Salmo trutta (sea trout)

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Salmo trutta Linnaeus, 1758

Preferred Common Name

sea trout

Other Scientific Names

Fario argenteus Valenciennes, 1848
Fario trutta Linnaeus, 1758
Salar ausonii Valenciennes, 1848
Salar ausonii parcepunctata Heckel & Kner, 1858
Salar ausonii semipunctata Heckel & Kner, 1858
Salar bailloni Valenciennes, 1848
Salar gaimardi Valenciennes, 1848
Salar spectabilis Valenciennes, 1848
Salmo albus Bonnaterre, 1788
Salmo brachypoma Günther, 1866
Salmo caecifer Parnell, 1838
Salmo cambricus Donovan, 1806
Salmo caspius Kessler, 1877
Salmo cornubiensis Walbaum, 1792
Salmo cumberland Lacepède, 1803
Salmo eriox Linnaeus, 1758
Salmo estuaries Knox, 1854
Salmo estuarius Knox, 1854
Salmo fario Linnaeus, 1758
Salmo fario loensis Walbaum, 1792
Salmo fario major Walecki, 1863
Salmo faris forestensis Bloch, 1801
Salmo gadoides Lacepède, 1803
Salmo gadoids Lacepède, 1803
Salmo gallivensis Günther, 1866
Salmo islayensis Thomson, 1873
Salmo lacustris rhenana Fatio, 1890
Salmo lacustris romanovi Kawraisky, 1896
Salmo lacustris septentrionalis Fatio, 1890
Salmo levenensis Yarrell, 1839
Salmo mistops Günther, 1866
Salmo Montana Walker, 1812
Salmo orcadensis Günther, 1866
Salmo orientalis McClelland, 1842
Salmo phinoc Shaw, 1804
Salmo polyosteus Günther, 1866
Salmo saxatilis Paula Schrank, 1798
Salmo spurious Pallas, 1814
Salmo spurius Pallas, 1814
Salmo stroemii Gmelin, 1788
Salmo sylvaticus Gmelin, 1788
Salmo taurinus Walker, 1812
Salmo trutta abanticus Tortonese, 1954
Salmo trutta caspius Kessler, 1877
Salmo trutta ciscaucasicus Dorofeyeva, 1967
Salmo trutta ezenami (non Berg, 1948)
Salmo trutta trutta Linnaeus, 1758
Trutta fluviatilis Duhamel, 1771
Trutta marina Duhamel, 1771
Trutta salmanata Ström, 1784
Trutta salmonata Rutty, 1772

International Common Names

English: blacktail; brook trout; brown trout; brown trout; finnock; galway sea trout; gillaroo; herling; hirling; orange fin; orkney sea trout; peal; salmon trout; sea-trout; sewin; trout; trout, brown; trout, sea; whiting; whitling
Spanish: trucha; trucha común; trucha marina; truita
French: truite brune; truite brune de mer; truite de mer; truite d'Europe
Russian: kumzha; losos taimen; losos' taimen; morskaya Forel'

Local Common Names

Canada/British Columbia: k'wsech
Canada/Quebec: truite brune
Czech Republic: pstruh morsky; pstruh obecný; pstruh obecný severomorský
Denmark: almindelig ørred; havørred; ørred
Ecuador: trucha
Finland: meritaimen; taimen
Germany: bachforelle; forelle; lachförch; lachsforelle; lassföhren; meerforelle
Greece: thalasopestrofa
Iceland: sjourrioi; urriði
Iran: mahiazad-e-Daryaye Khazar
Ireland: an breac geal; breac geal
Italy: salmo trota; trota; trota di mare; trota fario; truta; trutta
Netherlands: zeeforel
Norway: aure; ørret; sjøaure; sjøørret
Poland: troc; troc wedrowna
Portugal: truta marisca; truta-de-lago; truta-fário; truta-marisca
Romania: pastrav de mare
Russian Federation: kumzha; losos' taimen; morskaya forel'; salmon trout
Slovakia: pstruh obycajný
Slovenia: morska postrv
Spain: truita
Sweden: havsöring; öring
Turkey: denizalabaligi; denizalasi
UK: blacktail; brook trout; finnock; Galway sea trout; gillaroo; gwyniedyn; herling; orange fin; Orkney sea trout; pearl; sewin; siwin; whiting; whitling
UK/England and Wales: gwyniedyn; siwin

Summary of Invasiveness

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Introduction of Salmo trutta has caused both negative and positive impacts on biodiversity. They compete with native trout and other fish species, but they are not known to have been the cause of any species' extinction (Animal Diversity Web, 2004).

