Salmo salar (Atlantic salmon)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Description
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- Introductions
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Biology and Ecology
- Natural Food Sources
- Climate
- Water Tolerances
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Environmental Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses List
- References
- Links to Websites
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
Don't need the entire report?
Generate a print friendly version containing only the sections you need.
Generate reportPictures
Top of pageIdentity
Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Salmo salar Linnaeus, 1758
Preferred Common Name
- Atlantic salmon
Other Scientific Names
- Salmo brevipes Smitt, 1882
- Salmo caerulescens Schmidt, 1795
- Salmo goedenii Bloch, 1784
- Salmo gracilis Couch, 1865
- Salmo hamatus Cuvier, 1829
- Salmo hardinii Günther, 1866
- Salmo nobilis Olafsen, 1772
- Salmo ocla Nilsson, 1832
- Salmo renatus Lacepède, 1803
- Salmo rilla Lacepède, 1803
- Salmo salar biennis Berg, 1912
- Salmo salar brevipes Smitt, 1882
- Salmo salar brevipes relictus Berg, 1912
- Salmo salar europaeus Payne, Child & Forrest, 1971
- Salmo salar lacustris Hardin, 1862
- Salmo salar saimensis Seppovaara, 1962
- Salmo salmo Valenciennes, 1848
- Salmo salmulus Walbaum, 1792
- Trutta relicta Malmgren, 1863
- Trutta salar Linnaeus, 1758
International Common Names
- English: bay salmon; black salmon; caplin-scull salmon; common Atlantic salmon; fiddler; grayling; grilse; grilt; kelt; landlocked salmon; n. Atlantic salmon; ouananiche; ouinanish; outside salmon; parr; salmon; salmon peel; salmon, Atlantic; sea salmon; sebago salmon; silver salmon; slink; smolt; spring fish; spring salmon; winnish
- Spanish: salmó; salmón; salmón del Atlántico
- French: saumon Atlantique; saumon d'eau douce; tacon Atlantique
- Russian: Amerikanskiy atlanticheskiy losos'; losos; semga
Local Common Names
- Belarus: losos
- Canada: fiddler; grilse; grilt; landlocked salmon; ouananiche; parr; unaniche
- Canada/British Columbia: k'wolexw; sináech; st'thkway'
- Canada/Newfoundland and Labrador: breeder; kavisilik
- Canada/Quebec: kumaliq; saama; saamakutaak; saamarug; sâma; saumon Atlantique; saumon d'eau douce
- Chile: salmón del Atlántico
- Czech Republic: losos Atlantsky; losos obecný
- Denmark: Atlanterhavslaks; Atlantisk laks; gravlaks; laks; nedfaldslaks; skællaks
- Estonia: salmon
- Faroe Islands: laksur; smolt
- Finland: graavisuolattu lohi; kutenut lohi; lohi
- Germany: Atlantischer Lachs; Atlantischer Salmon; Echter Lachs; Lachs; Las; Salm; Salmling; Wildlachs
- Greece: solomos; solomós
- Greenland: kapisalirksoak; kapisilik; kebleriksorsoak
- Iceland: graflax; hoplax; lax
- Ireland: an bradán; bradan; braden; salmon
- Isle of Man (UK): braddan; salmon
- Italy: salmo; salmone; salmone Atlantico; salmone del Reno
- Japan: sake masu-rui
- Latvia: losos
- Netherlands: drooggezouten gekruide zalm; hengst; ijle zalm; jacobzalm; zalm
- Norway: laks; laks Atlantisk; lax
- Poland: losos; losos szlachetny a. Atlantycki
- Portugal: salmao; salmâo; salmão; salmâo-do-Atlântico; salmão-do-Atlântico; sãlmao-do-Atlântico
- Romania: somon de Atlantic
- Slovakia: losos obycajný
- Spain: salmó
- Sweden: gravlax; gullspångslax; lax; vraklax
- Turkey: alabalik Atlantik
- UK: black salmon; common Atlantic salmon; grilse; kelt; parr; salmon; sea salmon; silver salmon
- UK/England and Wales: eog
- USA: sebago salmon
- Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro): losos; salmon
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageNative to the north Atlantic and rivers that flow into it, S. salar has been introduced to many parts of the world for the purposes of aquaculture (and in some locations for sport fishing or fisheries). Concerns have been raised over the negative impacts of its farming on native fish populations and the surrounding environment. Transmission of disease and hybridization with wild populations are of particular concern. Jonsson and Jonsson (2006) reviewed the interactions between cultured and wild Atlantic salmon and reported that the fitness of wild salmon was superior to that of cultured salmon in all aspects of survival and reproduction and that the lifetime reproductive success of farmed fish was only 17% that of similar-sized wild salmon. However, they concluded that as a result of ecological interaction and through density-dependent mechanisms, cultured fish may displace wild conspecifics to some extent, increase their mortality, and decrease their growth rate, adult size, reproductive output, biomass, and production. Hindar et al. (2006) modelled the future of wild salmon populations experiencing invasions of escaped farmed salmon. Simulations with a fixed intrusion rate of 20% escaped farmed salmon at spawning suggested that substantial changes take place in wild salmon populations within ten salmon generations (∼40 years). In a study conducted in Norway, Fiske et al. (2006) found a significant positive correlation between the incidence of escaped farmed salmon in the rivers at the county level and the intensity of salmon farming, measured as the number of farmed salmon in net pens, suggesting that restriction in salmon farming may reduce the impact of escapees in salmon populations nearby. Welcomme (1988) reported that compared to Salmo trutta, which is highly invasive and is implicated in the extirpation of native fish in many regions of the world, S. salar was a poor colonizer and had rarely been associated with species loss. It was one of the 100 invasive species listed in 2004 by the Oregon Invasive Species Council (Oregon Invasive Species Council, 2005), but was removed from the list in 2015 (Oregon Invasive Species Council, 2016).
