Toxoplasma gondii

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Life cycle of Toxoplasma gondii

Diagrammatic representation of the Toxoplasma gondii life cycle.

USDA

Stages of Toxoplasma gondii

(a) Unsporulated oocyst in fecal float of cat feces. Unstained. Note double layered oocyst wall (arrow) enclosing a central undivided mass. (b) Sporulated oocyst with a thin oocyst wall (large arrow), 2 sporocysts (arrowheads). Each sporocyst has 4 sporozoites (small arrow), which are not in complete focus. Unstained.

USDA

Stages of Toxoplasma gondii

(a) Schizont (arrow) with several merozoites (arrowheads) separating from the main mass. Impression smear of infected cat intestine. Giemsa stain. (b) A male gamete with two flagella (arrows). Impression smear of infected cat intestine. Giemsa stain.

USDA

Stages of Toxoplasma gondii

(a) Tachyzoites in impression smear of lung. Note crescent-shaped individual tachyzoites (arrows), dividing tachyzoites (arrowheads) compared with size of host red blood cells and leukocytes. Giema stain. (b) Tissue cysts in section of muscle. The tissue cyst wall is very thin (arrow) and encloses many tiny bradyzoites (arrowheads). Hematoxylin and eosin stain.

USDA

Stages of Toxoplasma gondii

Tissue cyst separated from host tissue by homogenization of infected brain. Note tissue cyst wall (arrow) and hundreds of bradyzoites (arrowheads). Unstained.

USDA

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Toxoplasma gondii

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Protista
Phylum: Protozoa
Subphylum: Apicomplexa
Order: Eucoccidiorida
Family: Sarcocystidae
Genus: Toxoplasma
Species: Toxoplasma gondii