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Metazoa
Phylum: Chordata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Salmoniformes
Family: Salmonidae
Genus: Salmo
Species: Salmo trutta

Description

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Salmo trutta has a fusiform body with a small pointed head, large mouth, extending mostly after the eye (Rochard and Elie, 1994). S. trutta or brown trout get their name from the brown or golden brown hue on their bodies. Body is grey-blue coloured with numerous spots, also below the lateral line (Rochard and Elie, 1994). Blackish coloured on upper part of body, usually orange on sides, surrounded by pale halos. Adipose fin is with red margin (FishBase, 2004). Sea-run S. trutta have a more silvery coloration and the spotting is less visible (Nova Scotia, 2004). It has 3-4 dorsal spines, 10-15 dorsal soft rays, 3-4 anal spines and 9-14 anal soft rays (FishBase, 2004). Caudal fin has 18-19 rays (Spillman, 1961). Caudal peduncle is thick and rounded (Rochard and Elie, 1994). It has a few scales (Rochard and Elie, 1994).

S. trutta closely resemble Atlantic salmon and rainbow trout, but salmon have no red coloration on the adipose fin and rainbow trout have lines of black spots on the tail. Young S. trutta (parr) have 9-14 dark narrow parr marks along the sides and some red spotting along the lateral line (Nova Scotia, 2004). S. trutta can grow to be quite large, especially sea-run fish. It can grow to a standard length of 140 cm (Muus and Dahlström, 1967). Maximum published weight is 50.0 kg (Muus and Dahlström, 1967) and maximum reported age is 38 years (FishBase, 2004).

Distribution

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The native range of Salmo trutta includes Europe, northern Africa and western Asia. The species is found in Iceland and on the northwest coast of Europe, along the Mediterranean and south to India. S. trutta has been introduced to appropriate streams all over the world (Animal Diversity Web, 2004) and today is found in rivers, lakes and coastal areas (Nova Scotia, 2004).