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Metazoa
- Phylum: Chordata
- Subphylum: Vertebrata
- Class: Actinopterygii
- Order: Salmoniformes
- Family: Salmonidae
- Genus: Salmo
- Species: Salmo salar
Description
Top of pageThe Atlantic salmon is a species of ray-finned teleost fish in the family Salmonidae with a graceful fusiform body. It is the largest species in the genus Salmo. Sea-run Atlantic salmon usually attain a larger size than do landlocked salmon (those living in entirely fresh water). Sea-run wild salmon range from 2kg to 9kg depending, largely, on fish sea age (i.e. how long they have lived at sea); the maximum published weight and age are 46.8kg and 13 years respectively (Froese and Pauly, 2018). The world record rod-caught Atlantic salmon weighed 35.9 kg and was caught in the Tana River of Norway (Renzi, 1999). The maximum attainable total length is around 150 cm for males and 120 cm for females (Froese and Pauly, 2018). (Farmed salmon are harvested at between 3kg and 6kg GWE (gutted weight equivalent), with the most common size in the range 4kg to 5kg GWE; the standard conversion factor from GWE to LWE (live weight equivalent) is a factor of 1.19 -- Marine Harvest, 2018).
As described in detail by Froese and Pauly (2018), the Atlantic salmon has an elongate, laterally compressed body with a distinct caudal peduncle. A fleshy adipose fin is present between the dorsal and forked caudal fin. The mouth extends only to the area below the rear of the eye and has well-developed teeth. The number of gill rakers may range from 17 to 24 and the number of vertebrae from 58 to 61. Small parr have 8-11 pigmented bars along each side of the body that alternate with a single row of red spots along the lateral line. These marks are lost when fish reach the smolt stage, when body colour becomes silvery and the dorsal area shows shades of green, blue and brown. Adult body colour varies, but fish are generally silver-skinned with distinct dark blue-green, cross-like spots over the body and head, and above the lateral line. The skin is protected by mucus secreted by goblet cells in the epidermis. At spawning the skin and fins thicken and the body colour of both males and females turns dark. The head of the male becomes elongated and grows a "kype" from the tip of the lower jaw, making males and females easily distinguished. (Further information on morphology from ASF, 2018; Jonsson and Jonsson, 2011; and Renzi, 1999). When compared to wild salmon, farmed salmon often have worn fins with wavy fin-rays and more spots both above and below the lateral line (Fiske, 2012).
Distribution
Top of pageSalmo salar is found in the Atlantic Ocean in the temperate and arctic zones in the northern hemisphere (ASF, 2018). It is native to the basin of the North Atlantic Ocean, from the Arctic Circle to Portugal in the eastern Atlantic, in Iceland and southern Greenland, and from the Ungava region of northern Quebec south to the Connecticut River (Scott and Crossman, 1973). Landlocked stocks are present in Russia, Finland, Sweden and Norway (Kazakov, 1992) and in North America (Scott and Crossman, 1973). Atlantic salmon are farmed in a number of countries around the world, not restricted to the native range; these include the USA (Puget Sound and Maine), Canada (British Columbia, Newfoundland, New Brunswick), Chile, Australia (Tasmania), New Zealand, Ireland, the UK (Scotland), Norway, the Faeroe Islands, Russia (Murmansk and Barents Sea), and Iceland (Marine Harvest, 2018). Introductions for angling and escapes from culture have led to the establishment of wild populations in the north-east Pacific, Chile, Argentina and New Zealand; these are usually landlocked, but anadromous breeding has been recorded in British Columbia (Love et al., 2005; Welcomme, 1988).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 10 Feb 2022Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
South Africa | Present | Introduced | 1896 | As: Salmo salar | |||
Antarctica |
|||||||
French Southern Territories | Present | Introduced | 1975 | Kerguelen Islands; Establishment uncertain | |||
Asia |
|||||||
China | Present | Introduced | Establishment uncertain | ||||
India | Present | Introduced | Probably not established; Establishment uncertain | ||||
Indonesia | Present | Introduced | 1929 | As: Salmo salar | |||
Turkey | Absent, Formerly present | ||||||
Europe |
|||||||
Austria | Present | Introduced | 1886 | As: Salmo salar | |||
Belgium | Present | Native | |||||
Cyprus | Present | Introduced | for aquaculture; Not established | ||||
Czechia | Present, Few occurrences | Native | Reported extinct in wild in 2000 despite restocking, but further specimens have been found since then | ||||
Denmark | Present | Native | |||||
Estonia | Present | Native | |||||
Faroe Islands | Present | Native | |||||
Finland | Present | Native | |||||
France | Present | Native | |||||
Germany | Present | Native | |||||
Greece | Present | Introduced | 1985 | As: Salmo salar | |||
Iceland | Present | Native | |||||
Ireland | Present | Native | |||||
Isle of Man | Present | Native | |||||
