Aphelenchoides ritzemabosi (Chrysanthemum foliar eelworm)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Distribution Table
- Risk of Introduction
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
- Growth Stages
- Symptoms
- List of Symptoms/Signs
- Biology and Ecology
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Seedborne Aspects
- Pathway Vectors
- Plant Trade
- Impact
- Diagnosis
- Detection and Inspection
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pageIdentity
Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Aphelenchoides ritzemabosi (Schwartz, 1911) Steiner & Buhrer, 1932
Preferred Common Name
- Chrysanthemum foliar eelworm
Other Scientific Names
- Aphelenchoides ribes (Taylor, 1917) Goodey, 1933
- Aphelenchus phyllophagus Stewart, 1921
- Aphelenchus ribes (Taylor, 1917) Goodey, 1923
- Aphelenchus ritzema-bosi (Schwartz, 1911)
- Pathoaphelenchus ritzemabosi (Schwartz, 1911) Steiner, 1932
- Pseudaphelenchoides ritzemabosi (Schwartz, 1911) Drozdovski, 1967
- Tylenchus ribes Taylor, 1917
International Common Names
- English: chrysanthemum foliar nematode; leaf and bud nematode; leaf wilt nematode of chrysanthemum
- Spanish: afelencoide del crisantemo; nematodos del crisantemo
- French: anguillule des chrysanthèmes
Local Common Names
- Denmark: bladal; chrysanthemumbladnematod
- Finland: päivänkukkaankeroinen
- Germany: Aelchenkrankheit der Chrysanthemen; Chrysanthemenalchen
- Italy: anguillula dei crisantemi
- Netherlands: Chrysantebladaaltje
- Norway: krysantemumbladnematode
- Sweden: krysantemumbladnematod
EPPO code
- APLORI (Aphelenchoides ritzemabosi)
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Metazoa
- Phylum: Nematoda
- Order: Aphelenchida
- Family: Aphelenchoididae
- Genus: Aphelenchoides
- Species: Aphelenchoides ritzemabosi
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageDescription
Top of pageMeasurements (after Allen, 1952). Females: length = 0.77-1.20 mm; a = 40-45; b = 10-13; c = 18.24; V = 66-75%. Males: length = 0.70-0.93 mm; a = 31-50; b = 10-14; c = 16-30; T = 35-64%.
Body elongate-slender. Cuticle marked by transverse striae 0.9-1.0 µm apart; lateral field with four incisures. Cephalic region hemispherical, smooth, set off from body by a constriction, slightly wider than adjacent body. Stylet about 12 µm long, with minute but distinct basal knobs and sharply pointed tip. Median oesophageal bulb prominent, somewhat oval, filling body cavity, with large cuticular valvular apparatus in centre. Nerve ring about 1.5 body widths behind median bulb. Excretory pore 0.5-2 body widths posterior to nerve ring. Oesophageal glands forming a lobe extending over intestine dorsally for about 4 body widths. Tail elongate-conoid, bearing a terminal peg which has two to four tooth-like processes pointing posteriorly and giving it a paint brush-like appearance.
Female: body when relaxed becomes straight to slightly arcuate. Vulva a transverse slit, at 66-75% of body. Postvulval uterine sac more than half the vulva-anus distance, often containing sperm. Ovary single, with oocytes in multiple rows.
Male: common. Posterior region of body curved through 180 degrees. Testis single, outstretched; sperm large-sized, rounded. Spicules large and prominent, smoothly curved, rosethorn-shaped, lacking a dorsal or ventral process at proximal end; dorsal limb 20-22 µm long.
Juveniles: four juvenile stages, resembling female in general morphology but lacking genital structures.
