Aonidomytilus albus (tapioca scale)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
- Growth Stages
- Symptoms
- List of Symptoms/Signs
- Biology and Ecology
- Natural enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Vectors
- Plant Trade
- Wood Packaging
- Impact Summary
- Impact
- Social Impact
- Diagnosis
- Detection and Inspection
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pageIdentity
Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Aonidomytilus albus (Cockerell, 1893)
Preferred Common Name
- tapioca scale
Other Scientific Names
- Coccomytilus dispar (Vayssière) Takahashi, 1935
- Lepidosaphes alba (Cockerell) Fernald, 1903
- Lepidosaphes cockerelliana Kirkaldy, 1904
- Lepidosaphes dispar
- Mytilaspis (Coccomytilus) dispar Vayssière, 1914
- Mytilaspis albus Cockerell, 1893
- Mytilococcus dispar (Vayssière) Lindinger, 1943
International Common Names
- English: cassava scale; cassava stem mussel scale; white mussel scale
Local Common Names
- Colombia: escama de yuca
EPPO code
- AONMAL (Aonidomytilus albus)
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageTaxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Metazoa
- Phylum: Arthropoda
- Subphylum: Uniramia
- Class: Insecta
- Order: Hemiptera
- Suborder: Sternorrhyncha
- Unknown: Coccoidea
- Family: Diaspididae
- Genus: Aonidomytilus
- Species: Aonidomytilus albus
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageDescription
Top of pageThe scale cover of the second-instar male is similar to that of the adult female, but smaller (1.0-1.25 mm long) and narrower, with terminal exuviae (Ferris, 1941; Dekle, 1976). The non-feeding immature stages (pre-pupa and pupa) of the male develop beneath this scale cover.
After moulting to the adult stage, the male rests beneath the scale cover before emerging to seek for females. The adult male of A. albus has a single pair of simple wings, well-developed legs and antennae, and long genitalia.
The slide-mounted body of the adult female is elongate, and membranous except for the pygidium. The pygidium possesses several pairs of marginal lobes. The median lobes are not zygotic; they are well separated, with a pair of gland spines present between their bases, but without any basal scleroses. Perivulvar pores are absent; at least some gland spines are present on the pygidial margins, occurring in groups of two or three. The pygidium has six or seven enlarged marginal macroducts on each side, and the dorsal macroducts are scattered, not arranged in rows. Ferris (1941) and Watson (2002) provided taxonomic illustrations of the adult female of A. albus.
Distribution
Top of pageThe distribution map includes records based on specimens of A. albus from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK): dates of collection are noted in the List of countries (NHM, various dates).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 12 May 2022Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Angola | Present | Introduced | |||||
Cabo Verde | Present | Introduced | |||||
Congo, Democratic Republic of the | Present | Introduced | |||||
Côte d'Ivoire | Present | Introduced | |||||
Gambia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Ghana | Present | Introduced | |||||
Guinea-Bissau | Present | Introduced | |||||
Kenya | Present | Introduced | |||||
Liberia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Madagascar | Present | Introduced | |||||
Malawi | Present | Introduced | |||||
Mauritius | Present | Introduced | |||||
Mozambique | Present | Introduced | |||||
Nigeria | Present | Introduced | |||||
Senegal | Present | Introduced | |||||
Somalia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Tanzania | Present | Introduced | |||||
Uganda | Present | Introduced | |||||
Zambia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Asia |
|||||||
Bahrain | Present | ||||||
China | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Hainan | Present | Introduced | |||||
Hong Kong | Present | Introduced | |||||
India | Present, Localized | Introduced | |||||
-Andhra Pradesh | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Karnataka | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Kerala | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Tamil Nadu | Present | Introduced | |||||
Indonesia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Malaysia | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Peninsular Malaysia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Sri Lanka | Present | Introduced | |||||
Taiwan | Present | Introduced | |||||
Thailand | Present | Introduced | |||||
North America |
|||||||
Antigua and Barbuda | Present | Native | |||||
Bahamas | Present | ||||||
Barbados | Present | ||||||
British Virgin Islands | Present | Native | |||||
Cuba | Present | Native | |||||