Italy | Present | Native | |||||
Latvia | Present | Native | |||||
Lithuania | Present | Native | |||||
Netherlands | Present | Native | |||||
Norway | Present | Native | |||||
Poland | Present | Native | |||||
Portugal | Present | Native | |||||
Russia | Present | Native | |||||
Slovakia | Present | Native | |||||
Spain | Present | Native | |||||
Sweden | Present | Native | |||||
Switzerland | Present, Few occurrences | Native | Formerly common, later became extinct; reintroduction efforts and some farming | ||||
United Kingdom | Present | Native | |||||
-Channel Islands | Present | Native | |||||
-Northern Ireland | Present | Native | |||||
-Scotland | Present | Native | |||||
North America |
|||||||
Canada | Present | Native | |||||
-British Columbia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Greenland | Present | Native | |||||
United States | Present | Native | |||||
-Alaska | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Washington | Present | Introduced | |||||
Oceania |
|||||||
Australia | Present | Introduced | As: Salmo salar. First reported: 1864 - 1870 | ||||
New Zealand | Present | Introduced | |||||
Sea Areas |
|||||||
Arctic Sea | Present | Native | |||||
Atlantic - Northeast | Present | Native | |||||
Atlantic - Northwest | Present | Native | |||||
Atlantic - Southwest | Present | Introduced | |||||
Indian Ocean - Antarctic | Present | Introduced | 1975 | Establishment uncertain | |||
Mediterranean and Black Sea | Present | Native | |||||
Pacific - Northeast | Present | Introduced | |||||
Pacific - Southeast | Present | Introduced | |||||
Pacific - Southwest | Present | Introduced | |||||
South America |
|||||||
Argentina | Present | Introduced | 1904 | As: Salmo salar | |||
Brazil | Present | Introduced | 1957 | As: Salmo salar | |||
Chile | Present | Introduced | 1905 | As: Salmo salar | |||
Falkland Islands | Present | Introduced | 1960 | As: Salmo salar |
Introductions
Top of pageHabitat
Top of pageThe Atlantic salmon is an anadromous species, living in freshwater for at least the first 2 or 3 years of life before migrating to the sea. Relatively large cool rivers with extensive gravelly bottom headwaters are essential during its early life (Renzi, 1999). Smolts migrate to the sea where they may live for a number of years before returning to freshwater, but the movements of Atlantic salmon at sea are not well understood (Renzi, 1999). Tagging has shown that while some salmon wander, the great majority return to the river in which they were spawned. The species prefers cool temperatures (Bigelow et al., 1963).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Freshwater | Rivers / streams | Principal habitat | ||
Marine | Pelagic zone (offshore) | Principal habitat |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageLife History
The anadromous Atlantic salmon has a relatively complex and flexible life history that involves spawning and juvenile growth in rivers, and extensive feeding migrations at sea. As a result, Atlantic salmon go through several distinct phases that can be identified by specific changes in appearance, behaviour, physiology, and habitat requirements (Sedgwick, 1982; Jonsson and Jonsson, 2011). Several lake populations are landlocked.
In the natural environment, eggs hatch in March or April and the alevins (~ 2 cm) that emerge subsist off the attached yolk sac until reaching the fry stage, when they are ready to accept exogenous food. Fry remain buried in the gravel for about six weeks before emerging, and start feeding on plankton and small invertebrates. Emergent fry develop cryptic colouration appropriate to a riverine environment (predominantly greens, reds, yellows and browns) and camouflaging stripes along their sides, and enter what is termed the parr stage which typically lasts for 1-4 years. Parr habitat is normally riffle areas in streams characterized by adequate cover, shallow water depth, and moderate-to-fast water flow. In the spring of each year, driven by increasing daylength and increasing water temperatures, salmon parr undergo a physiological transformation called smoltification that prepares them for life in a marine habitat. Atlantic salmon smolts, approximately 15g in weight, leave rivers in the late spring and grow to adulthood in the North Atlantic basin where they remain for 1-5 years, before returning to their natal river to spawn in the early winter months. Genetically, populations are very river-specific in their attributes, which are adapted to the biotic and abiotic conditions found in a particular river. Body growth is rapid during the marine stage and the flesh becomes pink to orange due to carotenoid pigments derived from prey such as Euphausiid shrimp.
The rearing of captive Atlantic salmon for fish farming and stock enhancement programmes mimics the life history of wild S. salar and utilises both freshwater and sea water environments. Because of the efficiencies of farm husbandry practices, the farming process accelerates the life cycle to 1 year or less in freshwater (smolts typically 4-g to 120g), with harvesting after a further 16 to 20 months of growth in sea cages.