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 12 May 2022Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
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Mauritius | Present | ||||||
South Africa | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Asia |
|||||||
China | Present, Localized | ||||||
-Guizhou | Present, Widespread | ||||||
India | Present, Localized | ||||||
-Himachal Pradesh | Present | ||||||
-Jammu and Kashmir | Present | ||||||
Iran | Present | ||||||
Japan | Present, Localized | ||||||
-Honshu | Present | ||||||
Kazakhstan | Present | ||||||
South Korea | Present | ||||||
Uzbekistan | Present | ||||||
Europe |
|||||||
Bulgaria | Present | ||||||
Croatia | Present | ||||||
Denmark | Absent, Formerly present | ||||||
Germany | Present | Introduced | First reported: <1992 | ||||
Hungary | Present | ||||||
Ireland | Present | ||||||
Italy | Present | ||||||
Latvia | Present | ||||||
Netherlands | Present | ||||||
Poland | Present | ||||||
Portugal | Present, Localized | ||||||
-Madeira | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Russia | Present | ||||||
-Southern Russia | Present | ||||||
-Western Siberia | Present | ||||||
Serbia | Present | ||||||
Serbia and Montenegro | Present | ||||||
Slovenia | Present | Original citation: Urek and ?irca (2003) | |||||
Spain | Present, Localized | ||||||
-Canary Islands | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Switzerland | Present | ||||||
Ukraine | Present | ||||||
United Kingdom | Present | ||||||
North America |
|||||||
Cuba | Present | ||||||
Mexico | Present, Widespread | ||||||
United States | Present, Localized | ||||||
-California | Present | ||||||
-Colorado | Present | ||||||
-Florida | Present | ||||||
-Wyoming | Present | ||||||
Oceania |
|||||||
Fiji | Present | ||||||
New Zealand | Present | ||||||
South America |
|||||||
Brazil | Present | ||||||
-Bahia | Present | ||||||
-Sao Paulo | Present | ||||||
Chile | Present | ||||||
Venezuela | Present |
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageThe results of more than 8 years of voluntary certification schemes for strawberry stocks in Italy indicate that A. ritzemabosi, A. fragariae, D. dipsaci and Meloidogyne spp. can be successfully controlled by means of plant certification schemes (Tacconi and Lamberti, 1994).
Hosts/Species Affected
Top of pageChrysanthemum is the major host in Europe (Juhl, 1978; Farkas et al., 1985); chrysanthemum, narcissus and pseudonarcissus are the main hosts in Italy (Vovlas and Lamberti, 1973); chrysanthemum and dahlia are major hosts in Poland (Szczygiel and Hasior, 1972). This species is also important on chrysanthemum in Japan (Kobayashi et al., 1971) and areas of China (Li and Zhang, 1992).
A. ritzemabosi and A. fragariae occur on and cause damage to strawberries in Denmark (Lindhardt, 1967; Andersson, 1969), England (MAFF, 1970), Switzerland (Klingler, 1969; Staubli et al., 1989); Germany (Hirling, 1970, 1971; Blank, 1985), Italy (Tacconi, 1972) and Poland (Szczygiel, 1967, 1970). A. ritzemabosi and A. fragariae are widespread in strawberry fields in Mexico (Szczygiel and Cid del Prado-Vera, 1981; Sandoval Hernandez and Teliz Ortiz, 1990). A. ritzemabosi occurs in strawberry plantations in southern Ukraine, USSR (Lebedeva et al., 1972), in the Crimea (Lebedeva and Metlitskii, 1972) and Bulgaria (Stoyanov, 1975).
The nematode has been reported on blackcurrant, dahlia, lavender, Callistephus, and many other cultivated plants in England (Franklin, 1959). In the UK, recorded hosts are: Allium flavum, Allium sikkimense, Buddleia spp., Ceratostigma willmottianum and Lewisia (Southey, 1974); Bergenia (Roberts, 1981); and Viburnum x bodnantense, cv. Aberconway Dawn (Southey and Roberts, 1977). It has also been recorded on lucerne and dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) in Western Europe (Franc et al., 1996); on dahlia in Italy (Lamberti et al., 1987) and on basil (Ocimum basilicum) in north-west Italy (Lamberti and Garibaldi, 1977); on Limonium sinuatum in Chile (Bohm and Aruta, 1985); and on china aster (Callistephus chinensis) in Germany (Burckhardt, 1972). Also recorded as hosts are: tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) (Grujicic, 1972; Weischer, 1975; Sikora and Dehne, 1979); Rumex spp. and Echium in Madeira, Rumex spp. and Geranium in the Canary Islands (Sturhan, 1973); the fungus Rhynchosporium verticillatum, Ipomoea purpurea [Pharbitis purpurea] and Aster sp. in Simla, India (Ahmad, 1971); Zinnia elegans, Salvia splendens, chrysanthemum and dahlia in hilly regions of northern India (Gill, 1981; Khan et al., 1987).