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 10 Jan 2020

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	Reference
Africa
Eswatini	Present	Introduced	Welcomme (1988) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Ethiopia	Present	Introduced	Tedla and Meskel (1981) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Kenya	Present	Introduced	Welcomme (1988) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Lesotho	Present	Introduced	Welcomme (1988) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Madagascar	Present	Introduced	Welcomme (1988) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Malawi	Present	Introduced	Welcomme (1988) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Morocco	Present	Introduced	Courtenay et al. (1984) Froese and Pauly (2004)
South Africa	Present	Introduced	Welcomme (1988) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Tanzania	Present	Introduced	Eccles (1992) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Zimbabwe	Present	Introduced	Bell-Cross and Minshull (1988) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Asia
Afghanistan	Present	Native	Coad (1981) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Armenia	Present	Native	Gabrielyan (2001) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Bhutan	Present	Introduced	Welcomme (1988) Froese and Pauly (2004)
India	Present	Introduced	Welcomme (1988) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Iran	Present	Introduced	Coad (1996) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Japan	Present	Introduced	Welcomme (1988) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Jordan	Present	Introduced	Krupp and Schneider (1989) Golani and Mires (2000)
Nepal	Present	Introduced	Shrestha (1994) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Pakistan	Present	Introduced	Welcomme (1988) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Sri Lanka	Present	Introduced	FAO (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Turkey	Present	Native	Muus and Dahlström (1974) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Europe
Belgium	Present	Native	Muus and Dahlström (1974) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Croatia	Present		CABI Data Mining (2001)
Cyprus	Present	Introduced	Welcomme (1988) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Czechia	Present	Introduced	Blanc et al. (1971)
Denmark	Present	Native	Muus and Dahlstrøm (1990) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Estonia	Present	Native	Muus and Dahlstrøm (1990) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Finland	Present	Native	Koli (1990) Froese and Pauly (2004)
France	Present	Native	Billard (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Germany	Present	Native	Muus and Dahlström (1968) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Greece	Present	Native	Economidis (1991) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Iceland	Present	Native	Jonsson (1992) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Ireland	Present	Native	Muus and Dahlström (1974) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Isle of Man	Present	Native	Bruce et al. (1963) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Italy	Present	Native	Gandolfi et al. (1991) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Latvia	Present	Native	Blanc et al. (1971) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Lithuania	Present	Native	Blanc et al. (1971) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Netherlands	Present	Native	Blanc et al. (1971) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Norway	Present	Native	Muus and Dahlström (1974) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Poland	Present	Native	Muus and Dahlström (1974) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Portugal	Present	Native	Blanc et al. (1971) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Romania	Present	Native	Muus and Dahlström (1974) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Russia	Present	Native	Reshetnikov et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Slovakia	Present	Native	Blanc et al. (1971) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Spain	Present	Native	Blanc et al. (1971) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Sweden	Present	Native	Muus and Dahlström (1974) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Switzerland	Present	Native	Vilcinskas (1993)
United Kingdom	Present	Native	Muus and Dahlström (1974) Froese and Pauly (2004)
-Scotland	Present	Native	Froese and Pauly (2004)
North America
Canada	Present	Introduced	Hart (1973) Froese and Pauly (2004)
-British Columbia	Present	Introduced	Carl et al. (1959) Froese and Pauly (2004)
-Newfoundland and Labrador	Present	Introduced	Froese and Pauly (2004)
-Quebec	Present	Introduced	Crossman (1984) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Panama	Present	Introduced	Welcomme (1988) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Puerto Rico	Present	Introduced	Erdman (1984)
United States	Present	Introduced	Welcomme (1988) Froese and Pauly (2004)
-Georgia	Present		CABI Data Mining (2001)
-Hawaii	Present	Introduced	Welcomme (1988)
Oceania
Australia	Present	Introduced	Kailola et al. (1993) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Fiji	Present	Introduced	Welcomme (1988)
New Zealand	Present	Introduced	Welcomme (1988) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Papua New Guinea	Present	Introduced	Allen (1991) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Sea Areas
Atlantic - Northeast	Present	Native	Froese and Pauly (2004)
Atlantic - Northwest	Present	Introduced	Froese and Pauly (2004)
Mediterranean and Black Sea	Present	Native	Froese and Pauly (2004)
Pacific - Northeast	Present	Introduced	Froese and Pauly (2004)
South America
Argentina	Present	Introduced	Welcomme (1988) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Bolivia	Present	Introduced	Welcomme (1988) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Chile	Present	Introduced	Welcomme (1988) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Colombia	Present	Introduced	Welcomme (1988)
Falkland Islands	Present	Introduced	Welcomme (1988) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Peru	Present	Introduced	Welcomme (1988) Froese and Pauly (2004)

