tropical Asia, and Australia (Stevens, 2012). Taxonomic delimitation of the family Phytolaccaceae has been a matter of debate. Although for many botanists Phytolaccaceae clearly belongs to the Caryophyllales, there is a debate about its circumscription and exact position (Nienaber and Thieret, 2003; Steinmann, 2013). Recently, some genera historically considered within the family have been segregated as separate families. For example, the North American genus Stegnosperma is now considered in the monogeneric family Stegnospermataceae. Similarly the Old World genera Barbeuia and Gisekia are now treated as the families Barbeuiaceae and Gisekiaceae (Steinmann, 2013). The New World genera Achatocarpus and Phaulothamnus were recognized by some specialists as members of Phytolaccaceae, but these genera are now treated in the family Achatocarpaceae. Even with these genera removed, controversy exists, and the core of the family is sometimes additionally divided into two families (Steinmann, 2013):

1. Phytolaccaceae: characterized by ovary of 3-16 carpels, corresponding to subfamiles Agdestioideae and Phytolaccoideae.
2.  Petiveriaceae: characterized by ovary of one carpel, corresponding to subfamilies Rivinioideae and Microteoideae.

The Plant List (2013) places the genus Petiveria still within the Phytolaccaceae, which is the taxonomic status used for this datasheet. P. alliacea is the only accepted species name within the genus in The Plant List (2013), although the infraspecific taxon P. alliacea var. tetrandra (Ortega) Hauman is also listed as accepted.

Description

P. alliacea is a herbaceous plant, stems erect, up to 1 m tall, pubescent to glabrate. Leaves are alternate, simple and entire, stipules 2 mm; petiole 0.4-2 cm; blade elliptic to oblong or obovate, to 20 × 7 cm, base acute to cuneate, apex acuminate or acute to obtuse or rounded. Leaves and stems with garlic smell. Inflorescences often drooping distally, 0.8-4 dm; peduncle 1-4 cm; pedicel 0.5-2 mm. Flowers are bisexual, zygomorphic, slightly imbricate to rather remote; sepals white or greenish to pinkish, linear-lanceolate to linear-oblong, 3.5-6 mm; ovary superior. Fruits are narrowly oblong achenes subtended by persistent bracts and perianth, 6-8 mm long, striate with recurved hooks, 1 seed (Nienaber and Thieret, 2003; Alegre and Clavo, 2007).

Plant Type

Distribution

P. alliacea is native to America: North America (i.e., Florida and Texas), Mexico, Central America, the West Indies, and South America. It has been introduced in India and tropical Africa (Benin, Burundi, Nigeria, and Democratic Republic of Congo; Alegre and Clavo, 2007; Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2012; Pauwels, 2012; USDA-ARS, 2012), and is grown as a medicinal herb.

Distribution Table

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Risk of Introduction

The risk of introduction of P. alliacea is high. In Latin America and the West Indies, this species is commonly cultivated to be used in traditional herbal medicine and ritual ceremonies. It is also frequently used in Yoruba magical rituals in Brazil, Cuba, and tropical Africa (Alegre and Clavo, 2007). Within its native distribution range, P. alliacea behaves as a weed and its seeds may be easily dispersed, favouring the probability of colonizing new areas.

Habitat

Within its native distribution range P. alliacea is very common in disturbed areas, edges of humid forests, along roadsides, riverbanks, pastures, and gardens. This species can also be found growing as a weed in plantations, farming areas, and pastureland (Alegre and Clavo, 2007; Vibrans, 2009; Más and Lugo, 2013). In West Africa it is found in gardens, forest edges, and disturbed localities near human settlements (Alegre and Clavo, 2007).

Habitat List

Hosts/Species Affected

P. alliacea is considered an “agricultural weed” in coffee, maize, and apple plantations in Mexico, Cuba, Colombia, Brazil, Puerto Rico, and Central America. It is also listed as a weed in pasturelands and secondary forests (Cardenas and Coulston, 1967; Garcia et al., 1975; Más and Lugo, 2013).