A. ritzemabosi was recorded on redcurrant and boysenberry in New Zealand (Dale, 1971); for the first time on the following plants: Aster dumosus, Campanula pyramidalis, cultivated Dahlia, Helleborus niger, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Marattia salicifolia, Passiflora edulis, Ranunculus sardous, Rheum rhaponticum and Zinnia elegans by Boesewinkel (1977); on Aquilegia vulgaris by Boesewinkel (1980); on Lotus corniculatus, Lycopersicon esculentum, Phytolacca octandra, Senecio petasitis and Tristania conferta by Boesewinkel (1982). A. ritzemabosi was found on lucerne and dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) in Wyoming and other western states of the USA (Franc et al., 1996); on gloxinias (Sinningia speciosa) in Florida (Lehman, 1991) and on pinto bean (Phaseolus vulgaris, var. Othello) in Wyoming, USA (Franc et al., 1993). The nematode has also been recorded in the USA on African violet (Saintpaulia ionantha) (Strider, 1979); Verbena (Christie, 1959); gooseberry, lupin, Mimulus guttatus, Saintpaulia, watermelon and Peperomia (Allen, 1952). Christie (1959) stated that at least 25-30 different plant species are hosts in the USA, including Aster, Calceolaria, Dahlia, Delphinium, Phlox, tobacco, Verbena and Zinnia. It is also widespread on Zinnia in South Africa (Wager, 1972).
Juhl (1978) gives a list of 249 plant species in Denmark which are hosts for A. ritzemabosi. Two ferns, Asplenium nidus and Struthiopteris orientalis, and one fungus, Rhynchosporium verticillatum, are also hosts for the nematode (Juhl, 1978). Wallace (1961) reported 190 plant species as hosts, and Sturhan (1962) recorded it on 31 new hosts, mostly in Compositae, in Germany.
Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
Top of pageSymptoms
Top of pageAs an endoparasite, it enters the leaves through the stomata and moves about, feeding on the mesophyll cells. The cells in infested areas are killed and the leaves develop brown lesions delimited by the veins (Franklin, 1959). Infested leaves become crinkled and deformed, occasionally accompanied by discoloration, with blotches and chlorotic patches turning into brown and white-yellow areas. The entire plant appears stunted and dwarfed.
The symptoms on chrysanthemum include characteristic brown spots limited to the veins, and a progressive yellowing of the whole leaf. These symptoms are due to combined action of the nematode and other organisms (Cayrol and Combettes, 1972). Leaf symptoms on infested Chrysanthemum maximum include reddish-yellow lesions on the lower leaves of young plants; in older plants these leaves are markedly chlorotic and a large area of the leaf surface becomes necrotic. The foliage is scanty and the flowers are few and deformed. Leaves in the upper part of plants have shown slightly higher resistance than those in the lower part (Cid del Prado and Sosa-Moss, 1978). Direct effects are mechanical damage caused by the stylet, and damage due to hormones of growth and division (Cayrol and Combettes, 1972).
Attacked violets are stunted, and affected leaves curl down, wither and die; under surfaces of leaves showed typical water-soaked blotches (Thomas, 1968). Stunting and shoot blindness occurred on attacked Crassula coccinia (Atkinson, 1964).
List of Symptoms/Signs
Top of pageSign | Life Stages | Type |
---|---|---|
Leaves / abnormal forms | ||
Leaves / necrotic areas | ||
Leaves / wilting | ||
Leaves / yellowed or dead | ||
Stems / stunting or rosetting | ||
Whole plant / dwarfing |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageA. ritzemabosi is an obligate plant parasite, inhabiting leaves, buds, growing points and outer layers of stem; in soil it does not complete its life cycle or survive the winter. It feeds endoparasitically on mesophyll cells of leaves, and ectoparasitically on buds and growing points (Southey, 1952; Siddiqi, 1974). The nematodes move in the water film over plants, not within the stem tissue, to reach the leaves and buds. Rain splashes and leaf contacts contribute to re-infestation and spread (Wallace, 1959). The leaves are invaded through the stomata. The nematodes feed on the parenchymatous tissue of the mesophyll and destroy the cells, resulting in leaf spots or blotches, easily seen on the under surface. The nematodes leave brown tissue through the stomata and migrate in the water film on the surface to infect terminal flower buds which produce deformed and under-sized blossoms.
