Salmo salar (Atlantic salmon)

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Adult

Salmo salar (Atlantic salmon); adult. Atlanterhavsparken, Ålesund, Norway. July 2006.

©Hans-Petter Fjeld/via wikipedia - CC BY-SA 2.5

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Salmo salar Linnaeus, 1758

Preferred Common Name

Atlantic salmon

Other Scientific Names

Salmo brevipes Smitt, 1882
Salmo caerulescens Schmidt, 1795
Salmo goedenii Bloch, 1784
Salmo gracilis Couch, 1865
Salmo hamatus Cuvier, 1829
Salmo hardinii Günther, 1866
Salmo nobilis Olafsen, 1772
Salmo ocla Nilsson, 1832
Salmo renatus Lacepède, 1803
Salmo rilla Lacepède, 1803
Salmo salar biennis Berg, 1912
Salmo salar brevipes Smitt, 1882
Salmo salar brevipes relictus Berg, 1912
Salmo salar europaeus Payne, Child & Forrest, 1971
Salmo salar lacustris Hardin, 1862
Salmo salar saimensis Seppovaara, 1962
Salmo salmo Valenciennes, 1848
Salmo salmulus Walbaum, 1792
Trutta relicta Malmgren, 1863
Trutta salar Linnaeus, 1758

International Common Names

English: bay salmon; black salmon; caplin-scull salmon; common Atlantic salmon; fiddler; grayling; grilse; grilt; kelt; landlocked salmon; n. Atlantic salmon; ouananiche; ouinanish; outside salmon; parr; salmon; salmon peel; salmon, Atlantic; sea salmon; sebago salmon; silver salmon; slink; smolt; spring fish; spring salmon; winnish
Spanish: salmó; salmón; salmón del Atlántico
French: saumon Atlantique; saumon d'eau douce; tacon Atlantique
Russian: Amerikanskiy atlanticheskiy losos'; losos; semga

Local Common Names

Belarus: losos
Canada: fiddler; grilse; grilt; landlocked salmon; ouananiche; parr; unaniche
Canada/British Columbia: k'wolexw; sináech; st'thkway'
Canada/Newfoundland and Labrador: breeder; kavisilik
Canada/Quebec: kumaliq; saama; saamakutaak; saamarug; sâma; saumon Atlantique; saumon d'eau douce
Chile: salmón del Atlántico
Czech Republic: losos Atlantsky; losos obecný
Denmark: Atlanterhavslaks; Atlantisk laks; gravlaks; laks; nedfaldslaks; skællaks
Estonia: salmon
Faroe Islands: laksur; smolt
Finland: graavisuolattu lohi; kutenut lohi; lohi
Germany: Atlantischer Lachs; Atlantischer Salmon; Echter Lachs; Lachs; Las; Salm; Salmling; Wildlachs
Greece: solomos; solomós
Greenland: kapisalirksoak; kapisilik; kebleriksorsoak
Iceland: graflax; hoplax; lax
Ireland: an bradán; bradan; braden; salmon
Isle of Man (UK): braddan; salmon
Italy: salmo; salmone; salmone Atlantico; salmone del Reno
Japan: sake masu-rui
Latvia: losos
Netherlands: drooggezouten gekruide zalm; hengst; ijle zalm; jacobzalm; zalm
Norway: laks; laks Atlantisk; lax
Poland: losos; losos szlachetny a. Atlantycki
Portugal: salmao; salmâo; salmão; salmâo-do-Atlântico; salmão-do-Atlântico; sãlmao-do-Atlântico
Romania: somon de Atlantic
Slovakia: losos obycajný
Spain: salmó
Sweden: gravlax; gullspångslax; lax; vraklax
Turkey: alabalik Atlantik
UK: black salmon; common Atlantic salmon; grilse; kelt; parr; salmon; sea salmon; silver salmon
UK/England and Wales: eog
USA: sebago salmon
Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro): losos; salmon