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

Growth Stages

Biology and Ecology

Genetics

Chromosome number in P. alliacea is 2n = 34 (Cherian and Kuriachan, 1986). 

Physiology and Phenology

In Florida and Texas, P. alliacea reproduces all year around (Nienaber and Thieret, 2003). In Mexico, this species also reproduces all year around but with peaks in flowering and fruiting activity occurring during September-October (Vibrans, 2009). In Central America it has been recorded flowering and fruiting from July to January (Stevens, 2001). 

Associations               

P. alliacea is frequently associated to riparian vegetation, deciduous forest vegetation, secondary wet forests, grasslands, and pasturelands (Vibrans, 2009; Más and Lugo, 2013). 

Environmental Requirements

P. alliacea grows in warm and moist to dry climates at elevations from sea level to 1300 m. It is adapted to a widely variety of substrates but prefers to grow in well-drained and fertile soils (Nienaber and Thieret, 2003; Vibrans, 2009).

Climate

Air Temperature

Rainfall

Rainfall Regime

Soil Tolerances

Soil drainage

• free

Soil reaction

• acid
• neutral

Soil texture

• light
• medium

Special soil tolerances

• shallow

Means of Movement and Dispersal

Alegre and Clavo (2007) suggest that seeds of P. alliacea in South America are wind-dispersed. However, other authors suggest that seeds are dispersed by animals when seeds attach to fur and feathers. P. alliacea fruits (achenes) have spiky hooks and barbed projections which facilitate dispersal by sticking to animal fur, feathers or human clothing (Mori and Brown, 1998; Nienaber and Thieret, 2003).

Pathway Causes

Pathway Vectors

Impact Summary

Economic Impact

P. alliacea may cause dermatitis in humans and taints the milk and meat of animals that graze on it and may also induce abortion (Nienaber and Thieret, 2003; Más and Lugo, 2013). When this species is fed to animals on a regular basis it may cause adverse reactions. The plant can accumulate nitrates and may cause nitrate poisoning in cattle (Alegre and Clavo, 2007). P. alliacea is a common weed in coffee, maize, and apple plantations as well as in pasturelands and natural forests (Cardenas and Coulston, 1967; Garcia et al., 1975; Vibrans, 2009; Más and Lugo, 2013).

Risk and Impact Factors

• Invasive in its native range
• Has a broad native range
• Abundant in its native range
• Is a habitat generalist
• Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
• Pioneering in disturbed areas
• Tolerant of shade
• Highly mobile locally
• Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
• Fast growing
• Has high reproductive potential

• Monoculture formation
• Negatively impacts agriculture
• Damages animal/plant products

• Causes allergic responses
• Competition - monopolizing resources
• Competition - smothering
• Induces hypersensitivity
• Rapid growth
• Produces spines, thorns or burrs

• Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
• Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
• Highly likely to be transported internationally illegally

Uses

P. alliacea is a very important plant in traditional Latin America herbal medicine where it is used as an anti-rheumatic, anti-inflammatory, to treat fever, headache, diabetes, malaria, arthritis, skin allergies, cancer, and to induce abortions (Pérez-Leal et al., 2006). Studies have demonstrated that it has biologically active compounds such as benzaldehyde, benzoic acid, benzyl 2-hydroxyethyl trisulphide, coumarin, isoarborinol, isoarborinol acetate, isoarborinol cinnamate, isothiocyanates, polyphenols, senfol, tannins, and trithiolaniacine, many of which show antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and immunological activity (Pérez-Leal et al., 2006; Alegre and Clavo, 2007). The leaves of P. alliacea have a strong garlic-like odour when crushed, and in some areas of tropical America it serves as an insect and bat repellent, and as an acaridice (Nienaber and Thieret, 2003; Pérez-Leal et al., 2006). In Latin America and the West Indies, it is commonly used by “medicine men” in ritual ceremonies. In Brazil, Cuba, and tropical Africa it is important in Yoruba magical rituals (Alegre and Clavo, 2007).