Natural Food Sources
Top of pageFood Source | Food Source Datasheet | Life Stage | Contribution to Total Food Intake (%) | Details |
---|---|---|---|---|
detritus | Aquatic|Fry | |||
nekton (bony fish) | Aquatic|Adult; Aquatic|Fry | |||
nekton (squids/cuttlefish) | Aquatic|Adult; Aquatic|Fry | |||
cladocerans | Aquatic|Adult; Aquatic|Fry | |||
euphausiids | Aquatic|Adult | |||
zoobenthos (finfish) | Aquatic|Adult; Aquatic|Fry | |||
zoobenthos (insects) | Aquatic|Adult; Aquatic|Fry | |||
zoobenthos (polychaetes) | Aquatic|Adult | |||
zoobentos (benthic crustaceans) | Aquatic|Adult; Aquatic|Fry | |||
terrestrial insects | ||||
molluscs |
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
C - Temperate/Mesothermal climate | Preferred | Average temp. of coldest month > 0°C and < 18°C, mean warmest month > 10°C | |
D - Continental/Microthermal climate | Tolerated | Continental/Microthermal climate (Average temp. of coldest month < 0°C, mean warmest month > 10°C) |
Water Tolerances
Top of pageParameter | Minimum Value | Maximum Value | Typical Value | Status | Life Stage | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Aluminium (mg/l) | <0.33 | Optimum | Adult | |||
Ammonia [unionised] (mg/l) | <0.01 | Optimum | Adult | |||
Ammonia [unionised] (mg/l) | <0.0025 | Optimum | Egg | from RSPCA (2018b) | ||
Ammonia [unionised] (mg/l) | <0.0025 | Optimum | Larval | from RSPCA (2018b) | ||
Ammonia [unionised] (mg/l) | <0.0025 | Optimum | Fry | from RSPCA (2018b) | ||
Carbon Dioxide (mg/l) | <10.0 | Optimum | Egg | from RSPCA (2018b) | ||
Carbon Dioxide (mg/l) | <6.0 | Optimum | Larval | from RSPCA (2018b) | ||
Carbon Dioxide (mg/l) | <6.0 | Optimum | Fry | from RSPCA (2018b) | ||
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l) | >5.0 | Optimum | Adult | |||
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l) | >5.0 | Optimum | Broodstock | |||
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l) | 7.0 | Optimum | Egg | from RSPCA (2018b) | ||
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l) | 7.0 | Optimum | Larval | from RSPCA (2018b) | ||
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l) | 7.0 | Optimum | Fry | from RSPCA (2018b) | ||
Nitrate (mg/l) | <50.0 | Optimum | Larval | from RSPCA (2018b) | ||
Nitrate (mg/l) | <50.0 | Optimum | Fry | from RSPCA (2018b) | ||
Nitrite (mg/l) | <0.03 | Optimum | Adult | |||
Nitrite (mg/l) | <0.2 | Optimum | Egg | from RSPCA (2018b) | ||
Nitrite (mg/l) | <0.2 | Optimum | Larval | from RSPCA (2018b) | ||
Nitrite (mg/l) | <0.2 | Optimum | Fry | from RSPCA (2018b) | ||
Salinity (part per thousand) | 33 | 34 | Optimum | Adult | ||
Spawning temperature (ºC temperature) | 5 | 10 | Optimum | Broodstock | ||
Suspended solids (mg/l) | <25.0 | Optimum | Egg | from RSPCA (2018b) | ||
Suspended solids (mg/l) | <25.0 | Optimum | Larval | from RSPCA (2018b) | ||
Suspended solids (mg/l) | <25.0 | Optimum | Fry | from RSPCA (2018b) | ||
Water pH (pH) | 6 | 9 | Optimum | Adult | ||
Water pH (pH) | 5.5 | 8.0 | Optimum | Egg | From RSPCA (2018b); refers to inlet water | |
Water pH (pH) | 5.5 | 8.0 | Optimum | Larval | From RSPCA (2018b); refers to inlet water | |
Water pH (pH) | 5.5 | 8.0 | Optimum | Fry | From RSPCA (2018b); refers to inlet water | |
Water temperature (ºC temperature) | 1.0 | 12.0 | Optimum | Larval | From RSPCA (2018b). Other information indicates that more than 22°C is harmful | |
Water temperature (ºC temperature) | 1.0 | 14.0 | Optimum | Fry | from RSPCA (2018b) | |
Water temperature (ºC temperature) | <12 | 16 | Optimum | Adult | Less than -7 or more than 27°C is harmful | |
Water temperature (ºC temperature) | 8 | 12 | Optimum | Egg | RSPCA (2018b) indicates that acceptable range is 1.0 to 8.0°C |
Natural enemies
Top of pageNotes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageAtlantic salmon are susceptible to a number of diseases (bacterial and viral) and parasites (arthropods, helminths and protozoa), although disease-related mortality is primarily documented for hatcheries and aquaculture facilities. The monogenean freshwater ectoparasite Gyrodactylus salaris (commonly known as the salmon fluke) has been implicated in the reduction of Atlantic salmon populations in the Norwegian fjords, and the sea louse Lepeophtheirus salmonis and various Caligus species are major ectoparasites of farmed and wild Atlantic salmon. Bakke and Harris (1998) note that disease epizootics in wild salmon are not commonly reported; they consider that myxozoans, furunculosis, Gyrodactylus salaris, and sea lice are the pathogens most likely to threaten wild and managed salmon stocks in future. Spawning salmon in rivers and streams are susceptible to fungal (Saprolegnia spp.) infections. Despite abundant research on pathogens of farmed salmon, little is known of their impact on wild or managed stocks and an adequate theoretical framework for salmon disease epidemiology is needed to understand and manage the role of disease in salmon conservation (Bakke and Harris, 1998).
Wild and farmed salmon are predated upon by a variety of marine mammals and birds.