Summary of Invasiveness

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Native to the north Atlantic and rivers that flow into it, S. salar has been introduced to many parts of the world for the purposes of aquaculture (and in some locations for sport fishing or fisheries). Concerns have been raised over the negative impacts of its farming on native fish populations and the surrounding environment. Transmission of disease and hybridization with wild populations are of particular concern. Jonsson and Jonsson (2006) reviewed the interactions between cultured and wild Atlantic salmon and reported that the fitness of wild salmon was superior to that of cultured salmon in all aspects of survival and reproduction and that the lifetime reproductive success of farmed fish was only 17% that of similar-sized wild salmon. However, they concluded that as a result of ecological interaction and through density-dependent mechanisms, cultured fish may displace wild conspecifics to some extent, increase their mortality, and decrease their growth rate, adult size, reproductive output, biomass, and production. Hindar et al. (2006) modelled the future of wild salmon populations experiencing invasions of escaped farmed salmon. Simulations with a fixed intrusion rate of 20% escaped farmed salmon at spawning suggested that substantial changes take place in wild salmon populations within ten salmon generations (∼40 years). In a study conducted in Norway, Fiske et al. (2006) found a significant positive correlation between the incidence of escaped farmed salmon in the rivers at the county level and the intensity of salmon farming, measured as the number of farmed salmon in net pens, suggesting that restriction in salmon farming may reduce the impact of escapees in salmon populations nearby. Welcomme (1988) reported that compared to Salmo trutta, which is highly invasive and is implicated in the extirpation of native fish in many regions of the world, S. salar was a poor colonizer and had rarely been associated with species loss. It was one of the 100 invasive species listed in 2004 by the Oregon Invasive Species Council (Oregon Invasive Species Council, 2005), but was removed from the list in 2015 (Oregon Invasive Species Council, 2016).

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Metazoa
Phylum: Chordata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Salmoniformes
Family: Salmonidae
Genus: Salmo
Species: Salmo salar

Description

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The Atlantic salmon is a species of ray-finned teleost fish in the family Salmonidae with a graceful fusiform body. It is the largest species in the genus Salmo. Sea-run Atlantic salmon usually attain a larger size than do landlocked salmon (those living in entirely fresh water). Sea-run wild salmon range from 2kg to 9kg depending, largely, on fish sea age (i.e. how long they have lived at sea); the maximum published weight and age are 46.8kg and 13 years respectively (Froese and Pauly, 2018). The world record rod-caught Atlantic salmon weighed 35.9 kg and was caught in the Tana River of Norway (Renzi, 1999). The maximum attainable total length is around 150 cm for males and 120 cm for females (Froese and Pauly, 2018). (Farmed salmon are harvested at between 3kg and 6kg GWE (gutted weight equivalent), with the most common size in the range 4kg to 5kg GWE; the standard conversion factor from GWE to LWE (live weight equivalent) is a factor of 1.19 -- Marine Harvest, 2018).

As described in detail by Froese and Pauly (2018), the Atlantic salmon has an elongate, laterally compressed body with a distinct caudal peduncle. A fleshy adipose fin is present between the dorsal and forked caudal fin. The mouth extends only to the area below the rear of the eye and has well-developed teeth. The number of gill rakers may range from 17 to 24 and the number of vertebrae from 58 to 61. Small parr have 8-11 pigmented bars along each side of the body that alternate with a single row of red spots along the lateral line. These marks are lost when fish reach the smolt stage, when body colour becomes silvery and the dorsal area shows shades of green, blue and brown. Adult body colour varies, but fish are generally silver-skinned with distinct dark blue-green, cross-like spots over the body and head, and above the lateral line. The skin is protected by mucus secreted by goblet cells in the epidermis. At spawning the skin and fins thicken and the body colour of both males and females turns dark. The head of the male becomes elongated and grows a "kype" from the tip of the lower jaw, making males and females easily distinguished. (Further information on morphology from ASF, 2018; Jonsson and Jonsson, 2011; and Renzi, 1999). When compared to wild salmon, farmed salmon often have worn fins with wavy fin-rays and more spots both above and below the lateral line (Fiske, 2012).