Dominica | Present | Native | |||||
Dominican Republic | Present | Native | |||||
Grenada | Present | Native | |||||
Guadeloupe | Present | Native | |||||
Haiti | Present | Native | |||||
Honduras | Present | Native | |||||
Jamaica | Present | Native | |||||
Martinique | Present | Native | |||||
Mexico | Present | Native | |||||
Montserrat | Present | Native | |||||
Puerto Rico | Present | Native | |||||
Saint Kitts and Nevis | Present | Native | |||||
Saint Lucia | Present | Native | |||||
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | Present | Native | |||||
Trinidad and Tobago | Present | Native | |||||
U.S. Virgin Islands | Present | Native | |||||
United States | Present, Localized | ||||||
-Florida | Present | ||||||
-New Mexico | Present | ||||||
South America |
|||||||
Argentina | Present | Native | |||||
Brazil | Present | Native | |||||
-Amazonas | Present | Native | |||||
-Bahia | Present | Native | |||||
-Ceara | Present | Native | |||||
-Paraiba | Present | Native | |||||
-Rio Grande do Sul | Present | Native | |||||
Colombia | Present | Native | |||||
French Guiana | Present | Native | |||||
Guyana | Present | Native | |||||
Peru | Present | Native | |||||
Suriname | Present | Native |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageRisk of Introduction
Top of pageHabitat
Top of pageHosts/Species Affected
Top of pageHost Plants and Other Plants Affected
Top of pagePlant name | Family | Context | References |
---|---|---|---|
Atriplex (orach) | Chenopodiaceae | Other | |
Carica papaya (pawpaw) | Caricaceae | Other | |
Chrysanthemum (daisy) | Asteraceae | Other | |
Croton bonplandianus | Euphorbiaceae | Other | |
Flourensia | Asteraceae | Other | |
Harrisia | Cactaceae | Other | |
Jatropha gossypiifolia (bellyache bush) | Euphorbiaceae | Other | |
Malvastrum americanum (spiked malvastrum (Australia)) | Other | ||
Mangifera indica (mango) | Anacardiaceae | Other | |
Manihot | Euphorbiaceae | Main | |
Manihot esculenta (cassava) | Euphorbiaceae | Main | |
Mimosa (sensitive plants) | Fabaceae | Other | |
Rosa (roses) | Rosaceae | Other | |
Salvia (sage) | Lamiaceae | Other | |
Sechium | Cucurbitaceae | Other | |
Sida | Malvaceae | Other | |
Solanum (nightshade) | Solanaceae | Other | |
Suaeda (sea blite) | Chenopodiaceae | Other | |
Turnera ulmifolia (West Indian holly) | Turneraceae | Other |
Symptoms
Top of pageList of Symptoms/Signs
Top of pageSign | Life Stages | Type |
---|---|---|
Leaves / abnormal colours | ||
Leaves / abnormal leaf fall | ||
Leaves / external feeding | ||
Leaves / wilting | ||
Stems / external feeding |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageThe genetics and karyotype of A. albus have not been studied.
Physiology and Phenology
Adult female A. albus feed throughout their lives and, once adult, live for several months. The adult male lacks mouthparts, so cannot feed and lives only a few days.
The eggs hatch in 3-4 days; in 20-25 days the immature stages are fully grown (Lal and Pillai, 1981). The first-instar crawlers are the primary dispersal stage and walk to new areas of the plant or are dispersed by wind or animal contact. Mortality due to abiotic factors is high in this stage. There are two immature instars in the female and four in the male (including non-feeding pre-pupal and pupal stages).
Reproductive Biology
Reproduction is sexual. The sessile females mate with winged males, and begin to lay eggs approximately 2 days after reaching maturity (Anantanarayanan et al., 1957).
Environmental Requirements
Dry conditions may make plants more susceptible to attack, and favour dispersal of the crawlers, which are vulnerable to drowning and being swept off the host in heavy rain and high winds.
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Aphytis chrysomphali | Parasite | Eggs; Arthropods|Larvae; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Aphytis diaspidis | Parasite | Eggs; Arthropods|Larvae; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Aphytis lingnanensis | Parasite | Eggs; Arthropods|Larvae; Arthropods|Nymphs | India | Jatropha gossypiifolia | ||
Aschersonia sp. | Pathogen | |||||
Chilocorus distigma | Predator | |||||
Cybocephalus | Predator | |||||
Cybocephalus nitens | Predator | Cape Verde | cassava | |||
Encarsia aurantii | Parasite | |||||
Nectria coccophila | Pathogen | |||||
Pharoscymnus horni | Predator | |||||
Pharoscymnus tomeensis | Predator | Cape Verde | cassava |
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageThe first-instar crawlers are the dispersal stage and move across quite short distances to new parts of the host-plant or to adjacent plants. Dispersal over longer distances is only possible with the assistance of wind or animals/humans. Mortality due to abiotic factors is high during dispersal.