Introductions

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Introduced to	Introduced from	Year	Reason	Introduced by	Established in wild through		References	Notes
Introduced to	Introduced from	Year	Reason	Introduced by	Natural reproduction	Continuous restocking	References	Notes
Argentina	USA	1904	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Unknown	Yes	No	Welcomme (1988)
Australia	UK	1864	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Unknown	Yes	No	Pollard (1989)
Bhutan		1930-39	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Unknown	Yes	No	Welcomme (1988)
Bolivia	USA	1939	Fisheries (pathway cause); Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Government	Yes	No	FAO (1997)
Canada	UK	1884	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Unknown	Yes	No	Welcomme (1988)
Chile	Europe	1905	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Unknown	Yes	No	Welcomme (1988)
Colombia	UK	1892		Unknown	No	No	Welcomme (1988)
Cyprus	USA	1970	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Unknown	Yes	No	Welcomme (1988)
Ecuador	Chile	1950		Unknown	No	No	Welcomme (1988)
Ethiopia	Kenya	1967	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Unknown	Yes	No	Tedla and Meskel (1981)
Falkland Islands	UK	1955		Unknown	Yes	No	Welcomme (1988)
Fiji	New Zealand	1920	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Unknown	No	No	Welcomme (1988)
Finland	Sweden	1970-79	Fisheries (pathway cause)	Government	Yes	No	FAO (1997)
Hawaii	USA	1935	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Unknown	No	No	Welcomme (1988)
India	UK	1900	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Unknown	Yes	No	Welcomme (1988)
Japan	USA	1900		Unknown	Yes	No	Welcomme (1988)
Japan		1930-39	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Unknown	Yes	No	Welcomme (1988)
Jordan	Denmark	1982	Aquaculture (pathway cause)	Unknown	No	No	Golani and Mires (2000); Golani and Mires (2000)
Jordan		unknown		Unknown	No	No	Krupp and Schneider (1989); Krupp and Schneider (1989)
Kenya	UK	1921	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Unknown	Yes	No	FAO (1997)
Lesotho		unknown	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Unknown	Yes	No	Welcomme (1988)
Madagascar	France	1926	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Unknown	Yes	No	Welcomme (1988)
Malawi	UK	1906	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Private sector	No	No	FAO (1997)
Malawi	South Africa	1906	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Private sector	No	No	FAO (1997)
Montana	British Columbia	1932-34	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Government	Yes	No	Clemens and Wilby (1961)
Morocco	France	1953		Unknown	No	No	Welcomme (1988)
Morocco	Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro)	1953		Unknown	No	No	Welcomme (1988)
Nepal	UK	1972	Fisheries (pathway cause)	Government	No	No	FAO (1997)
Netherlands	Denmark	1922	Fisheries (pathway cause)	Unknown	No	No	Welcomme (1988)
New Zealand	UK	1867	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Individual	Yes	No	FAO (1997)
New Zealand	Italy	1867	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Individual	Yes	No	FAO (1997)
New Zealand	Australia	1867	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Individual	Yes	No	FAO (1997)
Pakistan	UK	1906	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Unknown	Yes	No	FAO (1997)
Panama		unknown	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Unknown	Yes	No	Welcomme (1988)
Papua New Guinea	Australia	1949	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Unknown	Yes	No	Welcomme (1988)
Peru	Chile	1928	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Unknown	Yes	No	Welcomme (1988)
Puerto Rico		1934		Unknown	No	No	Erdman (1984)
Quebec	USA	1890	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Unknown	Yes	No	Crossman (1984)
South Africa	UK	1890	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Unknown	Yes	No	Welcomme (1988)
Sri Lanka	Europe	1882	Ornamental purposes (pathway cause)	Unknown	No	No	FAO (1997)
Swaziland	South Africa	1914		Unknown	Yes	No	Welcomme (1988)
Tanzania		unknown	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Unknown	No	No	Eccles (1992)
USA	Germany	1883	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Government	Yes	No	FAO (1997)
Wisconsin	British Columbia	1932-34	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Government	Yes	No	Clemens and Wilby (1961)
Zimbabwe	South Africa	1927	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Unknown	Yes	No	Welcomme (1988)

Habitat List

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Category	Sub-Category	Habitat	Presence	Status
Multiple
Freshwater
Brackish
Marine

Natural Food Sources

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Food Source	Life Stage	Contribution to Total Food Intake (%)
nekton	Adult	36
zoobenthos	Adult/Fry	29-94
zoobenthos	Adult/Larval	55-99
zoobenthos	Adult	46-81
zooplankton	Larval	35-57

