Aonidomytilus albus (tapioca scale)
Index
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
- Growth Stages
- Symptoms
- List of Symptoms/Signs
- Biology and Ecology
- Natural enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Vectors
- Plant Trade
- Wood Packaging
- Impact Summary
- Impact
- Social Impact
- Diagnosis
- Detection and Inspection
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Distribution Maps
Don't need the entire report?
Generate a print friendly version containing only the sections you need.
Generate reportIdentity
Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Aonidomytilus albus (Cockerell, 1893)
Preferred Common Name
- tapioca scale
Other Scientific Names
- Coccomytilus dispar (Vayssière) Takahashi, 1935
- Lepidosaphes alba (Cockerell) Fernald, 1903
- Lepidosaphes cockerelliana Kirkaldy, 1904
- Lepidosaphes dispar
- Mytilaspis (Coccomytilus) dispar Vayssière, 1914
- Mytilaspis albus Cockerell, 1893
- Mytilococcus dispar (Vayssière) Lindinger, 1943
International Common Names
- English: cassava scale; cassava stem mussel scale; white mussel scale
Local Common Names
- Colombia: escama de yuca
EPPO code
- AONMAL (Aonidomytilus albus)
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of page The main infective stage of A. albus is the first-instar crawler, which is quite short-lived in the absence of a suitable feeding site. Within the field, infestation spreads outwards from infested cuttings, especially down wind, if the planting is not sufficiently widely spaced. However, without human or animal assistance, the capacity of this species to spread over longer distances is limited.Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Metazoa
- Phylum: Arthropoda
- Subphylum: Uniramia
- Class: Insecta
- Order: Hemiptera
- Suborder: Sternorrhyncha
- Unknown: Coccoidea
- Family: Diaspididae
- Genus: Aonidomytilus
- Species: Aonidomytilus albus
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of page This species has been described three times under different names (albus Cockerell, 1893; cockerelliana Kirkaldy, 1904; and dispar Vaysière, 1914). These names have been placed in combination with several genera at various times.Description
Top of page The scale cover of the adult female in life is elongate, mussel-shaped, 1.75-2.5 mm long, straight or curved, whitish to dark-brown, with slightly darker terminal exuviae. Watson (2002) provided colour illustrations of this species in life.The scale cover of the second-instar male is similar to that of the adult female, but smaller (1.0-1.25 mm long) and narrower, with terminal exuviae (Ferris, 1941; Dekle, 1976). The non-feeding immature stages (pre-pupa and pupa) of the male develop beneath this scale cover.
After moulting to the adult stage, the male rests beneath the scale cover before emerging to seek for females. The adult male of A. albus has a single pair of simple wings, well-developed legs and antennae, and long genitalia.
The slide-mounted body of the adult female is elongate, and membranous except for the pygidium. The pygidium possesses several pairs of marginal lobes. The median lobes are not zygotic; they are well separated, with a pair of gland spines present between their bases, but without any basal scleroses. Perivulvar pores are absent; at least some gland spines are present on the pygidial margins, occurring in groups of two or three. The pygidium has six or seven enlarged marginal macroducts on each side, and the dorsal macroducts are scattered, not arranged in rows. Ferris (1941) and Watson (2002) provided taxonomic illustrations of the adult female of A. albus.