Movement in Trade
Dispersal of the sessile adults and immature stages between countries occurs through human transport of infested plant material, mainly on planting sticks rather than on stored tubers.
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Land vehicles | Vehicles that have recently carried infested cassava. | Yes |
Plant Trade
Top of pagePlant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transport | Pest stages | Borne internally | Borne externally | Visibility of pest or symptoms |
---|---|---|---|---|
Bulbs/Tubers/Corms/Rhizomes | arthropods/adults; arthropods/eggs; arthropods/larvae; arthropods/nymphs; arthropods/pupae | Yes | Pest or symptoms not visible to the naked eye but usually visible under light microscope | |
Stems (above ground)/Shoots/Trunks/Branches | arthropods/adults; arthropods/eggs; arthropods/larvae; arthropods/nymphs; arthropods/pupae | Yes | Pest or symptoms not visible to the naked eye but usually visible under light microscope |
Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport |
---|
Bark |
Flowers/Inflorescences/Cones/Calyx |
Fruits (inc. pods) |
Growing medium accompanying plants |
Leaves |
Roots |
Seedlings/Micropropagated plants |
True seeds (inc. grain) |
Wood |
Wood Packaging
Top of pageWood Packaging not known to carry the pest in trade/transport |
---|
Loose wood packing material |
Non-wood |
Processed or treated wood |
Solid wood packing material with bark |
Solid wood packing material without bark |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Animal/plant collections | None |
Animal/plant products | Negative |
Biodiversity (generally) | None |
Crop production | Negative |
Environment (generally) | None |
Fisheries / aquaculture | None |
Forestry production | None |
Human health | None |
Livestock production | None |
Native fauna | None |
Native flora | None |
Rare/protected species | None |
Tourism | None |
Trade/international relations | Negative |
Transport/travel | None |
Impact
Top of pageA. albus is a more or less serious pest of cassava in East and West Africa, Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, India, Madagascar, Mexico, Taiwan, Thailand, West Indies and USA (Florida) (Simmonds, 1960; Subramaniam et al., 1977; Anon., 1978; Vargas et al., 1978; Lal and Pillai, 1981; Wongkobrat, 1988). In Brazil, this species is a pest on Manihot and Solanum spp. (Foldi, 1988), and was regarded with potential pest status on Manihot spp. (source of Ceara rubber) by Bastos et al. (1979). It can cause serious damage locally in Kenya (Bruijn and Guthrie, 1982). Severe attacks on cassava cuttings kept for planting can lead to losses (Lal and Pillai, 1981; Chua and Wood, 1990); it is a field pest less often (Lal and Pillai, 1981).
Social Impact
Top of pageDiagnosis
Top of pageDetection and Inspection
Top of pageSimilarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pagePrevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Phytosanitary Measures
Planting sticks of cassava, and stored cassava, should be thoroughly inspected for A. albus scales before export, as there is a risk of their dissemination on such material (Lozano et al., 1977). Imported planting material of cassava should also be thoroughly inspected before planting and treated if necessary, to kill any scale insects present.
Cultural Control and Sanitary Methods
Crowded planting encourages the development and spread of A. albus infestations; use of clean planting material, and well-spaced planting, reduces the risk of serious infestation. Spacing cuttings out avoids creation of a microclimate that favours the spread of any infestation. Use of infested cuttings should be avoided as they often do not root (Lal and Pillai, 1981).
The main infective stage of A. albus is the first-instar crawler, which is quite short-lived in the absence of food. Infected fields should therefore be completely cleared of cassava and left empty for at least 3 days before re-planting with cassava; crop rotation is also a valuable insurance against the carry-over of any infestation.
Transport of infested material through fields planted with cassava also risks transfer of the infestation, as crawlers may drop (or be blown) off the harvested material onto plants still in the field. If possible, it is better to transport the harvest by a route that avoids newly planted cassava fields.
Host-Plant Resistance
The cultivar 'Butter stick' has been reported to be highly susceptible to attack by A. albus (Lal and Pillai, 1981).
Biological Control
No mention of use of natural enemies against A. albus has been found in the literature.