As many as 15,000 nematodes may be found in one leaf of chrysanthemum (MAFF, 1969); over 300 individuals per 14 g of infested aster seeds have been recovered (Brown, 1956). Limonium sinuatum attacked by A. ritzemabosi also showed a high level of infestation, more than 100 individuals per 2.5 g foliar tissue (Bohm and Aruta, 1985).
A. ritzemabosi multiplies bisexually and not by parthenogenesis; fertilized females go on reproducing for 6 months without further fertilization (French and Barraclough, 1961). In chrysanthemum leaves, a female lays about 25-30 eggs in a compact group; eggs hatch in 3-4 days and the juveniles take 9-10 days to reach maturity; the life cycle takes 10-13 days (Wallace, 1960). In leaves of groundsel (Senecio vulgaris) the life cycle is completed in 14-15 days (Stewart, 1921). In susceptible chrysanthemum varieties the female remains in the leaf at one place, feeds on adjoining cells and lays many eggs which hatch into rapidly developing juveniles; however, in resistant varieties the female moves about rapidly through the tissues, feeding on cells, but lays only a few eggs whose emerging juveniles fail to reach maturity (Wallace, 1961).
In strawberry fields in Poland, both Aphelenchoides fragariae and A. ritzemabosi showed peak populations in March-May and November-January, and were influenced by moisture and temperature (Szczygiel and Hasior, 1972).
Like other plant-parasitic Aphelenchoides species such as A. fragariae, A. besseyi and A. blastophthorus, A. ritzemabosi can reproduce on fungi, and soil fungi may therefore contribute to its survival in the absence of a host (Hooper and Cowland, 1986).
Survival and source of infection
A. ritzemabosi survives unfavourable conditions through anhydrobiosis, as it possesses multiple contraction ability, i.e. coiling coupled with transverse and longitudinal folding of the cuticle. It survived immersion in paraffin oil for 12 days (Saeed and Roessner, 1984). Christie (1959) revived specimens in dried chrysanthemum leaves after 16 months, but not after 19 months; Steiner (1924) revived them after 22 months; Voss (1930) after 2 years; and Goodey (1933) after 3 years.
A. ritzemabosi overwinters in dormant buds and growing points of chrysanthemum stools; stools rather than the soil serve as the source of infestation (Hesling and Wallace, 1961). The nematode is also carried on the seeds of aster (Brown, 1956).
No change in nematode population per number of hearts occurred when strawberry plants infested with A. ritzemabosi and A. fragariae were stored at a room temperature of 14-15°C or in an unheated glasshouse in winter. However, at 20°C the population increased several times. Under cold-storage conditions of -2 to -1°C, an increase of 56% was registered (Hirling, 1972); at 4°C, 33% revived after 3 years (French and Barraclough, 1962).
Several weeds are hosts (goosegrass, chickweed, buttercup, sowthistle, speedwell) hence weed control is important.
Culture
A. ritzemabosi was mass cultured on courgette and/or marrow tissues at 16-18°C (Hooper and Cowland, 1988). In oat callus tissue, the nematode increased 50-fold in 6 weeks, although oat is not a recorded host (Webster, 1966); numbers increased in plant growth-stimulating substances (Webster, 1967). It also reproduced and multiplied in callus tissues of carrot, tobacco, periwinkle and marigold; the reproduction seemed to be influenced by the concentration of cations in the culture (Dolliver et al., 1962).
Monoxenic cultures of A. ritzemabosi, Ditylenchus dipsaci, Pratylenchus penetrans and Pratylenchus vulnus were obtained on lucerne and clover callus tissue by the method of Eriksson (described by Bossis and Caubel, 1982).
Interactions with other Organisms
Cross and Pitcher (1952) co-inoculated A. ritzemabosi and Corynebacterium fascians [Rhodococcus fascians] to strawberry runners and produced the 'cauliflower' disease resulting in the continued production of axillary buds on affected crown. In such an interaction, nematodes appear to act as vectors for the bacteria and may also stimulate bacterial growth either by producing a suitable metabolite or by modifying the host substrate (Pitcher, 1963). In southern regions of Russia, A. ritzemabosi and highly virulent strains of C. fascians are thought to be responsible for 'cauliflower' symptoms, and less virulent strains are thought to cause 'red plants' or 'alaminate leaves' (Drozdovski et al., 1971). The alaminate leaves condition of strawberry is due either to the nematodes alone, or to the nematodes acting in association with less virulent strains of C. fascians (Pitcher and Cross, 1958).