Water Tolerances

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Parameter	Minimum Value	Maximum Value	Typical Value	Status	Life Stage
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l)			<3.0	Harmful	Adult
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l)			>6.0	Optimum	Adult
Salinity (part per thousand)	0	35		Optimum	Adult
Water pH (pH)			>8.4	Harmful	Adult
Water pH (pH)	7.0	7.5		Optimum	Adult
Water temperature (ºC temperature)			>24	Harmful	Adult
Water temperature (ºC temperature)	18	24		Optimum	Adult

Natural enemies

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Natural enemy	Type	Life stages	References
Esox lucius	Predator	Adult/Fry	Raat (1988)
Halichoerus grypus	Predator	Adult/Fry	Carter et al. (2001)
Ichthyomyzon castaneus	Predator	Adult/Fry	Hall (1960)
Petromyzon marinus	Predator	Adult/Fry	Hardisty (1986)
Phoca vitulina	Predator	Adult/Fry	Carter et al. (2001)

Impact Summary

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Category	Impact
Fisheries / aquaculture	Positive
Tourism	Positive

Impact: Biodiversity

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Salmo trutta has been implicated in reducing native fish populations (especially other salmonids) through predation, displacement, and food competition (Taylor et al., 1984). There are some negative effects from S. trutta since the species was introduced in America (Animal Diversity Web, 2004). They compete with native trout and other fish species, but they are not known to have been the cause of any species' extinction. In California, USA, competition and predation from S. trutta may have contributed to the decline of the dolly varden, Salmo malma, in the McCloud River (Moyle, 1976), and of the golden trout, Oncorhynchus aguabonita, in the Kern River (Courtenay and Williams, 1992). S. trutta may have also depleted the Modoc sucker, Catostomus microps, an endangered species, in Rush Creek, Modoc County (Moyle and Marciochi, 1975). S. trutta have commonly replaced cutthroat trout, O. clarki, in large rivers (Behnke, 1992). Another negative effect is their contribution to the lamprey population in many rivers. The increased lamprey populations since S. trutta were introduced have been considered as a negative impact on biodiversity (Animal Diversity Web, 2004). S. trutta introductions may have caused the decline of the Tasmanian mountain shrimp, Anaspides tasmaniae, and have eliminated or reduced several Plecoptera and Trichoptera species in streams in Victoria, Australia (Arthington, 1989).

It interacts ecologically with other species and healthy populations of brown trout are necessary for the reproduction of the freshwater pearl mussel, Margaritifera margaritifera (Laikre et al., 1999).

Threatened Species

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Threatened Species	Conservation Status	Where Threatened	Mechanism	References
Catostomus santaanae (Santa Ana sucker)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as threatened species	California	Predation	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2011)
Gila bicolor mohavensis (Mohave tui chub)	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Oregon	Predation	US Fish and Wildlife Service (1998)
Gila nigra (headwater chub)	NT (IUCN red list: Near threatened)	Arizona; New Mexico	Predation	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2013c)
Gila robusta (roundtail chub)	NT (IUCN red list: Near threatened)	Arizona; California; Nevada	Predation	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2013d)
Oncorhynchus apache (apache trout)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as threatened species	Arizona	Competition - monopolizing resources	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2009a)
Oncorhynchus clarkii henshawi (Lahontan cutthroat trout)	USA ESA listing as threatened species	California; Nevada; Oregon; Utah	Competition (unspecified); Predation	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2000)
Oncorhynchus clarkii seleniris (Paiute cutthroat trout)	USA ESA listing as threatened species	California	Competition (unspecified); Predation	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2013a)
Oncorhynchus gilae (Gila trout)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as threatened species	Arizona; New Mexico	Predation	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2003)
Pacifastacus fortis (Shasta crayfish)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	California	Predation	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2009b)
Salvelinus confluentus (bull trout)	VU (IUCN red list: Vulnerable); USA ESA listing as threatened species	Idaho; Montana; Nevada; Oregon; Washington	Predation	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2008)
Thymallus arcticus (arctic grayling)	LC (IUCN red list: Least concern)	Montana	Predation	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2013b)

Risk and Impact Factors

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Impact mechanisms

Competition - monopolizing resources
Competition (unspecified)
Predation

Uses List

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Human food and beverage

Cured meat
Fresh meat
Frozen meat

References

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Allen GR, 1991. Field guide to the freshwater fishes of New Guinea. Madang, Papua New Guinea: Christensen Research Institute, 180 pp.