Uses List

Drugs, stimulants, social uses

• Religious

Environmental

• Amenity

General

• Ritual uses

Medicinal, pharmaceutical

• Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
• Traditional/folklore

Prevention and Control

Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

There is little published information on control of P. alliacea. Caro et al. (1985) reported good control of weeds including P. alliacea in a coffee plantation from a single post-emergence application of diuron + paraquat.

References

Acevedo-Rodríguez P; Strong MT, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, 98:1192 pp. Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm

Acuna GJ, 1974. [English title not available]. (Plantas Indeseables en Los Cultivos Cubanos. Academia de Ciencias, Insitituto de Investigaciones de Cuba, Havana, in GCW, 2007.) Eichhornia azurea (Pontederiaceae) Global Compendium of Weeds. http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/eichhornia_azurea/

Alegre JC; Clavo M, 2007. Petiveria alliacea L. Record from PROTA4U. PROTA (Plant Resources of Tropical Africa) [ed. by Schmelzer, G. H. \Gurib-Fakim, A.]. Wageningen, Netherlands: PROTA. http://www.prota4u.org/search.asp

Balick MJ; Nee M; Atha DE, 2000. Checklist of the vascular plants of Belize. Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden, 85:1-246.

Broome R; Sabir K; Carrington S, 2007. Plants of the Eastern Caribbean. Online database. Barbados: University of the West Indies. http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/index.html

Cardenas J; Coulston L, 1967. Weeds: A List of Common and Scientific Names for Brazil, Colombia, Puerto Rico, and Central America.

Caro P; Huepp G; Ramos R, 1985. Chemical weed control in coffee plantations over two years old planted in mountain areas under shade. (Control químico de malezas en plantaciones de café con más de dos años de plantados en condiciones de montaña y bajo sombra.) Ciencia y Técnica en la Agricultura, Café y Cacao, 7(1):7-16.

Cherian M; Kuriachan PI, 1986. Cytotaxonomy of two species of Phtyolaccaceae. Current Science, 55:1099-1100.

Correa A; Galdames MDC; Stapf MNS, 2004. Catalogue of vascular plants of Panama (Catalogo de Plantas Vasculares de Panama.), Panama: Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, 599 pp.

Correll DS; Correll HB, 1982. Flora of the Bahama Archipelago. Vaduz, Germany: J. Cramer, 1692 pp.

Forzza RC; Leitman PM; Costa AF; Carvalho Jr AA, et al. , 2012. List of species of the Flora of Brazil (Lista de espécies Flora do Brasil). Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Rio de Janeiro Botanic Garden. http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/2012/

Funk V; Hollowell T; Berry P; Kelloff C; Alexander SN, 2007. Checklist of the plants of the Guiana Shield (Venezuela: Amazonas, Bolivar, Delta Amacuro; Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana). Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, 584 pp.

Garcia JGL; MacBryde B; Molina AT; Herrera-MacBryde O, 1975. Prevalent Weeds of Central America. Malezas Prevalentes de America Central. International Plant Protection Centre, 162 pp.

Graveson R, 2012. Plants of Saint Lucia. http://www.saintlucianplants.com

Hatch SL; Gandhi KN; Brown LE, 1990. Checklist of the Vascular Plants of Texas. Texas, USA: Texas Agricultural Experiment Station.

Idárraga-Piedrahita A; Ortiz RDC; Callejas Posada R; Merello M, 2011. Flora de Antioquia. Catálogo de las Plantas Vasculares, vol. 2. Listado de las Plantas Vasculares del Departamento de Antioquia ([English title not available]). 939 pp.

Jørgensen PM; León-Yànez S, 1999. Catalogue of the vascular plants of Ecuador. Monogr. Syst. Bot. Missouri Bot. Gard, 75. i-viii, 1-1182.

Liogier HA, 1998. Flora of Puerto Rico and Adjacent Islands. A Systematic Synopsis. San Juan, Puerto Rico: Universidad de Puerto Rico.

Más EG; Lugo MLT, 2013. Common Weeds in Puerto Rico & U.S Virgin Islands., Puerto Rico: University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez Campus, 395 pp.

Molina RA, 1975. Enumeration of the plants of Honduras. (Enumeración de las plantas de Honduras) Ceiba, 19(1):1-118.