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Aquaculture | Yes | Yes | FAO (2019) | |
Fisheries | Yes | Yes | Froese and Pauly (2009) | |
Hunting, angling, sport or racing | Yes | Yes | FAO (2019) |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Economic/livelihood | Positive |
Environment (generally) | Negative |
Fisheries / aquaculture | Positive and negative |
Native fauna | Negative |
Environmental Impact
Top of pageAtlantic salmon farming has long been controversial and its effect on the environment and on wild fisheries (particularly salmonid fisheries) is questioned by many individuals and organizations (FAO, 2018). Taranger et al. (2015) offer a comprehensive risk assessment of the impact of farmed S. salar on the environment and on wild salmon populations.
The major areas of concern can be summarised as follows:
- Local nutrient pollution into water systems from waste feed/faeces.
- Local chemical pollution through use of chemical treatments.
- Effect on wild fish of escapees, through the spread of diseases, competition for food, space, and breeding partners, and genetic introgression.
- Transmission of ectoparasites (especially sea lice, which are species of copepod in the genera Lepeophtheirus and Caligus) from farmed fish to wild fish causing increased mortality in the latter, especially of migrating smolts.
- Issues of sustainability, since farmed salmon production relies on supplies of fishmeal and fish oil for feed production, and these are obtained from industrial fisheries.
Genetic Impact
Native salmon populations are typically genetically distinct from each other and potentially locally adapted. Farmed salmon represent a limited number of wild source populations that have had 12 generations or more of selective breeding and domestication (Hindar et al., 2006). Consequently, farmed and wild salmon differ in many traits including molecular-genetic polymorphisms, growth, morphology, life history, behaviour, physiology and gene transcription (Jonsson and Jonsson, 2006). Field experiments have demonstrated that the offspring of farmed salmon display lower lifetime fitness in the wild than wild salmon and that following introgression, there is a reduced production of genetically wild salmon and, potentially, reduced total salmon production. Introgressive hybridization was detected in half of about 150 Norwegian populations, with point estimates as high as 47%, and an unweighted average of 6.4% across 109 populations (Glover et al., 2017). The biological and ecological consequences, and the mechanisms driving population-specific impacts of introgression, remain poorly understood.
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Invasive in its native range
- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Capable of securing and ingesting a wide range of food
- Highly mobile locally
- Long lived
- Fast growing
- Changed gene pool/ selective loss of genotypes
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Pest and disease transmission
- Hybridization
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Uses List
Top of pageAnimal feed, fodder, forage
- Fodder/animal feed
General
- Sport (hunting, shooting, fishing, racing)
Human food and beverage
- Canned meat
- Cured meat
- Eggs (roe)
- Fish meal
- Fish oil
- Fresh meat
- Frozen meat
- Whole
Materials
- Skins/leather/fur
References
Top of pageAlabaster, J.S. , Lloyd, R., 1982. Water quality criteria for freshwater fish (2nd ed.), London, UK: Butterworths.349 pp.
Allendorf FW, Thorgaard GH, 1984. Tetraploidy and the evolution of salmonid fishes. In: Evolutionary Genetics of Fishes, [ed. by Turner BJ]. New York, USA: Plenum Press. 1-53.
Anon., 1999. Systematic list of Estonian fishes. http://bio.edu.ee/animals/Kalad/kalalist2.htm
ASC, 2017. ASC salmon standard v1.1 – April 2017. Utrecht, Netherlands: Aquaculture Stewardship Council.103 pp. https://www.asc-aqua.org/what-we-do/our-standards/farm-standards/the-salmon-standard/
ASF, 2018. Atlantic Salmon Federation. St. Andrews, New Brunswick, Canada: Atlantic Salmon Federation.http://www.asf.ca/main.html
Atlantic Salmon Federation, 2005. Diseases in wild Atlantic salmon. http://www.asf.ca/Overall/diseases.html
Austin, B., 2012. Infectious Disease in Aquaculture: Prevention and Control, 1st Edition, Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing.560 pp.
Beland KF, Kocik JF, 2001. Striped bass predation upon Atlantic Salmon smolts in Maine. Northeastern Naturalist, 8:267-274
Berg LS, 1962. Freshwater fishes of the USSR and adjacent countries. Volume 1. Israel Program for Scientific Translations Ltd, Jerusalem. (Russian version published 1948)
Bigelow HB, Bradbury MG, Dymond JR, Greeley JR, Hildebrand SF, Mead GW, Miller RR, Rivas LR, Schroeder WL, Suttkus RD, Vladykov VD, 1963. Fishes of the western North Atlantic. Part three. New Haven, Sears Found. Mar. Res., Yale University, USA
Blanc M, Gaudet JL, Banarescu P, Hureau JC, 1971. European inland water fish: a multilingual catalogue. London: Fishing News (Books) Ltd
Carss DN, Kruuk H, Conroy JWH, 1990. Predation on adult Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., by otters, Lutra lutra (L.), within the River Dee system, Aberdeenshire, Scotland. J. Fish Biol., 37(6):935-944
Clemens WA, Wilby GV, 1961. Fishes of the Pacific coast of Canada. Second edition. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada Bull., 68:443 pp