Distribution

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Salmo salar is found in the Atlantic Ocean in the temperate and arctic zones in the northern hemisphere (ASF, 2018). It is native to the basin of the North Atlantic Ocean, from the Arctic Circle to Portugal in the eastern Atlantic, in Iceland and southern Greenland, and from the Ungava region of northern Quebec south to the Connecticut River (Scott and Crossman, 1973). Landlocked stocks are present in Russia, Finland, Sweden and Norway (Kazakov, 1992) and in North America (Scott and Crossman, 1973). Atlantic salmon are farmed in a number of countries around the world, not restricted to the native range; these include the USA (Puget Sound and Maine), Canada (British Columbia, Newfoundland, New Brunswick), Chile, Australia (Tasmania), New Zealand, Ireland, the UK (Scotland), Norway, the Faeroe Islands, Russia (Murmansk and Barents Sea), and Iceland (Marine Harvest, 2018). Introductions for angling and escapes from culture have led to the establishment of wild populations in the north-east Pacific, Chile, Argentina and New Zealand; these are usually landlocked, but anadromous breeding has been recorded in British Columbia (Love et al., 2005; Welcomme, 1988).

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 10 Feb 2022

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	First Reported	Reference	Notes
Africa
South Africa	Present	Introduced	1896	Seebens et al. (2017)	As: Salmo salar
Antarctica
French Southern Territories	Present	Introduced	1975	Seebens et al. (2017) FAO (2019) Froese and Pauly (2019)	Kerguelen Islands; Establishment uncertain
Asia
China	Present	Introduced		FAO (2019) Seebens et al. (2017)	Establishment uncertain
India	Present	Introduced		FAO (2019) Seebens et al. (2017)	Probably not established; Establishment uncertain
Indonesia	Present	Introduced	1929	Seebens et al. (2017)	As: Salmo salar
Turkey	Absent, Formerly present			Froese and Pauly (2010) Seebens et al. (2017)
Europe
Austria	Present	Introduced	1886	Seebens et al. (2017)	As: Salmo salar
Belgium	Present	Native		Muus and Dahlström (1974) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Cyprus	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2010) Seebens et al. (2017)	for aquaculture; Not established
Czechia	Present, Few occurrences	Native		Froese and Pauly (2019)	Reported extinct in wild in 2000 despite restocking, but further specimens have been found since then
Denmark	Present	Native		Muus and Dahlström (1974) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Estonia	Present	Native		Anon (1999) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Faroe Islands	Present	Native		Svetovidov (1984) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Finland	Present	Native		Koli (1990) Froese and Pauly (2004) Seebens et al. (2017)
France	Present	Native		Keith and Allardi (2001) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Germany	Present	Native		Muus and Dahlström (1968) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Greece	Present	Introduced	1985	Seebens et al. (2017)	As: Salmo salar
Iceland	Present	Native		Jonsson (1992) Froese and Pauly (2004) Seebens et al. (2017)
Ireland	Present	Native		Muus and Dahlström (1974) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Isle of Man	Present	Native		Svetovidov (1984) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Italy	Present	Native		Gandolfi et al. (1991) Froese and Pauly (2004) Seebens et al. (2017)
Latvia	Present	Native		Blanc et al. (1971) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Lithuania	Present	Native		Blanc et al. (1971) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Netherlands	Present	Native		Muus and Dahlström (1974) Froese and Pauly (2004) Seebens et al. (2017)
Norway	Present	Native		Muus and Dahlström (1974) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Poland	Present	Native		Muus and Dahlström (1974) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Portugal	Present	Native		Blanc et al. (1971) Froese and Pauly (2004) Seebens et al. (2017)
Russia	Present	Native		Reshetnikov et al. (1997) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Slovakia	Present	Native		Blanc et al. (1971) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Spain	Present	Native		Muus and Dahlström (1974) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Sweden	Present	Native		Muus and Dahlström (1974) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Switzerland	Present, Few occurrences	Native		Hartmann (1827) Leybold-Johnson (2008) Froese and Pauly (2010) Moore (2018)	Formerly common, later became extinct; reintroduction efforts and some farming
United Kingdom	Present	Native		Muus and Dahlström (1974) Froese and Pauly (2004) Seebens et al. (2017)
-Channel Islands	Present	Native		Svetovidov (1984) Froese and Pauly (2004)
-Northern Ireland	Present	Native		Froese and Pauly (2004)
-Scotland	Present	Native		Froese and Pauly (2004)
North America
Canada	Present	Native		Robins and Ray (1986) Froese and Pauly (2004)
-British Columbia	Present	Introduced		McAllister (1990) Froese and Pauly (2004) Love et al. (2005)
Greenland	Present	Native		Nielsen and Bertelsen (1992) Froese and Pauly (2004)
United States	Present	Native		Robins and Ray (1986) Froese and Pauly (2004)
-Alaska	Present	Introduced		Love et al. (2005)
-Washington	Present	Introduced		Love et al. (2005)
Oceania
Australia	Present	Introduced		Seebens et al. (2017) Kailola et al. (1993) Froese and Pauly (2004)	As: Salmo salar. First reported: 1864 - 1870
New Zealand	Present	Introduced		Welcomme (1988) Froese and Pauly (2004)
Sea Areas
Arctic Sea	Present	Native		Froese and Pauly (2004)
Atlantic - Northeast	Present	Native		Froese and Pauly (2004)
Atlantic - Northwest	Present	Native		Froese and Pauly (2004)
Atlantic - Southwest	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004)
Indian Ocean - Antarctic	Present	Introduced	1975	FAO (2019) Froese and Pauly (2019)	Establishment uncertain
Mediterranean and Black Sea	Present	Native		Froese and Pauly (2004)
Pacific - Northeast	Present	Introduced		Love et al. (2005)
Pacific - Southeast	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004)
Pacific - Southwest	Present	Introduced		Froese and Pauly (2004)
South America
Argentina	Present	Introduced	1904	Seebens et al. (2017) Welcomme (1988) Froese and Pauly (2004)	As: Salmo salar
Brazil	Present	Introduced	1957	Seebens et al. (2017)	As: Salmo salar
Chile	Present	Introduced	1905	Seebens et al. (2017) Welcomme (1988) Froese and Pauly (2004)	As: Salmo salar
Falkland Islands	Present	Introduced	1960	Seebens et al. (2017)	As: Salmo salar