Morales JF, 2007. Phytolaccaceae. Monographs in Systematic Botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden, 111:894-902. [Manual de Plantas de Costa Rica. Vol. 6.]

Mori SA; Brown JL, 1998. Epizoochorous dispersal by barbs, hooks, and spines in a lowland moist forest in central French Guiana. Brittonia 50: 2, 165-173.

Nienaber MA; Thieret JW, 2003. Phytoloccaceae. In: Flora of North America north of Mexico, 4 [ed. by Flora of North America Editorial Committee]. New York and Oxford: Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 3-5.

Pauwels L, 2012. Plantes cultivées et/ou exotiques en Afrique Centrale: R.D. Congo-Rwanda-Burindi ([English title not available]). http://users.telenet.be/cr28796/CultAfrC.htm

Pérez-Leal R; García-Mateos MR; Martínez-Vásquez M; Soto-Hernández M, 2006. Cytotoxic and antioxidant activity of Petiveria alliacea L. (Actividad citotóxica y antioxidante de Petiveria alliacea L.) Revista Chapingo. Serie Horticultura, 12(1):51-56.

Randall RP, 2012. A Global Compendium of Weeds. Perth, Australia: Department of Agriculture and Food Western Australia, 1124 pp. http://www.cabi.org/isc/FullTextPDF/2013/20133109119.pdf

Steinmann VW, 2013. Phytolaccaceae. Neotropikey - Interactive key and information resources for flowering plants of the Neotropics [ed. by Milliken, W. \Klitgard, B. \Baracat, \A.]. http://www.kew.org/science/tropamerica/neotropikey/families/Phytolaccaceae.htm

Stevens PF, 2012. Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/

Stevens WD, 2001. Phytolaccaceae. Monographs in Systematic Botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden, 85(3):1924-1928. [Flora de Nicaragua.]

The Plant List, 2013. The Plant List: a working list of all plant species. Version 1.1. London, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://www.theplantlist.org

USDA-ARS, 2013. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx

Vibrans H, 2009. Malezas de México- Pennisetum purpureum ([English title not available]). http://www.conabio.gob.mx/malezasdemexico/poaceae/pennisetum-purpureum/fichas/ficha.htm

Villaseñor JL; Espinosa-Garcia FJ, 1998. Catálogo de malezas de México ([English title not available])., Mexico: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.

Wunderlin RP; Hansen BF, 2008. Atlas of Florida Vascular Plants. Tampa, Florida, USA: University of South Florida. http://www.plantatlas.usf.edu/

Zuloaga FO; Morrone O; Belgrano MJ, 2008. Catálogo de las Plantas Vasculares del Cono Sur (Argentina, Sur de Brasil, Chile, Paraguay y Uruguay). Volumen 1: Pteridophyta, Gymnospermae y Monocotyledoneae (Catalogue of the vascular plants of the southern cone (Argentina, southern Brazil, Chile, Paraguay and Uruguay). Volume 1: Pteridophyta, Gymnospermae and Monocotyledoneae) [ed. by Zuloaga FO, Morrone O, Belgrano MJ]. St. Louis, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden Press, 983 pp.

Distribution References

Acevedo-Rodríguez P, Strong M T, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Washington, DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. 1192 pp. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm

Acuna G J, 1974. [English title not available]. (Plantas Indeseables en Los Cultivos Cubanos. Eichhornia azurea (Pontederiaceae).). In: Plantas Indeseables en Los Cultivos Cubanos. Eichhornia azurea (Pontederiaceae). Havana, Cuba: Academia de Ciencias, Insitituto de Investigaciones de Cuba. http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/eichhornia_azurea/

Alegre JC, Clavo M, 2007. Petiveria alliacea L. Record from PROTA4U. In: PROTA (Plant Resources of Tropical Africa), Wageningen, Netherlands: PROTA. http://www.prota4u.org/search.asp

Anon, 1999. Catalogue of the vascular plants of Ecuador. [ed. by Jørgensen P M, León-Yànez S]. Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. viii + 1182 pp.

Balick MJ, Nee M, Atha DE, 2000. Checklist of the vascular plants of Belize. In: Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden, 85 1-246.