Allendorf FW, Leary RF, 1988. Conservation and distribution of genetic variation in a polytypic species, the cutthroat trout. Conservation Biology, 2:170-184.

Animal Diversity Web, 2004. Salmo trutta (Brown trout). Online at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Salmo_trutta.html. Accessed 15 November 2004.

Anon., 1999. Systematic list of Estonian fishes. World Wide Web Electronic Publication, 14 January 2000. http://bio.edu.ee/animals/Kalad/kalalist2.htm

Aquanic, 2004. Trout Production. Online at http://aquanic.org/publicat/state/ga/trout.htm. Accessed 26 November 2004.

Arkhipchuk VV, 1999. Chromosome database. Database of Dr. Victor Arkhipchuk. Ukraine.

Arthington AH, 1989. Impacts of introduced and translocated freshwater fishes in Australia. In: de Silva SS, ed. Exotic Aquatic Organisms in Asia. Proccedings of the Workshop on Introduction of Exotic Aquatic Organisms in Asia. Asia Fish. Soc. Spec. Publ. 3, Asian Fisheries Society, Manila, Philippines, 7-20.

Barrington R, 1983. Making and Managing a Trout Lake. England: Fishing News Books, 135 pp.

Behnke RJ, 1992. Native Trout of Western North America. Bethesda, Maryland, USA: American Fisheries Society Monograph, 6, 275 pp.

Bell-Cross G, Minshull JL, 1988. The fishes of Zimbabwe. National Museums and Monuments of Zimbabwe, Harare. 294 pp.

Billard R, 1997. Les poissons d’eau douce des rivieres de France. Identification, inventaire et repartition des 83 especes. Lausanne: Delachaux and Niestle, 192 pp.

Blanc M, Gaudet JL, Banarescu P, Hureau JC, 1971. European inland water fish: a multilingual catalogue. London: Fishing News (Books) Ltd.

Bromage NR, Shepherd CJ, Roberts J, 1990. Farming systems and husbandry practice. In: Shepherd CJ, Bromage NR, eds, Intensive Fish Farming. Oxford: BSP Professional Books, 50-102.

Bruce JR, Colman JS, Jones NS, 1963. Marine fauna of the Isle of Man. Memoir No. 36. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press.

Cadwallader PL, Backhouse GN, 1983. A guide to the freshwater fish of Victoria. Melbourne, Australia: Government Printers, 249 pp.

Carl GC, Clemens WA, Lindsey CC, 1959. The freshwater fishes of British Columbia (3rd revision). (Reprinted 1977). British Columbia Prov. Mus. Handbook, 5, 192 pp.

Carter TJ, Pierce GJ, Hislop JRG, Houseman JA, Boyle PR, 2001. Predation by seals on salmonids in two Scottish estuaries. Fisheries Management and Ecology, 8(3):207-225.

Clemens WA, Wilby GV, 1961. Fishes of the Pacific coast of Canada. Second edition. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada Bull., 68:443 pp.

Coad BW, 1981. Fishes of Afghanistan, an annotated check-list. Publications in Zoology, National Museums of Canada, 14:23.

Coad BW, 1996. Exotic fish species in the Tigris-Euphrates basin. Zoology in the Middle East 13:71-83.

Courtenay WR Jr, Hensley DA, Taylor JN, McCann JA, 1984. Distribution of exotic fishes in the continental United States. In: Courtenay WR Jr, Stauffer JR Jr, ed. Distribution, biology and management of exotic fishes. Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press, 41-77.

Courtenay WR Jr, Williams JD, 1992. Dispersal of exotic species from aquaculture sources, with emphasis on freshwater fishes. In: Rosenfield A, Mann R, eds. Dispersal of living organisms into aquatic ecosystems. Maryland Sea Grant Publication, College Park, MD, 49-81.