Introductions

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Introduced to	Introduced from	Year	Reason	Introduced by	Established in wild through		References	Notes
Introduced to	Introduced from	Year	Reason	Introduced by	Natural reproduction	Continuous restocking	References	Notes
Argentina	Canada	1904, 1970	Aquaculture (pathway cause); Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Unknown	Yes	No	Welcomme (1988)
Australia	USA	1864-1870, 1963-1964	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Unknown	Yes	No	Welcomme (1988)
Brazil	USA	1957	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Unknown	No	No	Welcomme (1988)
British Columbia	Scotland	1933-1934	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Unknown	No	No	Clemens and Wilby (1961)
British Columbia		1980s	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Love et al. (2005)
Washington		1980s	Aquaculture (pathway cause)		No	No	Love et al. (2005)
Chile	Germany	1935	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Unknown	Yes	No	Welcomme (1988)
China	USA				No	No	FAO (2019)
Cyprus	USA	1971	Aquaculture (pathway cause)	Unknown	No	No	Welcomme (1988)
Falkland Islands	UK	1960	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Unknown	No	No	Welcomme (1988)
Finland	Former USSR	1970-1979	Aquaculture (pathway cause); Fisheries (pathway cause)	Government	Yes	No	FAO (2019)
Former USSR				Unknown	No	No	Holcík (1991)
Greece			Aquaculture (pathway cause)	Unknown	No	No	Welcomme (1988)
Iceland			Aquaculture (pathway cause)		No	No	FAO (2019)
India	North America	1960	Aquaculture (pathway cause)	Government	No	No	FAO (2019)
India	Canada	1969	Aquaculture (pathway cause); Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Government	No	No	FAO (2019)
Indian Ocean, Antarctic	Europe	1975-1980	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Government	Yes	No	FAO (2019)	To Kerguelen Islands from Denmark, Iceland and the UK
French Southern and Antarctic Territories	Europe	1975-1980	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Government	Yes	No	FAO (2019)	To Kerguelen Islands from Denmark, Iceland and the UK
Indonesia	Netherlands	1929			No	No	Welcomme (1988)
Israel	Europe		Aquaculture (pathway cause)		No	No	FAO (2019)
Italy		1866		Unknown	No	No	Welcomme (1988)
New Zealand	UK	1960-1965	Fisheries (pathway cause); Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Government	Yes	Yes	FAO (2019)
New Zealand	North America	1960-1965	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Government	Yes	Yes	FAO (2019)
New Zealand	Germany	1960-1965	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Government	Yes	Yes	FAO (2019)
New Zealand		1864-1910, 1960-1965	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Welcomme (1988)
Portugal		1935	Fisheries (pathway cause)	Unknown	No	No	FAO (2019)
South Africa	Scotland	1896	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Unknown	No	No	Moor and Bruton (1988)
Turkey	Norway	1988-1989	Aquaculture (pathway cause)	Private sector	No	No	FAO (2019)
Spain	Scotland		Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)		No	No	FAO (2019)
Jordan					No	No	FAO (2019)