Broome R, Sabir K, Carrington S, 2007. Plants of the Eastern Caribbean., Barbados: University of the West Indies. http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/index.html

CABI, Undated. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI

CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI

Cardenas J, Coulston L, 1967. Weeds: A List of Common and Scientific Names for Brazil, Colombia, Puerto Rico, and Central America.,

Correa A, Galdames MDC, Stapf MNS, 2004. Catalogue of vascular plants of Panama. (Catalogo de Plantas Vasculares de Panama)., Panama: Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute. 599 pp.

Correll DS, Correll HB, 1982. Flora of the Bahama Archipelago., Vaduz, Germany: J Cramer. 1692 pp.

Forzza RC, Leitman PM, Costa AF, Carvalho Jr AA et al, 2012. List of species of the Flora of Brazil. (Lista de espécies Flora do Brasil)., Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Rio de Janeiro Botanic Garden. http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/2012/

Funk V, Hollowell T, Berry P, Kelloff C, Alexander S N, 2007. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, Washington, USA: Department of Systematic Biology - Botany, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution. 55, 584 pp.

Garcia J G L, MacBryde B, Molina A T, Herrera-MacBryde O, 1975. Prevalent Weeds of Central America. (Malezas Prevalentes de America Central.). In: Malezas Prevalentes de America Central. International Plant Protection Centre. vi + 162 pp.

Graveson R, 2012. Plants of Saint Lucia., http://www.saintlucianplants.com

Hatch SL, Gandhi KN, Brown LE, 1990. Checklist of the Vascular Plants of Texas., Texas, USA: Texas Agricultural Experiment Station.

Idárraga-Piedrahita A, Ortiz RDC, Callejas Posada R, Merello M, 2011. [English title not available]. (Flora de Antioquia). In: Catálogo de las Plantas Vasculares, 2 Listado de las Plantas Vasculares del Departamento de Antioquia. 939 pp.

Liogier HA, 1998. Flora of Puerto Rico and Adjacent Islands. In: A Systematic Synopsis, San Juan, Puerto Rico: Universidad de Puerto Rico.

Más EG, Lugo MLT, 2013. Common Weeds in Puerto Rico & U.S Virgin Islands., Puerto Rico: University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez Campus. 395 pp.

Molina R A, 1975. Enumeration of the plants of Honduras. (Enumeración de las plantas de Honduras). Ceiba. 19 (1), 1-118.

Morales JF, 2007. Phytolaccaceae. In: Monographs in Systematic Botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden, 111 894-902.

Pauwels L, 2012. [English title not available]. (Plantes cultivées et/ou exotiques en Afrique Centrale: R.D. Congo-Rwanda-Burindi)., http://users.telenet.be/cr28796/CultAfrC.htm

Stevens WD, 2001. Phytolaccaceae. In: Monographs in Systematic Botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden [Flora de Nicaragua.], 85 (3) 1924-1928.

USDA-ARS, 2013. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx

Vibrans H, 2009. [English title not available]. (Malezas de México- Pennisetum purpureum)., http://www.conabio.gob.mx/malezasdemexico/poaceae/pennisetum-purpureum/fichas/ficha.htm

Villaseñor JL, Espinosa-Garcia FJ, 1998. [English title not available]. (Catálogo de malezas de México)., Mexico: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.

Wunderlin RP, Hansen BF, 2008. Atlas of Florida Vascular Plants., Tampa, Florida, USA: University of South Florida. http://www.plantatlas.usf.edu/

Zuloaga F O, Morrone O, Belgrano M J, 2008. Catálogo de las Plantas Vasculares del Cono Sur (Argentina, Sur de Brasil, Chile, Paraguay y Uruguay). Volumen 1: Pteridophyta, Gymnospermae y Monocotyledoneae. [ed. by Zuloaga F O, Morrone O, Belgrano M J]. St. Louis, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden Press. xcvi + 983 pp.

Links to Websites

Contributors

15/07/13 Original text by:

Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA

Pedro Acevedo-Rodríguez, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA

Distribution Maps