Crossman EJ, 1984. Introduction of exotic fishes into Canada. In: Courtenay WR Jr, Stauffer JR Jr, eds. Distribution, biology and management of exotic fishes. Baltimore, USA: John Hopkins University Press, 78-101.

de Moore IJ, Bruton MN, 1988. Atlas of alien and translocated indigenous aquatic animals in southern Africa. South African National Scientific Programmes Report 144, 310 pp.

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Distribution References

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Crossman E J, 1984. Introduction of exotic fishes into Canada. In: Distribution, Biology and Management of Exotic Fishes. [ed. by Courtenay W Jr, Stauffer J Jr]. Baltimore, USA: John Hopkins University Press. 78-101.

Eccles DH, 1992. FAO species identification sheets for fishery purposes. In: Field guide to the freshwater fishes of Tanzania, Rome, FAO. 145 pp.

Economidis PS, 1991. Check list of freshwater fishes of Greece (recent status of threats and protection). In: Hellenic Society for the Protection of Nature, 48 pp.

Erdman D S, 1984. Exotic fishes in Puerto Rico. In: Distribution, biology and management of exotic fishes. [ed. by Courtney W R Jr, Stauffer J R Jr]. Baltimore, USA: Johns Hopkins University Press. 162-176.

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Froese R, Pauly D, 2004. FishBase. http://www.fishbase.org

Gabrielyan B K, 2001. An annotated checklist of freshwater fishes of Armenia. Naga. 24 (3/4), 23-29.

Golani D, Mires D, 2000. Introduction of fishes to the freshwater system of Israel. In: Isr. J. Aquacult./Bamidgeh, 52 (2) 47-60.

Hart JL, 1973. Pacific fishes of Canada. In: Fish. Res. Board Can. Bull. 180 1-740.

Jonsson G, 1992. Islenskir fiskar. Reykjavik, Iceland: Fiolvi. 568 pp.

Kailola PJ, Williams MJ, Stewart PC, Reichelt RE, McNee A, Grieve C, 1993. Australian Fisheries Resources., Canberra, Australia: Bureau of Resource Science, Dept. of Primary Industries and Energy, and Fisheries Research and Development Corporation. 422 pp.

Koli L, 1990. Fishes of Finland. (Suomen kalat)., Helsinki, Werner Soderstrom Osakeyhtio. 357 pp.

Krupp F, Schneider W, 1989. The fishes of the Jordan River drainage basin and Azraq Oasis. In: Fauna of Saudi Arabia, 10 347-416.

Muus BJ, Dahlström P, 1968. (Süßwasserfische)., München, BLV Verlagsgesellschaft. 224 pp.

Muus BJ, Dahlström P, 1974. Collins guide to the sea fishes of Britain and North-Western Europe., London, UK: Collins. 244 pp.

Muus BJ, Dahlstrøm P, 1990. (Europas ferskvandsfisk)., København, GEC Gads Forlag. 224 pp.

Reshetnikov YS, Bogutskaya NG, Vasil'eva ED, Dorofeeva EA, Naseka AM, Popova OA, Savvaitova KA, Sideleva VG, Sokolov LI, 1997. An annotated check-list of the freshwater fishes of Russia. In: Journal of Ichthyology, 37 687-736.

Shrestha J, 1994. Fishes, fishing implements and methods of Nepal., Lashkar (Gwalior), India: Lalitpur Colony. 150.

Tedla S, Meskel FH, 1981. Introduction and transplantation of freshwater fish species in Ethiopia. In: SINET: Ethiop. J. Sci. 4 (2) 69-72.

Vilcinskas A, 1993. (Einheimische Süsswasserfische: Alle Arten: Merkmale, Verbreitung, Lebensweise)., Augsburg, Germany: Naturbuch Verlag. 207 pp.

Links to Websites

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Website	URL	Comment
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway	https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6	Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list.
Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS)	http://griis.org/	Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list.

Contributors

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Main Author
Sunil Siriwardena
Institute of Aquaculture, University of Stirling, Stirling, FK9 4LA, UK

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Salmo trutta (sea trout)

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