Salvelinus namaycush (lake trout)

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Adult

Salvelinus namaycush (lake trout); fisherman holding an adult lake trout, which is in spawning dress.

PD-USGOV-INTERIOR-FWS.

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Salvelinus namaycush (Walbaum, 1792)

Preferred Common Name

lake trout

Other Scientific Names

Cristivomer namaycush (Walbaum, 1792)
Cristivomer namaycush Walbaum, 1792
Cristovomer namayacush (Walbaum, 1792)
Cristovomer namayacush Walbaum, 1792
Salmo amethystinus Mitchill, 1818
Salmo amethystinus Mitchill, 1818
Salmo amethystus Mitchill, 1818
Salmo amethystus Mitchill, 1818
Salmo confinis DeKay, 1842
Salmo confinis DeKay, 1842
Salmo ferox Perley, 1852
Salmo ferox Perley, 1852
Salmo namaycush Walbaum, 1792
Salmo namaycush Walbaum, 1792
Salmo pallidus Rafinesque, 1817
Salmo pallidus Rafinesque, 1817
Salvelinus namaycush Walbaum, 1792

International Common Names

English: char; great lake trout; great Lakes char; great Lakes trout; grey trout; lake charr; lake trout; laker; landlocked salmon; mackinaw; mackinaw trout; masamacush; mountain trout; namaycush; salmon trout; siscowet; taque; togue; touladi
Spanish: trucha lacustre; trucha lacustre
French: cristivomer; omble d'Amérique; omble du Canada; Omble du Canada; touladi; truite de lac d'Amérique; truite grise
Russian: severoamerikanskiy kristivomer

Local Common Names

Argentina: trucha de lago
Austria: Amerikanischer Seesaibling; lake trout
Canada: Great Lakes char; Great Lakes trout; grey trout; idlorak; idlorak; ihok; ihok; iIuuraq; iIuuraq; ikhlorak; ikhlorak; ilortoq; ilortoq; islorak; islorak; isok; isok; isuuq; isuuq; isuuqiaq; isuuqiaq; isuuqiq; isuuqiq; isuuraaryuk; isuuraaryuk; isuuraq; isuuraq; ivitaruk; ivitaruk; keyteeleek; keyteeleek; lake charr; lake trout; laker; mackinaw trout; masamacush; mountain trout; naaqtuuq; naaqtuuq; näluarryuk; näluarryuk; Näluarryuk; namaycush; namekus; namekus; nauktoq; nauktoq; nemakos; nemakos; nemeks; nemeks; némèkus; némèkus; salmon trout; sigguayaq; sigguayaq; siscowet; siuktuuk; siyuktuuq; taque; togue; Touladi; truite grise
Canada/British Columbia: hupin; k'wit'thet; k'wsech; shamet skelex; shmexwalsh; sk'wel'eng's schaanexw; slhop' schaanexw; spak'ws schaanexw
Canada/Quebec: ikhiloktok; ishioraliktâq; milaqkkâyoq
Czech Republic: siven obrovký; siven obrovký
Denmark: amerikansk søørred; Amerikansk søørred; canadarødding; Canadarødding; canadarøding; Canadarøding; kanadarødding; Kanadarødding; kanadarøding; Kanadarøding
Finland: harmaanieriä; harmaanieriä
France: cristivomer; omble d'Amérique; Omble du Canada; truite de lac d'Amérique
Germany: Amerikanische Seeforelle
Greenland: iclook; iclook; iqluq; iqluq
Iceland: murta; murta
Italy: trota di lago americana; trota di lago americana
New Zealand: mackinaw trout
Norway: canadaröye; Canadaröye; Canadarøye
Portugal: salvelino-lacustre; salvelino-lacustre; truta-do-lago; truta-do-lago
Russian Federation: severoamerikanskiy kristivomer
Serbia: pastrva
Slovakia: sivon velký; sivon velký
Spain: trucha lacustre
Sweden: canadaröding; Canadaröding; kanadaröding; Kanadaröding
Switzerland: amerikanische Seeforelle; Amerikanische Seeforelle
UK: great lake trout; grey trout; lake trout; namaycush; togue; touladi
USA: great lake trout; lake trout; siscowet
USA/Alaska: akalukpik; akalukpik; col-lic-puk; col-lic-puk; ikalukpik; ikalukpik; lake trout
Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro): pastrva