Chemical Control
Lozano et al. (1977) recommended a 5-minute dip of planting sticks in 200 ppm malathion or diazinin to kill any infestation. Lal and Pillai (1981) found that vertical storage of stems reduced infestation, and spraying of infested stems with 0.1% malathion or methyl demeton before planting minimised subsequent infestation problems in the field. Pillai et al. (1993) recommended the use of dimethoate and methyl demeton for control of A. albus.
In Madagascar, it was found that a 60-minute immersion in liquid extract from cassava roots (manipueira) would kill A. albus before the cuttings were used for planting; this was more effective than immersion in hot water (Razafindrakoto et al., 1999).
References
Top of pageAnantanarayanan KP, Subramanian TR, Muthukrishnan TS, 1957. A note on the tapioca scale (Aonidomytilus albus Cockerell). Madras Agricultural Journal, 44(7):281-286.
APPPC, 1987. Insect pests of economic significance affecting major crops of the countries in Asia and the Pacific region. Technical Document No. 135. Bangkok, Thailand: Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific region (RAPA).
Ballou CH, 1923. Nota sobre coccidos Cubanos. Memorias de Sociedad Cubana de Historia Natural "Felipe Poey", 2/4:85-87.
Bohlen E, 1973. Crop pests in Tanzania and their control. Berlin, Germany: Verlag Paul Parey.
Chua TH, Wood BJ, 1990. Other Tropical Fruit Trees and Shrubs. In: Rosen D, ed. Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 543-552.
Claps LE, Wolff VRS, González RH, 2001. Catálogo de las Diaspididae (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) exóticas de la Argentina, Brasil y Chile. Revista de la Socieded Entomológica Argentina, 60:9-34.
Cockerell TDA, 1893. The West Indian species of Mytilaspis and Pinnaspis. Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine, 29:155-158.
Cockerell TDA, 1899. Rhynchota, Hemiptera - Homoptera. [Aleurodidae and Coccidae]. Biologia Centrali Americana, 2:1-37.
De Lotto G, 1967. A contribution to the knowledge of the African Coccoidea (Homoptera). Journal of the Entomological Society of southern Africa, 29:109-120.
Dekle GW, 1976. Florida armored scale insects. In: Arthropods of Florida and Neighboring Land Areas. Gainesville, Florida: Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry, 3:1-345.
EPPO, 2014. PQR database. Paris, France: European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization. http://www.eppo.int/DATABASES/pqr/pqr.htm
Ferris GF, 1941. Atlas of the Scale Insects of North America. Series 3. Palo Alto, California: Stanford University Press.
Ferris GF, 1942. Atlas of the Scale Insects of North America. Series IV. The Diaspididae (Part IV). Stanford, California, USA: Stanford University Press.
Ferris GF, 1943. Additions to the knowledge of the Diaspididae (Homoptera: Coccoidea). (Contribution no. 41). Microentomology, 8:58-79.
Greathead DJ, 1990. Crawler behaviour and dispersal. 1.4.3. In: Rosen D, ed. Armoured Scales, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. World Crop Pests, Volume 4A. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier, 305-308.
Kondo T, 2001. Las cochinillas de Colombia (Hemiptera: Coccoidea). Biota Colombiana, 2(1):31-48.
Merrill GB, 1953. Bulletin of the State Plant Board, Florida, 1:53.
Mosquera PF, 1976. Escamas protegidas más frecuentes en Colombia. Boletín Técnico, Ministerio de Agrícola Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario, División de Sanidad Vegetal, 38:1-103.
Nakahara S, 1982. Checklist of the Armored Scales (Homoptera: Diapididae) of the Conterminous United States. Washington, USA: USDA, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Plant Protection and Quarantine, 110 pp.
Nakahara S, 1983. List of the Coccoidea species (Homoptera) of the United States Virgin Islands. United States Department of Agriculture, Plant Protection and Quarantine, APHIS [Mimeograph], 8142:1-21.
Sankaran T, Nagaraja H, Narasimham AU, 1984. On some South Indian armoured scales and their natural enemies. Proceedings of the 10th International Symposium of Central European Entomofaunistics, Budapest, 15-20 August 1983, 409-411.
Silva AGA, Gontalves CR, Galvpo DM, Gontalves AGL, Gomes J, Silva MN, Simoni L, 1968. Quarto catálogo dos insetos que vivem nas plantas do Brasil. Parte II, Tomo 1: Insetos, hospedeiros, inimigos naturais. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: MinistTrio da Agricultura, 622 pp.