In experiments, population growth of Ditylenchus dipsaci on tobacco was depressed by simultaneous infection with A. ritzemabosi. The latter species was not affected by D. dipsaci in the leaves; however, in the stems and petioles, where A. ritzemabosi does not normally develop, its population growth was enhanced, possibly due to the chemical and histological changes induced by D. dipsaci (Weischer, 1974).
In tests on tobacco plants, A. ritzemabosi was inhibited by Tobacco mosaic virus, Tobacco rattle virus, Tomato ringspot virus, Raspberry ringspot virus and Tomato black ring virus, and favoured by Arabis mosaic virus. The negative or positive influence of a virus is due to the various physiological changes it causes in a plant, and not to a direct influence on the nematodes which ingest the virus particles with the cell contents (Weischer, 1969, 1975).
A. ritzemabosi was found in association with Phytophthora cryptogea on diseased gloxinia plants in Florida (Stokes and Alfieri, 1969).
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rhizoglyphus echinopus | Predator |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageSeedborne Aspects
Top of pagePathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Clothing, footwear and possessions | With flowers and cuttings | Yes | ||
Containers and packaging - wood | Yes | |||
Land vehicles | Yes | |||
With flowers and cuttings | Yes | |||
Soil, sand and gravel | With flowers and cuttings | Yes |
Plant Trade
Top of pagePlant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transport | Pest stages | Borne internally | Borne externally | Visibility of pest or symptoms |
---|---|---|---|---|
Bulbs/Tubers/Corms/Rhizomes | nematodes/adults; nematodes/eggs; nematodes/juveniles | Yes | Yes | Pest or symptoms not visible to the naked eye but usually visible under light microscope |
Flowers/Inflorescences/Cones/Calyx | nematodes/adults; nematodes/eggs; nematodes/juveniles | Yes | Yes | Pest or symptoms not visible to the naked eye but usually visible under light microscope |
Growing medium accompanying plants | nematodes/adults; nematodes/eggs; nematodes/juveniles | Yes | Pest or symptoms not visible to the naked eye but usually visible under light microscope | |
Leaves | nematodes/adults; nematodes/eggs; nematodes/juveniles | Yes | Yes | Pest or symptoms not visible to the naked eye but usually visible under light microscope |
Stems (above ground)/Shoots/Trunks/Branches | nematodes/adults; nematodes/eggs; nematodes/juveniles | Yes | Yes | Pest or symptoms not visible to the naked eye but usually visible under light microscope |
True seeds (inc. grain) | nematodes/adults; nematodes/eggs; nematodes/juveniles | Yes | Yes | Pest or symptoms not visible to the naked eye but usually visible under light microscope |
Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport |
---|
Bark |
Fruits (inc. pods) |
Roots |
Seedlings/Micropropagated plants |
Wood |
Impact
Top of pageA. ritzemabosi is a serious pest of strawberry in Ireland, where yield reductions up to 60% due to A. ritzemabosi and A. fragariae infestations have been recorded (Duggan, 1969). The crown weight of strawberry cv. Senga Sengana was reduced by 51% by A. ritzemabosi and by 41% by A. fragariae. Fruit yield in the first year was reduced, owing largely to a decline in fruit number, by 65% and 54%, respectively, by these two species. The number of runners was reduced by 25-30% by A. ritzemabosi, but only by 11-15% by A. fragariae. Damage to the plant crowns and reduced yield were related to population density in winter and spring, but reduced runner production was due to the summer population density (Bohmer, 1981). Due to infection by A. ritzemabosi, average yield losses of the strawberry variety Korallovaya 100 were estimated as 53.4%. The variety Yasna seems to be somewhat less susceptible to A. ritzemabosi than Korallovaya 100 or Muto (Lebedeva et al., 1972). In Poland, A. ritzemabosi infestation destroyed 45% of chrysanthemum plants on a holding, and for the most susceptible varieties the number could be as high as 92% (Baranowski, 1976).
Diagnosis
Top of pageDetection and Inspection
Top of pageInfested chrysanthemum leaves become crinkled and deformed, occasionally accompanied by discoloration, and by nematodes in buds inhabiting mainly the axils or innermost parts of the bud (Kobayashi et al., 1971).