Summary of Invasiveness

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S. namaycush is a freshwater fish native to North America. It has been introduced to other areas within North America and to South America, Europe, New Zealand and Japan. It is a highly piscovourous top predator (Fuller, 2007) and competes with native fish for habitat and food. S. namaycush has been reported to be responsible for the decline numerous populations of cutthroat trout Oncorhynchus clarkii and has been reported to prey heavily on the Utah chub Gila atraria (Teuscher and Luecke, 1996). Predation by lake trout has been shown to be a major factor in the decline of kokanee O. nerka in Lake Chelan, Washington (Schoen et al., 2012).

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Metazoa
Phylum: Chordata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Salmoniformes
Family: Salmonidae
Genus: Salvelinus
Species: Salvelinus namaycush

Description

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S. namaycush has a deeply forked caudal fin and a slate grey to greenish body with lighter undersides. Cream to yellow spots are generally present on the head, body and dorsal and caudal fins. The lower fins tend to be orange-red with a narrow white edge. The species has nine to twelve gill rakers. Breeding males will develop a dark stripe on their sides temporarily (Lenart, 2001).

The average weight of S. namaycush is about 3 kg, but individuals can grow to up 27 kg under appropriate conditions (Hubert et al., 1994). Average length of S. namaycush varies from 45 to 68 cm (Scott and Crossman, 1973).

Distribution

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In its native range, S. namaycush is widely distributed from northern Canada to New England and the Great Lakes basin (Page and Burr, 1991). Its established introduced range within North America includes the US states of California, Colorado, Idaho, Massachusetts, North Dakota, South Dakota, Washington and Wyoming. S. namaycush has been introduced into other countries such as Argentina, Austria, Bolivia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Morocco, New Zealand, Norway, Peru, Slovakia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom.

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 10 Feb 2022

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	First Reported	Reference	Notes
Africa
Morocco	Present	Introduced	1953	Seebens et al. (2017)
Antarctica
French Southern Territories	Present	Introduced	1961	Seebens et al. (2017)	Original location reported: Kerguelen Islands
Asia
Japan	Present	Introduced	1904	Seebens et al. (2017) Welcomme (1988)
Europe
Austria	Present	Introduced	1962	Seebens et al. (2017) AFMAFEWM (2011)
Czechia	Present	Introduced	1972	Seebens et al. (2017)
Denmark	Present	Introduced	1961	Seebens et al. (2017) Welcomme (1988)
Finland	Present	Introduced	1955	Seebens et al. (2017) Koli (1990)
France	Present	Introduced	1886	Seebens et al. (2017) Keith and Allardi (2001)
Germany	Present	Introduced	1883	Seebens et al. (2017) Welcomme (1988)
Italy	Present	Native		Bianco and Ketmaier (2001)
Norway	Present	Introduced	1897	Seebens et al. (2017) FAO (1997)
Slovakia	Present	Introduced		Welcomme (1988)
Sweden	Present	Introduced	1899	Seebens et al. (2017) Welcomme (1988)
Switzerland	Present	Introduced	1888	Seebens et al. (2017)
United Kingdom	Present	Introduced	1870	Seebens et al. (2017) Welcomme (1988)
North America
Canada	Present	Native		Scott and Crossman (1973) Seebens et al. (2017)
-British Columbia	Present	Native		Froese and Pauly (2004)
-Newfoundland and Labrador	Present	Native		Froese and Pauly (2004)
-Quebec	Present	Native		Froese and Pauly (2004)
United States	Present			Page and Burr (1991)
-Alaska	Present	Native		Morrow (1980)
Oceania
New Zealand	Present	Introduced		Seebens et al. (2017) McDowall (1984)	First reported: 1901 - 1902
South America
Argentina	Present	Introduced	1904	Seebens et al. (2017) Welcomme (1988)
Bolivia	Present	Introduced	1936	Seebens et al. (2017) Welcomme (1988)
Chile	Present	Introduced	1949	Seebens et al. (2017)
Peru	Present	Introduced	1939	Seebens et al. (2017) Welcomme (1988)