Subramaniam TR, David BV, Thangavel P, Abraham EV, 1977. Insect pest problems of tuber crops in Tamil Nadu. Journal of Root Crops, 3(1):43-50.
Takahashi R, 1942. Some Coccidae from Malaya and Hongkong (Homoptera). Transactions of the Formosa Natural History Society, 32:63-68.
Tao C, 1999. List of Coccoidea (Homoptera) of China. Taichung, Taiwan: Taiwan Agricultural Research Institute, Wufeng, 1-176.
Thamburaj S, Kuppusamy S, undated. Varietal response to scales in tapioca. Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, India: National seminar on tuber crops production technology, 21, 22 November 1980, 90-92.
Urias Lopez MA, Carillo Sanches J, 1983. Plagas principales de la yuca, Manihot esculenta Crantz, en la sabana de Huimanguillo, Tabasco. Agricultura Técnica en México, 9:65-83.
Vargas HO, Brekelbaum T, Bellotti A, Lozano JC, 1978. The white scale (Aonidomytilus albus Ckll.) on cassava. In: Carlos Lozano J, ed. Proceedings cassava protection workshop CIAT, Cali, Colombia, 7-12 November, 1977, 199-202.
Watson GW, 2002. Arthropods of economic importance: Diaspididae of the world. An illustrated identification guide and information source. CD-ROM. Expert Center for Taxonomic Identification (ETI), University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands. ISBN No. 90-75000-48-0.
Wongkobrat A, 1988. Insect pests of cassava in Thailand. Cassava Newsletter, 12(1):5-7
Distribution References
APPPC, 1987. Insect pests of economic significance affecting major crops of the countries in Asia and the Pacific region. In: Technical Document No. 135, Bangkok, Thailand: Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific region (RAPA).
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated b. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Claps LE, Wolff VRS, González RH, 2001. Catalogue of the exotic species of Diaspididae (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) from Argentina, Brazil and Chile. (Catálogo de las Diaspididae (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) exóticas de la Argentina)., 60 9-34.
De Lotto G, 1967. A contribution to the knowledge of the African Coccoidea (Homoptera). In: Journal of the Entomological Society of southern Africa, 29 109-120.
Merrill G B, 1953. [English title not available]. Bulletin of the State Plant Board, Florida. 53.
Mosquera PF, 1976. (Escamas protegidas más frecuentes en Colombia)., 38 Ministerio de Agrícola Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario, División de Sanidad Vegetal. 1-103.
Nakahara S, 1982. Checklist of the Armored Scales (Homoptera: Diapididae) of the Conterminous United States., Washington, USA: USDA, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Plant Protection and Quarantine. 110 pp.
Nakahara S, 1983. List of the Coccoidea species (Homoptera) of the United States Virgin Islands. In: United States Department of Agriculture, Plant Protection and Quarantine, APHIS [Mimeograph], 8142 1-21.
NHM, 1931. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1931a. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1937. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1942. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1954. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1968. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1977. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1978. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1979. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1982. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1983. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1984. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1985. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1987. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
Sankaran T, Nagaraja H, Narasimham AU, 1984. On some South Indian armoured scales and their natural enemies. [Proceedings of the 10th International Symposium of Central European Entomofaunistics, Budapest, 15-20 August 1983], 409-411.
Schotman C Y L, 1989. Plant pests of quarantine importance to the Caribbean. In: RLAC-PROVEG, 80 pp.
Silva AGA, Gontalves CR, Galvpo DM, Gontalves AGL, Gomes J, Silva MN, Simoni L, 1968. (Quarto catálogo dos insetos que vivem nas plantas do Brasil. Parte II, Tomo 1: Insetos, hospedeiros, inimigos naturais)., 1 (II) Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: MinistTrio da Agricultura. 622 pp.
Vargas HO, Brekelbaum T, Bellotti A, Lozano JC, 1978. The white scale (Aonidomytilus albus Ckll.) on cassava. [Proceedings cassava protection workshop CIAT, Cali, Colombia, 7-12 November, 1977], [ed. by Carlos Lozano J]. 199-202.
Wongkobrat A, 1988. Insect pests of cassava in Thailand. Cassava Newsletter. 12 (1), 5-7.
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