Davidson WS, Koop BF, Jones SJM, Iturra P, Vidal R, Maass A, Jonassen I, Lien S, Omholt SW, 2010. Sequencing the genome of the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Genome Biology, 11, 403. http://genomebiology.com/2010/11/9/403
European Parliament and Council of the European Union, 2006. Directive 2006/44/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 6 September 2006 on the quality of fresh waters needing protection or improvement in order to support fish life. Official Journal of the European Union, 49(L264), 20-31. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2006:264:0020:0031:EN:PDF
FAO, 2018. Cultured Aquatic Species Information Programme: Salmo salar (Linnaeus, 1758). Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.www.fao.org/fishery/culturedspecies/Salmo_salar/
FAO, 2019. Database on Introductions of Aquatic Species (DIAS). Rome, Italy: Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations.http://www.fao.org/fishery/dias/en
Fiske P, 2012. NOBANIS - Invasive Alien Species Fact Sheet: Salmo salar. Akureyri, Iceland: NOBANIS (North European and Baltic Network on Invasive Alien Species).https://www.nobanis.org/globalassets/speciesinfo/s/salmo-salar/salmo_salar.pdf (NOBANIS fact sheet no. 72)
Froese R, Pauly D, 2009. FishBase. http://www.fishbase.org
Froese R, Pauly D, 2010. FishBase. http://www.fishbase.org
Froese, R., Pauly, D., 2004. FishBase. http://www.fishbase.org
Froese, R., Pauly, D., 2018. FishBase. http://www.fishbase.org
Froese, R., Pauly, D., 2019. FishBase. http://www.fishbase.org
Gandolfi G, Zerunian S, Torricelli P, Marconato A, eds, 1991. I pesci delle acque interne italiane. Ministero dell’Ambiente e Unione Zoologica Italiana. Instituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato, Roma. 616 pp
Gilmour KM, Perry SF, 2009. Carbonic anhydrase and acid–base regulation in fish. Journal of Experimental Biology, 212, 1647-1661. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.029181
Hardisty MW, 1986. Petromyzon marinus (Linnaeus 1758). In: Holcík J, ed. The Freshwater fishes of Europe. Vol. 1, Part 1. Petromyzontiformes, 94-116
Hartmann GL, 1827. Helvetische Ichthyologie, oder ausführliche Naturgeschichte der in der Schweiz sich vorfindenden Fische. Zürich, Switzerland: Orell, Füßli und Compagnie
Heather J, Dixon J, Dempson B, Sheehan TF, Renkawitz MD, Power M, 2017. Assessing the diet of North American Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) off the West Greenland coast using gut content and stable isotope analyses. Fisheries Oceanography, 26(5), 555-568.
Henderson NJ, Letcher BH, 2003. Predation on stocked Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 60(1):32-42
Hindar K, 2004. Wild Atlantic salmon in Europe: Status and perspectives. In: Proceedings from the World Summit on Salmon, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, June 10-13, 2003 [World Summit on Salmon, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, June 10-13, 2003], Burnaby, BC, Canada: Simon Fraser University. 47-52. https://www.psf.ca/sites/default/files/1273702870.pdf
ISFA (International Salmon Farmers Association), 2016. Salmon farming: sustaining communities and feeding the world. International Salmon Farmers Association.5 pp. http://www.salmonfarming.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/ISFA-Final-Report-March-16-2015.pdf
Jacobs MN, Covaci A, Schepens P, 2002. Investigation of selected persistent organic pollutants in farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), salmon aquaculture feed, and fish oil components of the feed. Environmental Science & Technology, 36(13), 2797-2805.
Jonsson B, Jonsson N, 2011. Ecology of Atlantic salmon and brown trout, Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer.732 pp.
Jonsson G, 1992. Islenskir fiskar. Fiolvi, Reykjavik, 568 pp
Kailola PJ, Williams MJ, Stewart PC, Reichelt RE, McNee A, Grieve C, 1993. Australian Fisheries Resources. Canberra, Australia: Bureau of Resource Science, Dept. of Primary Industries and Energy, and Fisheries Research and Development Corporation, 422 pp
Kassam, A., 2017. GM salmon hits shelves in Canada – but people may not know they're buying it . In: The Guardian . https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/aug/09/genetically-modified-salmon-sales-canada-aqua-bounty
Kazakov RV, 1992. Distribution of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., in freshwater bodies of Europe. Aquaculture and Fisheries Management, 23(4):461-475
Keith P, Allardi J, 2001. Atlas des poissons d’eau douce de France. Patrimoines naturels, 47. Paris, France: MNHN, 387 pp
Koli L, 1990. Suomen kalat. [Fishes of Finland]. Werner Soderstrom Osakeyhtio. Helsinki. 357 pp
Kontali, 2018. Analyses and reports from the seafood industry. Kristiansund, Norway: Kontali.https://www.kontali.no
Leybold-Johnson I, 2008. Hope jumps at salmon's return to Switzerland. Bern, Switzerland: Swissinfo.https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/hope-jumps-at-salmon-s-return-to-switzerland/6977722
Love MS, Mecklenburg CW, Mecklenburg TA, Thorsteinson LK, 2005. Resource inventory of marine and estuarine fishes of the West Coast and Alaska: a checklist of North Pacific and Arctic Ocean species from Baja California to the Alaska-Yukon border, Seattle, Washington, USA: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division.ix +276 pp. http://lovelab.msi.ucsb.edu/checklist.html (OCS Study MMS 2005-030 and USGS/NBII 2005-001)