History of Introduction and Spread

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S. namaycush has been intentionally stocked as a sport fish in the majority of its introductions, though Kaeding et al. (1996) suggested that it was illegally introduced into Yellowstone Lake, Wyoming, USA.

In the Great Lakes of North America, part of its native range, S. namaycush has been stocked to restore populations that had been severely reduced by the sea lamprey.

Introductions

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Introduced to	Introduced from	Year	Reason	Introduced by	Established in wild through		References	Notes
Introduced to	Introduced from	Year	Reason	Introduced by	Natural reproduction	Continuous restocking	References	Notes
Argentina	USA	1904			Yes
Bolivia	USA	1936			No
Czech Republic	Norway	1972			No
Denmark	Sweden	1961			No
Denmark	USA	1961			No
Finland	USA	1955
France	USA	1963-1978
France	North America	1886			No
Germany	Switzerland	1888			Yes
Germany	USA	1888			Yes
Japan	USA	1904			Yes
Morocco	Canada
New Zealand	USA	1901-1902
Newfoundland and Labrador	Ontario	1886-1893			No
Norway		1971			Yes
Peru	USA	1940
Sweden	North America	1959			Yes
Switzerland	USA	1888			Yes
UK	USA	1928			No

Risk of Introduction

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S. namaycush has been intentionally stocked as a sport fish in the majority of its introductions, and since it is still stocked intentionally this remains the most likely pathway for new introductions.

Habitat

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S. namaycush is a cold-water species, preferring temperatures below 13°C and requiring relatively high concentrations of dissolved oxygen for survival (Ryan, 1994). S. namaycush is the only major native North American sport fish adapted to the deep, cold water of oligotrophic (low-nutrient) lakes, such as those often found in northern Canada and the northern Great Lakes region (Shuter, 1998). At the southern range of the species, S. namaycush requires deep-water refuges, where its preferred temperature ranges and oxygen levels exist. Residing exclusively in freshwater and most often found in lakes, S. namaycush might also inhabit large river systems that have the necessary habitat characteristics.

Habitat List

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Category	Habitat	Presence	Status
Freshwater
Freshwater	Lakes	Principal habitat	Natural
Freshwater	Reservoirs	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Freshwater	Reservoirs	Present, no further details	Natural
Freshwater	Rivers / streams	Secondary/tolerated habitat	Natural
Brackish
Marine

Biology and Ecology

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Reproductive biology

Spawning occurs mostly at night, with peak activity between dusk and 9 or 10 pm (Royce, 1951; Martin, 1957). One or two males approach a female, press against her sides and quiver, causing the female to release eggs, which are then fertilized. A large female may contain up to 17,000 eggs.

The eggs, which are quite large, become lodged in crevices in the rubble bottom, where they remain for months before hatching. Unlike most other salmonid species, S. namaycush do create nests (redds) during spawning. Age at maturity varies widely from around 5 years in southern areas of its native range to more than 20 years in northern areas.

Longevity

S. namaycush tends to reach a maximum age of 25 years; however, the oldest fish on record, in the Northwest Territories (Canada), was aged at 65 years.

Activity patterns

In large water bodies such as the Great Lakes, S. namaycush may migrate up to 300 km (186 mi) to their spawning grounds.

Associations

Muzzall and Whelan (2011) reviewed the available literature for parasites of fish within the Great Lakes. Below is a list of all identified on S. namaycush:

Adult Cestoda: Eubothrium crassum (Cooper, 1919; Pearse, 1924); Eubothrium salvelini, (Amin, 1977; Muzzall, 1989; Wardle, 1933; Dechtiar and Christie, 1988; Bangham, 1955; Muzzall and Bowen, 2000).