Infected plants of Zinnia elegans, Salvia splendens, Chrysanthemum sp., Aster sp. and Dahlia sp. had fewer and smaller leaves than healthy plants, and the leaves appeared shrunken. Yellow-white spots which gradually turned brown were observed on infected plants (Gill and Sharma, 1979). Zinnia elegans leaves infested with A. ritzemabosi showed a higher concentration of total phenols, ortho-dihydroxy phenols, total sugars and reducing sugars than uninfested leaves (Gill and Uppal, 1979).
Infestation of strawberry is generally concentrated in the buds and folded leaves within the hearts. The suspected plant tissues may be chopped up and submerged in water to see if the nematodes are present.
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pagePrevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Introduction
Symptoms and control of diseases in strawberry due to infestation by A. ritzemabosi and Aphelenchoides fragariae are described in an advisory leaflet (MAFF, 1970). Siddiqi (1974) reviewed control of A. ritzemabosi.
Chemical Control
On begonia spraying with demeton (superseded) and with sodium selenate gave good control (see Siddiqi, 1974).
Strawberry runners treated with fensulfothion (superseded) were less susceptible to attack than the untreated ones (Hirling, 1970).
Of the spray chemicals fenitrothion gave the best control of A. ritzemabosi (Baranowski, 1985).
Treatment of chrysanthemum nursery soil with an organophosphorous nematicide was very effective in control of this nematode (Fukazawa and Kobayashi, 1971; Kobayashi et al., 1971).
Suggested control measures include cleaning and burning infested leaves, submerging infected cuttings in hot water, spraying of foliage with chlorpyrifos (Gill, 1981). Foliar sprays of quinalphos successfully controlled A. ritzemabosi on Zinnia elegans, reducing both the symptoms of infestation and the final nematode population (Gill and Walia, 1980).
Guidelines have been given for the efficacy evaluation of nematicides against A. ritzemabosi and A. fragariae on susceptible cultivars of ornamentals such as Chrysanthemum indicum [Dendranthema indicum], Begonia elatior [B. hiemalis], Primula denticulata, Verbena hybrida, Saintpaulia ionantha or Weigela spp. (EPPO, 1994). The UK Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food's 1976 revised edition of an advisory leaflet on chrysanthemum eelworm disease caused by A. ritzemabosi emphasizes chemical control, giving instructions for the use of thionazin (superseded) and places hot-water treatment in second place. This is a reflection of the development of year-round chrysanthemums with small stools (MAFF, 1976).
Host-Plant Resistance
In Japan, 61 strawberry cultivars were studied and divided into three groups according to susceptibility to injury by A. ritzemabosi. The most resistant group contained 14 cultivars (including Otomezakuramomo), the group with medium resistance contained 32 cultivars (including Seikobizan), and the most susceptible group contained 15 cultivars (including Hagoromo) (Nakagome and Kato, 1977). In Poland, none of the 33 strawberry cultivars was entirely resistant to A. ritzemabosi and A. fragariae, but the degree of their susceptibility differed greatly. The cultivars Purpuratka, Senga Sengana, Macherauchs Fruhernte, Koralovaya and Templar were highly susceptible (Szczygiel and Danek, 1975).
Chrysanthemum varieties Amy Schoesmith, Orange Beauty and Orange Peach Blossom are comparatively resistant, but not immune (Hesling and Wallace, 1961; Wallace, 1961), as are the strawberry varieties George Soltwedel and Regina (Szczygiel, 1967). Of 20 varieties of African violet (Saintpaulia ionantha) tested in the USA, Allison and Suzanne are most resistant to the nematode, whereas Julianne, Maryland, Mitzi, Pearl and Colorado are the most susceptible varieties (Strider, 1979).
Several authors (Goffart, 1930; Voss, 1930; Wilson, 1943, etc.) have listed varieties of chrysanthemum differing in their susceptibility, but Hesling and Wallace (1960) have cautioned that the degree of nematode infestation may be considerably influenced by cultural methods, soil type and weather (see also Szczygiel, 1967). It should be noted that the commercial varieties are constantly changing and new ones are being introduced, so that a list of resistant or less-resistant varieties will not serve any practical purpose (MAFF, 1969).
Cultural Practices and Hot-Water Treatment
Cultural methods of control include thorough and constant rogueing of plants showing signs of infestation; burning all infected material; propagating only from healthy stocks and in clean soil and containers; and avoiding contact between plants and undue surface moisture of the leaves (Siddiqi, 1975). In France, cultural methods to control A. ritzemabosi, A. fragariae and other pests and diseases of strawberry include the use of healthy, well adapted cultivars; manuring based on soil analysis with special attention to boron; draining or planting on ridges to avoid waterlogging; and irrigating at planting, during the summer of planting and again in the following spring (Clerjeau et al., 1983).