Marine Harvest, 2018. Salmon Harvest Industry Handbook 2018, Bergen, Norway: Marine Harvest.112 pp. http://www.mowi.com/globalassets/investors/handbook/2018-salmon-industry-handbook.pdf
McAllister DE, 1990. A list of the fishes of Canada. Syllogeus No. 64. Nat. Mus. Nat. Sci., Ottawa, Canada
Montevecchi WA, Cairns DK, Myers RA, 2002. Predation on marine-phase Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) by gannets (Morus bassanus) in the northwest Atlantic. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 59:602-612
Moor IJ de, Bruton MN, 1988. Atlas of alien and translocated indigenous aquatic animals in southern Africa. A report of the Committee for Nature Conservation Research National Programme for Ecosystem Research. Port Elizabeth, South Africa: South African Scientific Programmes Report No. 144
Moore, G., 2018. Swiss fish farmer harvests first Atlantic salmon. Edinburgh, UK: Fish Farming Expert.https://www.fishfarmingexpert.com/article/swiss-fish-farmer-harvests-first-atlantic-salmon/
Muus BJ, Dahlström P, 1968. Süßwasserfische. München: BLV Verlagsgesellschaft, 224 pp
Muus BJ, Dahlström P, 1974. Collins guide to the sea fishes of Britain and North-Western Europe. London, UK: Collins, 244 pp
Nielsen JG, Bertelsen E, 1992. Fisk i grønlandske farvande. Atuakkiorfik, Nuuk, 65
Oregon Invasive Species Council, 2005. Invasive species in Oregon report card, 2004. Oregon, USA: Oregon Invasive Species Council.https://www.oregoninvasivespeciescouncil.org/s/oisc_reportcard_2004.pdf
Oregon Invasive Species Council, 2016. History of edits to the 100 worst list. Oregon, USA: Oregon Invasive Species Council.10 pp. https://www.oregoninvasivespeciescouncil.org/s/100-Worst-List-History-of-Edits-s988.pdf
Pervozvanskiy VYa, Bugayev VF, 1992. Notes on the ecology of the northern pike, Esox lucius, from the Keret River (White Sea Basin). J. Ichthyol., 32(4):116-126
Quick NJ, Middlemas SJ, Armstrong JD, 2002. The use of Anti-Predator Controls at Scottish Marine Salmon Farms. Pitlochry, Scotland, UK: Fisheries Research Services. (Scottish Fisheries Research Report Number 03/02.)
Rees H, 1967. The chromosomes of Salmo salar. Chromosome (Berlin), 21, 472-474.
Renzi V, 1999. "Salmo salar". Online at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Salmo_salar.html
Reshetnikov YS, Bogutskaya NG, Vasil’eva ED, Dorofeeva EA, Naseka AM, Popova OA, Savvaitova KA, Sideleva VG, Sokolov LI, 1997. An annotated check-list of the freshwater fishes of Russia. Journal of Ichthyology, 37:687-736
Roberts RJ, Ellis AE, 2012. The Anatomy and Physiology of Teleosts. In: Fish Pathology (Fourth Edition), [ed. by Roberts RJ]. Oxford, OK: Wiley-Blackwell. 17-61.
Robins CR, Ray GC, 1986. A field guide to Atlantic coast fishes of North America. Boston USA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 354 pp
RSPCA (Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals), 2018. Farmed fish - key welfare issues. UK: Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals.https://www.rspca.org.uk/adviceandwelfare/farm/fish/keyissues
RSPCA (Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals), 2018. RSPCA welfare standards for farmed Atlantic salmon. Horsham, UK: RSPCA Farm Animals Department.v + 88 pp. https://science.rspca.org.uk/sciencegroup/farmanimals/standards/salmon
Ruane NM, Jones SRM, 2013. Amoebic Gill Disease (AGD) of farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). Copenhagen, Denmark: International Council for the Exploration of the Sea.6 pp. http://www.ices.dk/sites/pub/Publication%20Reports/Disease%20Leaflets/Sheet%20no.%2060.pdf (ICES Identification Leaflets for Diseases and Parasites of Fish and Shellfish, Leaflet No. 60)
Santos MB, Pierce GJ, Patterson RJIAP, Ross HM, Mente E, 2001. Stomach contents of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) in Scottish waters. J. Mar. Ass. UK, 81:873-878
Scott WB, Crossman EJ, 1973. Freshwater fishes of Canada. Bulletin of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada, 184. 966 pp
Sommerset I, Krossøy B, Biering E, Frost P, 2005. Vaccines for fish aquaculture. Expert review of vaccines, 4, 89-101.
SSPO (Scottish Salmon Producers’ Organisation), 2018. Scottish Salmon Producers’ Organisation. Perth, UK: Scottish Salmon Producers’ Organisation.http://scottishsalmon.co.uk/
Svetovidov AN, 1984. Salmonidae. In: Whitehead PJP, Bauchot ML, Hureau JC, Nielsen J, Tortonese E, eds. Fishes of the north-eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean. Volume 1. Paris, France: UNESCO
The Fish Site, 2010. Genetically modified salmon: changing the future. Sheffield, UK: 5m Publishing.https://thefishsite.com/articles/genetically-modified-salmon-changing-the-future
Verspoor E, Stradmeyer L, Nielsen, J, 2007. The Atlantic salmon: genetics, conservation, and management, Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.499 pp.
Waltz, E., 2017. First genetically engineered salmon sold in Canada. In: Scientific American . https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/first-genetically-engineered-salmon-sold-in-canada/
Weis, J.S., 2014. Physiological, Developmental and Behavioral Effects of Marine Pollution, Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer.433 pp.