Larval/Immature Cestoda: Proteocephalus sp. (Muzzall, 1989).

Adult Nematoda: Cystidicola farionis (Ward and Magath, 1916); Cystidicola farionis (Lankester and Smith, 1980; Dextrase, 1987); Cystidicola stigmatura (Wright, 1879; Leidy, 1886; Black, 1983; Dechtiar and Lawrie, 1988;); Cystidicoloides ephemeridarum (Dechtiar and Lawrie, 1988); Cystidicola stigmatura (Ward and Magath, 1916).

Adult Acanthocephala: Acanthocephalus dirus (Amin, 1977; 1985; Muzzall, 1989); Echinorhynchus leidyi (Pearse, 1924b); Echinorhynchus salmonis (Pearse, 1924; Hnath, 1969; Amin and Burrows, 1977; Amin, 1985; Dechtiar and Christie, 1988; Muzzall, 1989;); Echinorhynchus lateralis (Dechtiar and Lawrie, 1988); Echinorhynchus salmonis (Dechtiar and Lawrie, 1988).

Adult Digenea: Crepidostomum farionis (Dechtiar and Lawrie, 1988) Monogenea: Discocotyle sagittata (Dechtiar and Lawrie, 1988).

Larval/Immature Digenea: Diplostomum spathaceum (Collins and Dechtiar, 1974; Dechtiar et al., 1988); Diplostomum sp. (Bangham, 1955; Muzzall and Bowen, 2000); Ichthyocotylurus intermedia (Collins and Dechtiar, 1974).

Hirudinea: Unidentified leeches (Pearse, 1924).

Copepoda: Salmincola extensus (Pearse, 1924); Salmincola siscowet (Dechtiar and Lawrie, 1988).

Natural Food Sources

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Food Source	Food Source Datasheet	Life Stage
	Alosa pseudoharengus	Aquatic\|Adult
	Catostomus catostomus	Aquatic\|Adult
	Cottus cognatus	Aquatic\|Adult
	Cottus cognatus	Aquatic\|Adult; Aquatic\|Fry
	Myoxocephalus quadricornis	Aquatic\|Adult; Aquatic\|Fry
	Mysis relicta	Aquatic\|Fry
	Notropis atherinoides	Aquatic\|Adult
	Percopsis omiscomaycus	Aquatic\|Adult
Pontoporeia		Aquatic\|Larval
	Pungitius pungitius	Aquatic\|Fry
	Salvelinus namaycush	Aquatic\|Adult

Climate

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Climate	Status	Description
Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year	Tolerated	Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer	Tolerated	Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter	Tolerated	Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters)
Df - Continental climate, wet all year	Preferred	Continental climate, wet all year (Warm average temp. > 10°C, coldest month < 0°C, wet all year)
Ds - Continental climate with dry summer	Preferred	Continental climate with dry summer (Warm average temp. > 10°C, coldest month < 0°C, dry summers)
Dw - Continental climate with dry winter	Preferred	Continental climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, coldest month < 0°C, dry winters)

Latitude/Altitude Ranges

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Latitude North (°N)	Latitude South (°S)	Altitude Lower (m)	Altitude Upper (m)
73	43

Air Temperature

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Parameter	Lower limit	Upper limit
Mean annual temperature (ºC)	0	15.5

Water Tolerances

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Parameter	Minimum Value	Maximum Value	Typical Value	Status	Life Stage	Notes
Water temperature (ºC temperature)			11.2	Optimum

Natural enemies

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Natural enemy	Type	Life stages	Specificity	Biological control on
Ameiurus nebulosus	Predator	Aquatic\|Adult; Aquatic\|Fry	not specific
Ichthyomyzon unicuspis	Predator	Aquatic\|Adult; Aquatic\|Fry	not specific
Lota lota	Predator	Aquatic\|Adult	not specific	N
Petromyzon marinus	Predator	Aquatic\|Adult	not specific	N
Prosopium cylindraceum	Predator	Aquatic\|Adult; Aquatic\|Fry	not specific

Notes on Natural Enemies

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There are several natural enemies of S. namaycush reported in its native range, including lamprey species (Ichthyomyzon unicuspis and Petromyzon marinus) and fish (Ameiurus nebulosus, Lota lota and Prosopium cylindraceum). Smaller S. namaycush are potentially predated upon by ducks and other birds.