Distribution
Top of page A. albus is a tropical species of New World origin. It has not been recorded from Australia or the Pacific islands.The distribution map includes records based on specimens of A. albus from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK): dates of collection are noted in the List of countries (NHM, various dates).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 23 Apr 2020History of Introduction and Spread
Top of page A. albus is a tropical species of New World origin. There is no mention in the literature of the history of its spread, but it has undoubtedly reached countries outside the New World as a result of human transport of infested planting sticks of cassava.Risk of Introduction
Top of page Transport of infested planting sticks of cassava, and stored cassava, is the main risk of transporting A. albus to new territory. Transport of infested material through fields planted with cassava also risks spread of the infestation, as crawlers may drop (or be blown) off the harvested material onto uninfested plants still in the field.Habitat
Top of page A. albus feeds on the lower stems and, in heavy infestations, on the side shoots, petioles and ventral surfaces of the leaves.Hosts/Species Affected
Top of page The preferred hosts of A. albus are species of Manihot, but this insect has been recorded feeding on a variety of hosts, including several species of Solanum.Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
Top of page| Plant name | Family | Context |
|---|---|---|
| Atriplex (orach) | Chenopodiaceae | Other |
| Carica papaya (pawpaw) | Caricaceae | Other |
| Chrysanthemum (daisy) | Asteraceae | Other |
| Croton bonplandianus | Euphorbiaceae | Other |
| Flourensia | Asteraceae | Other |
| Harrisia | Cactaceae | Other |
| Jatropha gossypiifolia (bellyache bush) | Euphorbiaceae | Other |
| Malvastrum americanum (spiked malvastrum (Australia)) | Other | |
| Mangifera indica (mango) | Anacardiaceae | Other |
| Manihot | Euphorbiaceae | Main |
| Manihot esculenta (cassava) | Euphorbiaceae | Main |
| Mimosa (sensitive plants) | Fabaceae | Other |
| Rosa (roses) | Rosaceae | Other |
| Salvia (sage) | Lamiaceae | Other |
| Sechium | Cucurbitaceae | Other |
| Sida | Malvaceae | Other |
| Solanum (nightshade) | Solanaceae | Other |
| Suaeda (sea blite) | Chenopodiaceae | Other |
| Turnera ulmifolia (West Indian holly) | Turneraceae | Other |
Growth Stages
Top of page Fruiting stage, Post-harvest, Vegetative growing stageSymptoms
Top of page On cassava, A. albus coats the stems, side shoots and even sometimes the leaf petioles and leaf undersides. Infestation in the field occurs in patches around a cutting that was infested at planting. Heavy infestation causes desiccation of the stems, making them become thin and weak so that they often break in the wind; death of the plant may result. The breakage of stems leads to profuse branching so infested plants often appear bushy. Root development in infested plants is poor, and the roots become unpalatable (Lal and Pillai, 1981).List of Symptoms/Signs
Top of page| Sign | Life Stages | Type |
|---|---|---|
| Leaves / abnormal colours | ||
| Leaves / abnormal leaf fall | ||
| Leaves / external feeding | ||
| Leaves / wilting | ||
| Stems / external feeding |
Biology and Ecology
Top of page GeneticsThe genetics and karyotype of A. albus have not been studied.
Physiology and Phenology
Adult female A. albus feed throughout their lives and, once adult, live for several months. The adult male lacks mouthparts, so cannot feed and lives only a few days.
The eggs hatch in 3-4 days; in 20-25 days the immature stages are fully grown (Lal and Pillai, 1981). The first-instar crawlers are the primary dispersal stage and walk to new areas of the plant or are dispersed by wind or animal contact. Mortality due to abiotic factors is high in this stage. There are two immature instars in the female and four in the male (including non-feeding pre-pupal and pupal stages).
Reproductive Biology
Reproduction is sexual. The sessile females mate with winged males, and begin to lay eggs approximately 2 days after reaching maturity (Anantanarayanan et al., 1957).
Environmental Requirements
Dry conditions may make plants more susceptible to attack, and favour dispersal of the crawlers, which are vulnerable to drowning and being swept off the host in heavy rain and high winds.
Natural enemies
Top of page| Natural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aphytis chrysomphali | Parasite | Eggs/Larvae/Nymphs | ||||
| Aphytis diaspidis | Parasite | Eggs/Larvae/Nymphs | ||||
| Aphytis lingnanensis | Parasite | Eggs/Larvae/Nymphs | India | Jatropha gossypiifolia | ||
| Aschersonia sp. | Pathogen | |||||
| Chilocorus distigma | Predator | |||||
| Cybocephalus | Predator | |||||
| Cybocephalus nitens | Predator | Cape Verde | cassava | |||
| Encarsia aurantii | Parasite | |||||
| Nectria coccophila | Pathogen | |||||
| Pharoscymnus horni | Predator | |||||
| Pharoscymnus tomeensis | Predator | Cape Verde | cassava |
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of page Natural DispersalThe first-instar crawlers are the dispersal stage and move across quite short distances to new parts of the host-plant or to adjacent plants. Dispersal over longer distances is only possible with the assistance of wind or animals/humans. Mortality due to abiotic factors is high during dispersal.