Diseases Table

Top of page cardiac disease, heart failure, in birds
toxoplasmosis

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Last Reported	Reference
Asia
Azerbaijan	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Bahrain	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Bhutan	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Brunei Darussalam	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
China	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Fujian	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Gansu	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Guangdong	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Guangxi	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Guizhou	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Hainan	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Heilongjiang	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Hong Kong	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
-Hubei	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Nei Menggu	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Shandong	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Xinjiang	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Zhejiang	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Georgia (Republic of)	Disease never reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
India	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Delhi	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Jammu and Kashmir	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Maharashtra	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Tamil Nadu	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Uttar Pradesh	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-West Bengal	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Indonesia	Reported present or known to be present		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Iran	Disease not reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Iraq	Reported present or known to be present
Israel	Reported present or known to be present		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Japan	Reported present or known to be present		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Jordan	Reported present or known to be present		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Kazakhstan	Disease not reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Korea, DPR	Disease not reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Korea, Republic of	Disease not reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Kuwait	Disease not reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Lebanon	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Malaysia	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Peninsular Malaysia	Disease not reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
-Sabah	Disease never reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
-Sarawak	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Mongolia	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Myanmar	Reported present or known to be present		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Nepal	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Oman	Disease not reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Philippines	Disease not reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Qatar	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Saudi Arabia	Reported present or known to be present		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Singapore	Last reported	1985	OIE Handistatus, 2005
Sri Lanka	Disease never reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Syria	Last reported	1999	OIE Handistatus, 2005
Taiwan	Disease never reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Tajikistan	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Thailand	Disease not reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Turkey	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Turkmenistan	Disease not reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
United Arab Emirates	Disease not reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Uzbekistan	Disease not reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Vietnam	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Yemen	Reported present or known to be present		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Africa
Algeria	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Angola	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Benin	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Botswana	Reported present or known to be present		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Burkina Faso	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Burundi	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Cameroon	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Cape Verde	Disease not reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Central African Republic	No information available
Chad	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Congo Democratic Republic	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Côte d'Ivoire	Disease not reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Djibouti	Reported present or known to be present		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Egypt	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Eritrea	Disease not reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Ethiopia	Last reported	2002	OIE Handistatus, 2005
Gabon	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Ghana	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Guinea	Disease never reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Guinea-Bissau	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Kenya	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Libya	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Madagascar	Disease not reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Malawi	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Mali	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Mauritius	Disease not reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Morocco	Reported present or known to be present		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Mozambique	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Namibia	Last reported	2000	OIE Handistatus, 2005
Nigeria	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Réunion	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Rwanda	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Sao Tome and Principe	Last reported	2003	OIE Handistatus, 2005
Senegal	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Seychelles	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Somalia	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
South Africa	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Spain
-Canary Islands	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Sudan	Disease not reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Swaziland	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Tanzania	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Togo	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Tunisia	Disease not reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Uganda	Disease not reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
West Africa	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Zambia	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Zimbabwe	Disease not reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
North America
Bermuda	Disease not reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Canada	Reported present or known to be present		OIE Handistatus, 2005
-Alberta	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-British Columbia	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Ontario	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Quebec	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Mexico	Reported present or known to be present		OIE Handistatus, 2005
USA	Serological evidence and/or isolation of the agent		OIE Handistatus, 2005
-Alaska	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-California	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Colorado	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Florida	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Georgia	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Hawaii	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Illinois	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Iowa	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Louisiana	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Maryland	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Massachusetts	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Minnesota	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Missouri	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-New Jersey	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-New York	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-North Carolina	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Ohio	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-South Carolina	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Tennessee	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Texas	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Washington	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Central America and Caribbean
Barbados	Disease not reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Belize	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
British Virgin Islands	Disease not reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Cayman Islands	Disease not reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Costa Rica	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Cuba	Disease not reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Curaçao	Disease not reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Dominica	Disease not reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Dominican Republic	Reported present or known to be present		OIE Handistatus, 2005
El Salvador	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Guadeloupe	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Guatemala	Reported present or known to be present		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Haiti	Disease never reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Jamaica	Disease not reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Martinique	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Nicaragua	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Panama	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Saint Kitts and Nevis	Disease never reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Trinidad and Tobago	Disease never reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
South America
Argentina	Reported present or known to be present		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Bolivia	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Brazil	Last reported	2003	OIE Handistatus, 2005
-Bahia	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Ceara	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Goias	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Mato Grosso	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Mato Grosso do Sul	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Minas Gerais	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Para	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Parana	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Pernambuco	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Rio de Janeiro	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Rio Grande do Sul	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Sao Paulo	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Chile	Reported present or known to be present		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Colombia	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Ecuador	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Falkland Islands	Reported present or known to be present		OIE Handistatus, 2005
French Guiana	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Guyana	Disease not reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Paraguay	Serological evidence and/or isolation of the agent		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Peru	Reported present or known to be present		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Suriname	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
Uruguay	Reported present or known to be present		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Venezuela	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Europe
Andorra	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Austria	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Belarus	Disease never reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Belgium	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Bosnia-Hercegovina	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Bulgaria	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Croatia	Reported present or known to be present		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Cyprus	CAB Abstracts data mining		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Czech Republic	Last reported	1998	OIE Handistatus, 2005
Denmark	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Estonia	Reported present or known to be present		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Finland	Reported present or known to be present		OIE Handistatus, 2005
France	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Germany	Disease not reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Greece			OIE Handistatus, 2005
Hungary			OIE Handistatus, 2005
Iceland	Reported present or known to be present		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Ireland	Reported present or known to be present		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Isle of Man (UK)	Reported present or known to be present		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Italy	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Jersey	Disease never reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Latvia	Disease never reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Liechtenstein	Disease not reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Lithuania	Disease not reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Luxembourg	Disease not reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Macedonia			OIE Handistatus, 2005
Malta	Disease not reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Moldova	Disease not reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Netherlands	Reported present or known to be present		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Norway	Reported present or known to be present		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Poland	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Portugal	Reported present or known to be present		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Romania	Disease not reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Russian Federation	No information available
Slovakia	Reported present or known to be present		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Slovenia	Reported present or known to be present		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Spain	Reported present or known to be present		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Sweden	Reported present or known to be present		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Switzerland	Last reported	2003	OIE Handistatus, 2005
UK	Reported present or known to be present		OIE Handistatus, 2005
-Northern Ireland	Reported present or known to be present		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Ukraine	Disease never reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Yugoslavia (former)	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro)	Disease not reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Oceania
Australia	Reported present or known to be present		OIE Handistatus, 2005
-Australian Northern Territory	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Queensland	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Tasmania	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
-Victoria	Present		CAB ABSTRACTS Data Mining 2001
French Polynesia	Disease not reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
New Caledonia	Reported present or known to be present		OIE Handistatus, 2005
New Zealand	Reported present or known to be present		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Samoa	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Vanuatu	Disease never reported		OIE Handistatus, 2005
Wallis and Futuna Islands	No information available		OIE Handistatus, 2005

Pathogen Characteristics

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The name Toxoplasma (toxon = arc, plasma = form) is derived from the crescent shape of the tachyzoite stage. There are 3 infectious stages of T. gondii: the tachyzoites (in groups), the bradyzoites (in tissue cysts), and the sporozoites (in oocysts).

The tachyzoite is often crescent-shaped and is approximately the size (2 x 6 µm) of a red blood cell. The anterior end of the tachyzoite is pointed, and the posterior end is rounded. It has a pellicle (outer covering), several organelles including subpellicular microtubules, mitochondria, smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum, a Golgi apparatus, apicoplast, ribosomes, a micropore, and a well-defined nucleus. The nucleus is usually situated toward the central area of the cell.

Tissue cysts vary in size from 5-70 µm and remain intracellular. The tissue cyst wall is elastic, thin <0.5 µm), and may enclose hundreds of the crescent-shaped, slender T. gondii stage known as bradyzoites (Dubey et al., 1998). The bradyzoites are approximately 7 x 1.5 µm. Bradyzoites differ structurally only slightly from tachyzoites. They have a nucleus situated toward the posterior end whereas the nucleus in tachyzoites is more central. Bradyzoites are more slender than are tachyzoites and they are less susceptible to destruction by proteolytic enzymes than are tachyzoites.