Means of Movement and Dispersal

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Natural dispersal

In large water bodies such as the Great Lakes, S. namaycush may migrate up to 300 km (186 mi) to their spawning grounds.

Intentional introduction

S. namaycush is primarily bred, introduced and stocked for recreational fisheries worldwide (Fuller, 2007).

Pathway Causes

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Cause	Notes	Long Distance	Local
Acclimatization societies	Stocked as a sport fish worldwide	Yes	Yes
Hunting, angling, sport or racing		Yes	Yes
Intentional release	Released as a sport fish	Yes

Pathway Vectors

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Vector	Notes	Long Distance	Local	References
Water	All life stages by natural dispersal	Yes	Yes

Impact Summary

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Category	Impact
Economic/livelihood	Positive and negative
Environment (generally)	Positive and negative

Economic Impact

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S. namaycush was once an important commercial fish in the Great Lakes but numbers dropped sharply during the 1950s due to overfishing and predation by the sea lamprey Petromyzon marinus (Houston and Kelso, 1990). S. namaycush is still highly valued as a sport fish by anglers worldwide (Lenart, 2001). Recreational fishing and tourism may create a demand not only for food, accommodation and transportation, but also for related recreational activities such as camping, boating and canoeing, all of which may provide economic opportunities locally.

Environmental Impact

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The various introductions of S. namaycush within the USA has had detrimental effects on native biodiversity. Several species of fish have been affected not only by competition from S. namaycush but by predation as well, as this species is a top predator (Fuller, 2007). For instance, numerous populations of cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki) have either been eliminated (e.g. in Lake Tahoe, western USA) or severely reduced (e.g. in Yellowstone Lake, Wyoming, USA). S. namaycush introduced into Flaming Gorge Reservoir were found to prey heavily on the Utah chub Gila atraria (Teuscher and Luecke, 1996). Predation by lake trout was shown to be a major factor in the decline of kokanee Oncorhynchus nerka in Lake Chelan, Washington (Schoen et al., 2012).

Social Impact

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S. namaycush is a highly sought after recreational fishing species throughout North America.

Risk and Impact Factors

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Invasiveness

Invasive in its native range
Has a broad native range
Abundant in its native range
Tolerant of shade
Capable of securing and ingesting a wide range of food
Long lived
Has high reproductive potential

Impact outcomes

Altered trophic level
Conflict
Damaged ecosystem services
Negatively impacts aquaculture/fisheries
Reduced native biodiversity
Threat to/ loss of endangered species
Threat to/ loss of native species

Impact mechanisms

Competition - monopolizing resources
Competition (unspecified)
Pest and disease transmission
Hybridization
Predation

Likelihood of entry/control

Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Highly likely to be transported internationally illegally
Difficult/costly to control

Uses

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S. namaycush is a highly valued sport fish by anglers worldwide (Lenart, 2001).

Uses List

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General

Sport (hunting, shooting, fishing, racing)

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

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S. namaycush looks similar to the brook trout, S. fontinalis; however, S. fontinalis can be distinguished by a black stripe on the anterior edge of their pelvic and anal fins (Lenart, 2001).

Prevention and Control

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Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Eradication

Numerous techniques have been used in an attempt to eradicate S. namaycush. In Yellowstone national park, USA, gillnetting and trapping were deemed the most suitable management techniques for its control (Kaeding et al., 1996). Electrofishing was effective in managing populations of S. namaycush, and is undertaken yearly in Yellowstone Lake (Greater Yellowstone Science Learning Center, 2012). Cox et al. (2012) examined the efficacy of high intensity sound from a seismic air gun in reducing survival of S. namaycush embryos, finding increased mortality in embryos at close range and younger age.