Distribution References
Anon, 1991. (I pesci delle acque interne italiane). In: Ministero dell'Ambiente e Unione Zoologica Italiana, [ed. by Gandolfi G, Zerunian S, Torricelli P, Marconato A]. Roma, Instituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato. 616 pp.
Anon, 2010. FishBase. In: FishBase, [ed. by Froese R, Pauly D]. http://www.fishbase.org
CABI, Undated. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
FAO, 2019. Database on Introductions of Aquatic Species (DIAS)., Rome, Italy: Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. http://www.fao.org/fishery/dias/en
Froese R, Pauly D, 2004. FishBase DVD., Penang, Malaysia: Worldfish Center. http://www.fishbase.org
Froese R, Pauly D, 2019. FishBase. In: FishBase. http://www.fishbase.org
Hartmann GL, 1827. (Helvetische Ichthyologie, oder ausführliche Naturgeschichte der in der Schweiz sich vorfindenden Fische)., Zürich, Switzerland: Orell, Füssli und Compagnie.
Jonsson G, 1992. Islenskir fiskar. Reykjavik, Iceland: Fiolvi. 568 pp.
Kailola PJ, Williams MJ, Stewart PC, Reichelt RE, McNee A, Grieve C, 1993. Australian Fisheries Resources., Canberra, Australia: Bureau of Resource Science, Dept. of Primary Industries and Energy, and Fisheries Research and Development Corporation. 422 pp.
Keith P, Allardi J, 2001. (Atlas des poissons d'eau douce de France). In: Patrimoines naturels, 47 Paris, France: MNHN. 387 pp.
Koli L, 1990. Suomen kalat. In: Fishes of Finland, Helsinki, Werner Soderstrom Osakeyhtio. 357 pp.
Leybold-Johnson I, 2008. Hope jumps at salmon's return to Switzerland., Bern, Switzerland: Swissinfo. https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/hope-jumps-at-salmon-s-return-to-switzerland/6977722
Love MS, Mecklenburg CW, Mecklenburg TA, Thorsteinson LK, 2005. Resource inventory of marine and estuarine fishes of the West Coast and Alaska: a checklist of North Pacific and Arctic Ocean species from Baja California to the Alaska-Yukon border (OCS Study MMS 2005-030 and USGS/NBII 2005-001)., Seattle, Washington, USA: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division. ix +276 pp. http://lovelab.msi.ucsb.edu/checklist.html
McAllister DE, 1990. A list of the fishes of Canada. Syllogeus No. 64. In: Syllogeus No. 64, Ottawa, Canada: Nat Mus Nat Sci.
Moore G, 2018. Swiss fish farmer harvests first Atlantic salmon., Edinburgh, UK: Fish Farming Expert. https://www.fishfarmingexpert.com/article/swiss-fish-farmer-harvests-first-atlantic-salmon/
Muus BJ, Dahlström P, 1968. (Süßwasserfische)., München, BLV Verlagsgesellschaft. 224 pp.
Muus BJ, Dahlström P, 1974. Collins guide to the sea fishes of Britain and North-Western Europe., London, UK: Collins. 244 pp.
Nielsen JG, Bertelsen E, 1992. (Fisk i grønlandske farvande). In: Atuakkiorfik, Nuuk, 65
Reshetnikov YS, Bogutskaya NG, Vasil'eva ED, Dorofeeva EA, Naseka AM, Popova OA, Savvaitova KA, Sideleva VG, Sokolov LI, 1997. An annotated check-list of the freshwater fishes of Russia. In: Journal of Ichthyology, 37 687-736.
Robins CR, Ray GC, 1986. A field guide to Atlantic coast fishes of North America., Boston, USA: Houghton Mifflin Company. 354 pp.
Svetovidov AN, 1984. Salmonidae. In: Fishes of the north-eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean, 1 [ed. by Whitehead PJP, Bauchot ML, Hureau JC, Nielsen J, Tortonese E]. Paris, France: UNESCO.
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
Aquaculture Stewardship Council | https://www.asc-aqua.org | |
Atlantic Salmon Federation | http://www.asf.ca/main.html | |
FishBase | http://www.fishbase.org | |
Food and Agriculture Organization | http://www.fao.org/fishery/en | |
Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS) | http://griis.org/ | |
International Salmon Farmers Association | http://www.salmonfarming.org | |
Kontali AS | https://www.kontali.no/ | |
Mowi ASA (formerly Marine Harvest AS) | http://www.mowi.com/ | |
North Atlantic Salmon Conservation Organization | http://www.nasco.int/ | |
Scottish Environmental Protection Agency | https://www.sepa.org.uk | |
Scottish Salmon Producers Organisation | http://scottishsalmon.co.uk/ |
Contributors
Top of page27/03/2018 Updated by:
Clive Talbot, consultant, UK
20/01/2010 Updated by:
Vicki Bonham, CABI, Nosworthy Way, Wallingford, OX10 8DE, UK
Main Author
Sunil Siriwardena
Institute of Aquaculture, University of Stirling, Stirling, FK9 4LA, UK
Distribution Maps
Top of pageSelect a dataset
Map Legends
-
CABI Summary Records
Map Filters
Unsupported Web Browser:
One or more of the features that are needed to show you the maps functionality are not available in the web browser that you are using.
Please consider upgrading your browser to the latest version or installing a new browser.
More information about modern web browsers can be found at http://browsehappy.com/