In freshly passed faeces, oocysts are unsporulated (non-infective). Unsporulated oocysts are totally or nearly spherical and are 10 x 12 µm in diameter. They sporulate (become infectious) outside the cat within 1 to 5 days depending upon aeration and temperature. Sporulated oocysts contain two ellipsoidal sporocysts. Each sporocyst contains 4 sporozoites. The sporozoites are 2 x 6 to 8 µm in size.

Host Animals

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Animal name	Context	Life stage	System
Alces alces
Apodemus sylvaticus (long-tailed field mouse)
Blastocerus dichotomus
Bos bison (American bison)
Bos indicus (zebu)
Bos taurus (cattle)
Bubalus bubalis (Asian water buffalo)
Camelus dromedarius (dromedary camel)
Canis familiaris (dogs)
Canis latrans (Coyote)
Canis lupus familiaris (dogs)
Capra hircus (goats)
Ceratotherium simum
Clethrionomys glareolus
Columba oenas
Columba palumbus
Corvus hawaiiensis (Hawaiian Crow)
Delphinapterus leucas
Didelphis virginiana
Equus
Equus asinus (donkeys)
Felis
Felis concolor
Gallus
Gallus gallus domesticus (chickens)
Gyps africanus
Hippotragus niger
Homo sapiens
Hydromys chrysogaster
Lagothrix lagotricha
Lama glama (llamas)
Lama pacos (alpacas)
Leontopithecus rosalia
Lepus europaeus (European hare)
Lepus timidus
Loxodonta africana
Lutra canadensis
Lynx rufus
Macaca mulatta (rhesus macaque)
Meleagris gallopavo (turkey)
Mephitis mephitis (striped skunk)
Microtus arvalis
Mus musculus (house mouse)
Odocoileus virginianus
Oryctolagus cuniculus (rabbits)
Ovis aries (sheep)
Ovis dalli
Ozotoceros bezoarticus
Perameles gunnii (eastern barred bandicoot)
Peromyscus maniculatus
Phacochoerus aethiopicus
Procyon lotor (raccoon)
Rangifer tarandus (reindeer)
Rattus (rats)
Saimiri sciureus
Serinus canaria
Sorex araneus
Strix varia
Suricata suricatta
Sus scrofa (pigs)
Tragelaphus oryx
Ursus americanus
Ursus arctos
Vombatus ursinus
Vulpes cinereoargenteus
Vulpes vulpes (red fox)

Threatened Species

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Threatened Species	Conservation Status	Where Threatened	Mechanism	References
Enhydra lutris kenyoni (northern sea otter)	USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	Alaska	Pathogenic	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013
Enhydra lutris nereis (southern sea otter)	USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species	California	Pathogenic	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2003
Monachus schauinslandi (Hawaiian monk seal)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species	; Hawaii	Pathogenic	National Marine Fisheries Service, 2007

Risk and Impact Factors

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Pest and disease transmission
Pathogenic

References

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Dubey JP, Lindsay DS, Speer CA, 1998. Structures of Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites, bradyzoites, and sporozoites and biology and development of tissue cysts. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 11(2):267-299; 183 ref

National Marine Fisheries Service, 2007. Recovery Plan for the Hawaiian Monk Seal (Monachus schauinslandi). Second Revision. In: Recovery Plan for the Hawaiian Monk Seal (Monachus schauinslandi). Second Revision : National Marine Fisheries Service.165 pp.

OIE Handistatus, 2002. World Animal Health Publication and Handistatus II (dataset for 2001). Paris, France: Office International des Epizooties

OIE Handistatus, 2003. World Animal Health Publication and Handistatus II (dataset for 2002). Paris, France: Office International des Epizooties

OIE Handistatus, 2004. World Animal Health Publication and Handistatus II (data set for 2003). Paris, France: Office International des Epizooties

OIE Handistatus, 2005. World Animal Health Publication and Handistatus II (data set for 2004). Paris, France: Office International des Epizooties

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2003. Final Revised Recovery Plan for the Southern Sea Otter (Enhydra lutris nereis). In: Final Revised Recovery Plan for the Southern Sea Otter (Enhydra lutris nereis) : US Fish and Wildlife Service.179 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/recovery_plan/030403.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013. Southwest Alaska Distinct Population Segment of the Northern Sea Otter (Enhydra lutris kenyoni) Recovery Plan. In: Southwest Alaska Distinct Population Segment of the Northern Sea Otter (Enhydra lutris kenyoni) Recovery Plan : US Fish and Wildlife Service.175 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/recovery_plan/Recovery%20Plan%20SW%20AK%20DPS%20Sea%20Otter%20Aug13.pdf

Distribution Maps

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Invasive Species Compendium

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Toxoplasma gondii

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