Habitat

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The Atlantic salmon is an anadromous species, living in freshwater for at least the first 2 or 3 years of life before migrating to the sea. Relatively large cool rivers with extensive gravelly bottom headwaters are essential during its early life (Renzi, 1999). Smolts migrate to the sea where they may live for a number of years before returning to freshwater, but the movements of Atlantic salmon at sea are not well understood (Renzi, 1999). Tagging has shown that while some salmon wander, the great majority return to the river in which they were spawned. The species prefers cool temperatures (Bigelow et al., 1963).

Habitat List

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Category	Sub-Category	Habitat	Presence	Status
Freshwater		Rivers / streams	Principal habitat
Marine		Pelagic zone (offshore)	Principal habitat

Biology and Ecology

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Life History

The anadromous Atlantic salmon has a relatively complex and flexible life history that involves spawning and juvenile growth in rivers, and extensive feeding migrations at sea. As a result, Atlantic salmon go through several distinct phases that can be identified by specific changes in appearance, behaviour, physiology, and habitat requirements (Sedgwick, 1982; Jonsson and Jonsson, 2011). Several lake populations are landlocked.

In the natural environment, eggs hatch in March or April and the alevins (~ 2 cm) that emerge subsist off the attached yolk sac until reaching the fry stage, when they are ready to accept exogenous food. Fry remain buried in the gravel for about six weeks before emerging, and start feeding on plankton and small invertebrates. Emergent fry develop cryptic colouration appropriate to a riverine environment (predominantly greens, reds, yellows and browns) and camouflaging stripes along their sides, and enter what is termed the parr stage which typically lasts for 1-4 years. Parr habitat is normally riffle areas in streams characterized by adequate cover, shallow water depth, and moderate-to-fast water flow. In the spring of each year, driven by increasing daylength and increasing water temperatures, salmon parr undergo a physiological transformation called smoltification that prepares them for life in a marine habitat. Atlantic salmon smolts, approximately 15g in weight, leave rivers in the late spring and grow to adulthood in the North Atlantic basin where they remain for 1-5 years, before returning to their natal river to spawn in the early winter months. Genetically, populations are very river-specific in their attributes, which are adapted to the biotic and abiotic conditions found in a particular river. Body growth is rapid during the marine stage and the flesh becomes pink to orange due to carotenoid pigments derived from prey such as Euphausiid shrimp.

The rearing of captive Atlantic salmon for fish farming and stock enhancement programmes mimics the life history of wild S. salar and utilises both freshwater and sea water environments. Because of the efficiencies of farm husbandry practices, the farming process accelerates the life cycle to 1 year or less in freshwater (smolts typically 4-g to 120g), with harvesting after a further 16 to 20 months of growth in sea cages.