Control

As established populations are difficult and costly to control, further introductions or stocking should be avoided.

Chemical control

The only effective method of fish eradication is the application of rotenone, a piscicide that is also toxic to non target species.

Monitoring and surveillance (incl. remote sensing)

Both radio and acoustic telemetry can be used.

References

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AFMAFEWM, 2011. Austrian Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Environment and Water Management.

Amin OM, 1977. Helminth parasites of some southwestern Lake Michigan fishes. Proceedings of the Helminthological Society of Washington, 44(2):210-217.

Amin OM, 1985. The relationship between the size of some salmonid fishes and the intensity of their acanthocephalan infections. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 63:924-927.

Amin OM; Burrows JM, 1977. Host and seasonal associations of Echinorhynchus salmonis (Acanthocephala: Echinorhynchidae) in Lake Michigan fishes. Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada, 34(3):325-331.

Arkhipchuk V, 1999. Chromosome database. Database of Dr. Victor Arkhipchuk.

Bangham RV, 1955. Studies on parasites of Lake Huron and Manitoulin Island. The American Midland Naturalist Journal, 53:184- 194.

Bianco PG; Ketmaier V, 2001. Anthropogenic changes in the freshwater fish fauna of Italy, with reference to the central region and Barbus graellsii, a newly established alien species of Iberian origin. Journal of Fish Biology, 59(Supplement A):190-208.

Black GA, 1983. Taxonomy of a swimbladder nematode, Cystidicola stigmatura (Leidy), and evidence of its decline in the Great Lakes. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 40(5):643-647.

Breder Jr CM; Rosen DE, 1966. Modes of Reproduction in Fishes. Jersey City, New Jersey, : T.F.H. Publications, 941 pp.

Collins JJ; Dechtiar AO, 1974. Parasite fauna of kokanee salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) introduced into Lake Huron. Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada, 31(11):1818-1821.

Cooper AR, 1919. North American pseudophyllidean cestodes from fishes. Illinois Biological Monographs, 4. 288-541.

Cox BS; Dux AM; Quist MC; Guy CS, 2012. Use of a seismic air gun to reduce survival of nonnative lake trout embryos: a tool for conservation? North American Journal of Fisheries Management, 32(2):292-298.

Dechtiar AO; Christie WJ, 1988. Survey of the parasite fauna of Lake Ontario fishes, 1961-1971. Great Lakes Fishery Commission, Technical Report, 51. 66-106.

Dechtiar AO; Lawrie AH, 1988. Survey of the parasite fauna of Lake Superior fishes, 1967-1975. Great Lakes Fishery Commission, Technical Report, 51. 1-18.

Dechtiar AO; Nepszy SJ, 1988. Survey of the parasite fauna of selected fish species from Lake Erie, 1970-1975. Great Lakes Fishery Commission, Technical Report, 51. 49-65.

Dextrase AJ, 1987. MSc thesis. Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada: Lakehead University.

FAO, 1997. FAO Database on Introduced Aquatic Species. Rome, Italy: FAO.

Froese R; Pauly D, 2004. FishBase DVD. Penang, Malaysia: Worldfish Center. Online at www.fishbase.org.

Greater Yellowstone Science Learning Center, 2012. Lake Trout Control. http://www.greateryellowstonescience.org/topics/biological/fish/yct/projects/laketrout. Acessed 8 Oct 2014

Hnath JG, 1969. Transfer of an adult acanthocephalan from one fish host to another. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 98(2):332.

Houston KA; Kelso JRM, 1990. Lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) mortality - a review. Great Lakes Fishery Commission Research Completion Report. Ontario, Canada: Great Lakes Laboratory for Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, Department of Fisheries and Oceans.

Hubert WA; Gipson RD; Whaley RA, 1994. Interpreting relative weights of lake trout stocks. North American Journal of Fisheries Management, 14:212-215.