Christie (1959) reported the successful use of hot-water treatment at 44.4°C for 30 min for control of A. ritzemabosi on chrysanthemum, and reported that chrysanthemum stools show good tolerance to hot-water treatment although treated plants were slower in growth. Hot-water treatment at 46°C for 10 min controlled A. ritzemabosi and A. fragariae on begonias in Denmark (Rasmussen, 1971) and on strawberry in Switzerland (Klingler, 1969). Strawberry runner initials were hot-water treated at 45 and 50°C for 10 and 15 min to control A. ritzemabosi, A. fragariae and D. dipsaci. The results showed that runner initials will tolerate 45°C for 10 min provided they are pre-heated in warm water, immersed in cold water after treatment, and planted in a frame covered with white polythene. Best results should be obtained if runners are taken before September (MacLachlan and Duggan, 1979).
Hot-water treatment at 46°C for 10 min controlled A. ritzemabosi and A. fragariae on Lorraine begonia (Rasmussen, 1971). For lily bulbs, a hot-water formaldehyde bath (1 pint of 38% formaldehyde in 25 gallons of water) at 44°C for 1 h was effective (Jensen and Caveness, 1954).
Tobacco plants inoculated with the endotrophic mycorrhizal fungus Glomus mosseae and with A. ritzemabosi showed a decrease in nematode populations by 48% 30 days after inoculation, compared to non-mycorrhizal controls (Sikora and Dehne, 1979).
Common weeds (goosegrass, chickweed, buttercup, sowthistle, speedwell) are hosts and hence weed control is important in the control of A. ritzemabosi populations.
References
Top of pageAhmad ST, 1971. Host records of parasitic leaf nematodes. Indian Phytopathology, 24(2):413
Allen MW, 1952. Taxonomic status of the bud and leaf nematodes related to Alphelenchoides fragariae (Ritzema Bos, 1891). Proc. Helminth. Soc. Wash., 19(2):108-120.
Andersson S, 1969. Bladnematoder orsakar miljonforluster for den svenska jordgubbsodlingen varje ar. Barodlaren, No. 2:16-22.
Atkinson K, 1964. Aphelenchoides ritzemabosi Schwartz on Crassula coccinea. Plant Pathology, 13:137.
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Dale PS, 1971. Eelworm control. Foliar, root-lesion and other nematodes. New Zealand Journal of Agriculture, 122(5):59-61.
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Franklin MT, 1959. Plant-parasitic nematodes of the genus Aphelenchoides Fischer, 1894. In: Plant Nematology. Technical Bulletin No. 7. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. London, UK: HMSO.
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French N, Barraclough RM, 1962. Survival of Aphelenchoides ritzemabosi (Schwartz) in soil and dry leaves. Nematologica, 7:309-316.
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Distribution References
Ahmad S T, 1971. Host records of parasitic leaf nematodes. Indian Phytopathology. 24 (2), 413.
Andersson S, 1969. (Bladnematoder orsakar miljonforluster for den svenska jordgubbsodlingen varje ar). In: Barodlaren, 16-22.
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Curi SM, Pitta GPB, 1971. Occurrence of the leaf nematode, Aphelenchoides ritzemabosi in chrysanthemums in the State of Sao Paulo. In: Biologico, 37 19.
Gill J S, 1981. Fighting the foliar nematode of chrysanthemum. Indian Horticulture. 25 (4), 21-22.
Khakimova L, 1978. Parasitic nematodes of flowers. Uzbekskii Biologicheskii Zhurnal. 64-67.
MAFF, 1970. Eelworms on strawberry. In: Britain. Advisory Leaflet No. 414, London, UK: Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food.
Orian G, 1957. (Une maladie de quelques plantes ornementales causée par un nématode foliare). In: Rev. Agric. Sucr. Ile Maurice, 36 261-264.
Swaine G, 1971. Agricultural Zoology in Fiji., London, UK: HMSO.
Wager VA, 1972. Records of diseases of ornamental plants not previously reported in South Africa. In: Technical Communication, Department of Agricultural Technical Services, Republic of South Africa, No. 100,
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