Natural Food Sources

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Food Source	Food Source Datasheet	Life Stage	Contribution to Total Food Intake (%)	Details
detritus		Aquatic\|Fry
nekton (bony fish)		Aquatic\|Adult; Aquatic\|Fry
nekton (squids/cuttlefish)		Aquatic\|Adult; Aquatic\|Fry
cladocerans		Aquatic\|Adult; Aquatic\|Fry
euphausiids		Aquatic\|Adult
zoobenthos (finfish)		Aquatic\|Adult; Aquatic\|Fry
zoobenthos (insects)		Aquatic\|Adult; Aquatic\|Fry
zoobenthos (polychaetes)		Aquatic\|Adult
zoobentos (benthic crustaceans)		Aquatic\|Adult; Aquatic\|Fry
terrestrial insects
molluscs

Climate

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Climate	Status	Description	Remark
C - Temperate/Mesothermal climate	Preferred	Average temp. of coldest month > 0°C and < 18°C, mean warmest month > 10°C
D - Continental/Microthermal climate	Tolerated	Continental/Microthermal climate (Average temp. of coldest month < 0°C, mean warmest month > 10°C)

Water Tolerances

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Parameter	Minimum Value	Maximum Value	Typical Value	Status	Life Stage	Notes
Aluminium (mg/l)			<0.33	Optimum	Adult
Ammonia [unionised] (mg/l)			<0.01	Optimum	Adult
Ammonia [unionised] (mg/l)			<0.0025	Optimum	Egg	from RSPCA (2018b)
Ammonia [unionised] (mg/l)			<0.0025	Optimum	Larval	from RSPCA (2018b)
Ammonia [unionised] (mg/l)			<0.0025	Optimum	Fry	from RSPCA (2018b)
Carbon Dioxide (mg/l)			<10.0	Optimum	Egg	from RSPCA (2018b)
Carbon Dioxide (mg/l)			<6.0	Optimum	Larval	from RSPCA (2018b)
Carbon Dioxide (mg/l)			<6.0	Optimum	Fry	from RSPCA (2018b)
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l)			>5.0	Optimum	Adult
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l)			>5.0	Optimum	Broodstock
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l)			7.0	Optimum	Egg	from RSPCA (2018b)
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l)			7.0	Optimum	Larval	from RSPCA (2018b)
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l)			7.0	Optimum	Fry	from RSPCA (2018b)
Nitrate (mg/l)			<50.0	Optimum	Larval	from RSPCA (2018b)
Nitrate (mg/l)			<50.0	Optimum	Fry	from RSPCA (2018b)
Nitrite (mg/l)			<0.03	Optimum	Adult
Nitrite (mg/l)			<0.2	Optimum	Egg	from RSPCA (2018b)
Nitrite (mg/l)			<0.2	Optimum	Larval	from RSPCA (2018b)
Nitrite (mg/l)			<0.2	Optimum	Fry	from RSPCA (2018b)
Salinity (part per thousand)	33	34		Optimum	Adult
Spawning temperature (ºC temperature)	5	10		Optimum	Broodstock
Suspended solids (mg/l)			<25.0	Optimum	Egg	from RSPCA (2018b)
Suspended solids (mg/l)			<25.0	Optimum	Larval	from RSPCA (2018b)
Suspended solids (mg/l)			<25.0	Optimum	Fry	from RSPCA (2018b)
Water pH (pH)	6	9		Optimum	Adult
Water pH (pH)	5.5	8.0		Optimum	Egg	From RSPCA (2018b); refers to inlet water
Water pH (pH)	5.5	8.0		Optimum	Larval	From RSPCA (2018b); refers to inlet water
Water pH (pH)	5.5	8.0		Optimum	Fry	From RSPCA (2018b); refers to inlet water
Water temperature (ºC temperature)	1.0	12.0		Optimum	Larval	From RSPCA (2018b). Other information indicates that more than 22°C is harmful
Water temperature (ºC temperature)	1.0	14.0		Optimum	Fry	from RSPCA (2018b)
Water temperature (ºC temperature)	<12	16		Optimum	Adult	Less than -7 or more than 27°C is harmful
Water temperature (ºC temperature)	8	12		Optimum	Egg	RSPCA (2018b) indicates that acceptable range is 1.0 to 8.0°C