Kaeding LR; Boltz GD; Carty DG, 1996. Lake trout discovered in Yellowstone Lake threaten native cutthroat trout. Fisheries, 21(3):16-20.

Keith P; Allardi J, 2001. Atlas des Poissons d'Eau Douce de France. Paris, France: Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, 387 pp.

Koli L, 1990. Werner Söderström Osakeyhtiö. Helsinki, Finland, 357 pp.

Lankester MW; Smith JD, 1980. Host specificity and distribution of the swim-bladder nematodes, Cystidicola farionis Fischer, 1978 and C. cristivomeri White, 1941 (Habronematoidea), in salmonoid fishes of Ontario. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 58(7):1298-1305.

Leidy J, 1886. Notices of nematoid worms. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 38:308-313.

Martin NV, 1957. Reproduction of lake trout in Algonquin Park, Ontario. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 86:231-244.

McDowall RM, 1984. Exotic fishes:The New Zealand experience. In: Distribution, Biology and Management of Exotic Fishes [ed. by Courtenay WR, Stauffer JR] Baltimore, Maryland, USA: Johns Hopkins University Press, 200-214.

Morrow JE, 1980. The freshwater fishes of Alaska. Animal Resources Ecology Library. British Columbia, Canada: University of British Columbia, 248.

Muzzall PM, 1989. Endohelminths of salmonids from two localities in eastern Lake Michigan, with emphasis on Echinorhynchus salmonis. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 67(6):1604-1607.

Muzzall PM; Bowen CA II, 2000. Helminths in an intensively stocked population of lake trout, Salvelinus namaycush, from Lake Huron. Journal of Parasitology, 86(3):639-642.

Muzzall PM; Whelan G, 2011. Parasites of fish from the Great Lakes: a synopsis and review of the literature, 1871-2010. Great Lakes Fish. Comm. Misc. Publ.

Myers P; Espinosa R; Parr CS; Jones T; Hammond GS; Dewey TA, 2014. The Animal Diversity Web. Michigan, USA: University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. http://animaldiversity.org

Page LM; Burr BM, 1991. A field guide to freshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Boston, USA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 432 pp.

Pearse AS, 1924. The parasites of lake fishes. Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters, 21:161-194.

Royce WF, 1951. Breeding habits of lake trout in New York. Fishery bulletin, 52(59):59-76.

Ryan P; Marshall T, 1994. Niche Definition for Lake Trout and Its Use to Identify Populations at Risk. Canadian Journal of Fishery and Aquatic Science, 51:2513-2519.

Schoen ER; Beauchamp DA; Overman NC, 2012. Quantifying latent impacts of an introduced piscivore: pulsed predatory inertia of lake trout and decline of kokanee. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 141(5):1191-1206. http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/utaf20

Scott WB; Crossman EJ, 1973. Freshwater fishes of Canada. Fisheries Research Board of Canada, Bulletin, No. 184:966 pp.

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Distribution References

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Seebens H, Blackburn T M, Dyer E E, Genovesi P, Hulme P E, Jeschke J M, Pagad S, Pyšek P, Winter M, Arianoutsou M, Bacher S, Blasius B, Brundu G, Capinha C, Celesti-Grapow L, Dawson W, Dullinger S, Fuentes N, Jäger H, Kartesz J, Kenis M, Kreft H, Kühn I, Lenzner B, Liebhold A, Mosena A (et al), 2017. No saturation in the accumulation of alien species worldwide. Nature Communications. 8 (2), 14435. http://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms14435

Welcomme R, 1988. International introductions of inland aquatic species. In: FAO Fisheries Technical Paper, 318 pp.

Links to Websites

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Greater Yellowstone Science	http://www.greateryellowstonescience.org/topics/biological/fish/yct/projects/laketrout

Principal Source

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Draft datasheet under review

Contributors

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08/10/14 Original text by:

Michael Godard, consultant, Canada

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Datasheet

Salvelinus namaycush (lake trout)

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