Natural enemies

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Natural enemy	Type	Life stages	References
Ardea cinerea	Predator		Quick et al. (2002)
Cepphus grylle	Predator		Quick et al. (2002)
Esox lucius	Predator	Aquatic\|Adult; Aquatic\|Fry; Aquatic\|Larval	Pervozvanskiy and Bugayev (1992)
Fulmarus glacialis	Predator		Quick et al. (2002)
Gadus morhua	Predator	Aquatic\|Adult	Montevecchi et al. (2002)
Halichoerus grypus	Predator	Aquatic\|Adult	Carter et al. (2001)
Larus	Predator		Quick et al. (2002)
Lutra lutra	Predator		Carss et al. (1990)
Morone saxatilis	Predator	Aquatic\|Adult	Beland and Kocik (2001)
Morus bassanus	Predator	Aquatic\|Adult	Montevecchi et al. (2002)
Neovison vison	Predator		Quick et al. (2002)
Petromyzon marinus	Parasite	Aquatic\|Adult	Hardisty (1986)
Phalacrocorax aristotelis	Predator		Quick et al. (2002)
Phalacrocorax carbo	Predator		Quick et al. (2002)
Phoca vitulina	Predator	Aquatic\|Adult	Carter et al. (2001)
Salmo trutta	Predator	Aquatic\|Egg	Berg (1962); Henderson and Letcher (2003)
Salvelinus fontinalis	Predator	Aquatic\|Fry; Aquatic\|Larval	Henderson and Letcher (2003)
Thymallus thymallus	Predator	Aquatic\|Egg	Berg (1962)
Tursiops truncatus	Predator	Aquatic\|Adult	Santos et al. (2001)
Uria aalge	Predator	Aquatic\|Adult	Montevecchi et al. (2002)

Notes on Natural Enemies

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Atlantic salmon are susceptible to a number of diseases (bacterial and viral) and parasites (arthropods, helminths and protozoa), although disease-related mortality is primarily documented for hatcheries and aquaculture facilities. The monogenean freshwater ectoparasite Gyrodactylus salaris (commonly known as the salmon fluke) has been implicated in the reduction of Atlantic salmon populations in the Norwegian fjords, and the sea louse Lepeophtheirus salmonis and various Caligus species are major ectoparasites of farmed and wild Atlantic salmon. Bakke and Harris (1998) note that disease epizootics in wild salmon are not commonly reported; they consider that myxozoans, furunculosis, Gyrodactylus salaris, and sea lice are the pathogens most likely to threaten wild and managed salmon stocks in future. Spawning salmon in rivers and streams are susceptible to fungal (Saprolegnia spp.) infections. Despite abundant research on pathogens of farmed salmon, little is known of their impact on wild or managed stocks and an adequate theoretical framework for salmon disease epidemiology is needed to understand and manage the role of disease in salmon conservation (Bakke and Harris, 1998).

Wild and farmed salmon are predated upon by a variety of marine mammals and birds.

Pathway Causes

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Cause	Long Distance	Local	References
Aquaculture	Yes	Yes	FAO (2019)
Fisheries	Yes	Yes	Froese and Pauly (2009)
Hunting, angling, sport or racing	Yes	Yes	FAO (2019)

Pathway Vectors

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Vector	Notes	Long Distance	Local	References
Aquaculture stock			Yes

Impact Summary

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Category	Impact
Economic/livelihood	Positive
Environment (generally)	Negative
Fisheries / aquaculture	Positive and negative
Native fauna	Negative

Environmental Impact

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Atlantic salmon farming has long been controversial and its effect on the environment and on wild fisheries (particularly salmonid fisheries) is questioned by many individuals and organizations (FAO, 2018). Taranger et al. (2015) offer a comprehensive risk assessment of the impact of farmed S. salar on the environment and on wild salmon populations.

The major areas of concern can be summarised as follows:

Local nutrient pollution into water systems from waste feed/faeces.
Local chemical pollution through use of chemical treatments.
Effect on wild fish of escapees, through the spread of diseases, competition for food, space, and breeding partners, and genetic introgression.
Transmission of ectoparasites (especially sea lice, which are species of copepod in the genera Lepeophtheirus and Caligus) from farmed fish to wild fish causing increased mortality in the latter, especially of migrating smolts.
Issues of sustainability, since farmed salmon production relies on supplies of fishmeal and fish oil for feed production, and these are obtained from industrial fisheries.

Genetic Impact

Native salmon populations are typically genetically distinct from each other and potentially locally adapted. Farmed salmon represent a limited number of wild source populations that have had 12 generations or more of selective breeding and domestication (Hindar et al., 2006). Consequently, farmed and wild salmon differ in many traits including molecular-genetic polymorphisms, growth, morphology, life history, behaviour, physiology and gene transcription (Jonsson and Jonsson, 2006). Field experiments have demonstrated that the offspring of farmed salmon display lower lifetime fitness in the wild than wild salmon and that following introgression, there is a reduced production of genetically wild salmon and, potentially, reduced total salmon production. Introgressive hybridization was detected in half of about 150 Norwegian populations, with point estimates as high as 47%, and an unweighted average of 6.4% across 109 populations (Glover et al., 2017). The biological and ecological consequences, and the mechanisms driving population-specific impacts of introgression, remain poorly understood.

Risk and Impact Factors

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Invasiveness

Invasive in its native range
Proved invasive outside its native range
Has a broad native range
Capable of securing and ingesting a wide range of food
Highly mobile locally
Long lived
Fast growing

Impact outcomes

Changed gene pool/ selective loss of genotypes
Threat to/ loss of native species

Impact mechanisms

Competition - monopolizing resources
Pest and disease transmission
Hybridization

Likelihood of entry/control

Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately

Uses List

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Animal feed, fodder, forage

Fodder/animal feed

General

Sport (hunting, shooting, fishing, racing)

Human food and beverage

Canned meat
Cured meat
Eggs (roe)
Fish meal
Fish oil
Fresh meat
Frozen meat
Whole

Materials

Skins/leather/fur

References

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Vilata, J., Oliva, D., Sepúlveda, M., 2010. The predation of farmed salmon by South American sea lions (Otaria flavescens) in southern Chile. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 67(3), 475-482. http://icesjms.oxfordjournals.org/ doi: 10.1093/icesjms/fsp250

Waltz, E., 2017. First genetically engineered salmon sold in Canada. In: Scientific American . https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/first-genetically-engineered-salmon-sold-in-canada/

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Welcomme RL, 1988. International introductions of inland aquatic species. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper, No. 294:x + 318 pp

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Distribution References

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Links to Websites

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Website	URL	Comment
Aquaculture Stewardship Council	https://www.asc-aqua.org
Atlantic Salmon Federation	http://www.asf.ca/main.html
FishBase	http://www.fishbase.org
Food and Agriculture Organization	http://www.fao.org/fishery/en
Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS)	http://griis.org/
International Salmon Farmers Association	http://www.salmonfarming.org
Kontali AS	https://www.kontali.no/
Mowi ASA (formerly Marine Harvest AS)	http://www.mowi.com/
North Atlantic Salmon Conservation Organization	http://www.nasco.int/
Scottish Environmental Protection Agency	https://www.sepa.org.uk
Scottish Salmon Producers Organisation	http://scottishsalmon.co.uk/

Contributors

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27/03/2018 Updated by:

Clive Talbot, consultant, UK

20/01/2010 Updated by:

Vicki Bonham, CABI, Nosworthy Way, Wallingford, OX10 8DE, UK

Main Author
Sunil Siriwardena
Institute of Aquaculture, University of Stirling, Stirling, FK9 4LA, UK

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Salmo salar (Atlantic salmon)

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