Movement in Trade
Dispersal of the sessile adults and immature stages between countries occurs through human transport of infested plant material, mainly on planting sticks rather than on stored tubers.
Pathway Vectors
Top of page| Vector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Land vehicles | Vehicles that have recently carried infested cassava. | Yes |
Plant Trade
Top of page| Plant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transport | Pest stages | Borne internally | Borne externally | Visibility of pest or symptoms |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bulbs/Tubers/Corms/Rhizomes | adults; eggs; larvae; nymphs; pupae | Yes | Pest or symptoms not visible to the naked eye but usually visible under light microscope | |
| Stems (above ground)/Shoots/Trunks/Branches | adults; eggs; larvae; nymphs; pupae | Yes | Pest or symptoms not visible to the naked eye but usually visible under light microscope |
| Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport |
|---|
| Bark |
| Flowers/Inflorescences/Cones/Calyx |
| Fruits (inc. pods) |
| Growing medium accompanying plants |
| Leaves |
| Roots |
| Seedlings/Micropropagated plants |
| True seeds (inc. grain) |
| Wood |
Wood Packaging
Top of page| Wood Packaging not known to carry the pest in trade/transport |
|---|
| Loose wood packing material |
| Non-wood |
| Processed or treated wood |
| Solid wood packing material with bark |
| Solid wood packing material without bark |
Impact Summary
Top of page| Category | Impact |
|---|---|
| Animal/plant collections | None |
| Animal/plant products | Negative |
| Biodiversity (generally) | None |
| Crop production | Negative |
| Environment (generally) | None |
| Fisheries / aquaculture | None |
| Forestry production | None |
| Human health | None |
| Livestock production | None |
| Native fauna | None |
| Native flora | None |
| Rare/protected species | None |
| Tourism | None |
| Trade/international relations | Negative |
| Transport/travel | None |
Impact
Top of page A. albus is only an occasional problem in the field; most often, it is a pest of cassava stems stored for later planting. Infested cuttings often do not root, and use of infested cuttings at planting can result in rooting failure of up to 80% (Lal and Pillai, 1981). Heavy infestation causes desiccation of the stems; in the field, this causes them to become thin and weak, and to break in the wind; death of the plant may result. Breakage of stems leads to profuse branching, and infested plants often appear bushy. The severity of attack becomes worse in drought conditions, aggravating drought stress (Lal and Pillai, 1981). The socio-economic impact of this can be considerable, as cassava is an important staple crop during drought, e.g. in Africa.A. albus is a more or less serious pest of cassava in East and West Africa, Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, India, Madagascar, Mexico, Taiwan, Thailand, West Indies and USA (Florida) (Simmonds, 1960; Subramaniam et al., 1977; Anon., 1978; Vargas et al., 1978; Lal and Pillai, 1981; Wongkobrat, 1988). In Brazil, this species is a pest on Manihot and Solanum spp. (Foldi, 1988), and was regarded with potential pest status on Manihot spp. (source of Ceara rubber) by Bastos et al. (1979). It can cause serious damage locally in Kenya (Bruijn and Guthrie, 1982). Severe attacks on cassava cuttings kept for planting can lead to losses (Lal and Pillai, 1981; Chua and Wood, 1990); it is a field pest less often (Lal and Pillai, 1981).
Social Impact
Top of page The severity of attack by A. albus becomes worse in drought conditions, aggravating drought stress (Lal and Pillai, 1981). The socio-economic impact of this can be considerable, as cassava is an important staple crop during drought in Africa.Diagnosis
Top of page Microscopic examination of slide-mounted adult females is required for authoritative identification to species. Ferris (1942, 1943) and Watson (2002) give identification keys that include A. albus.Detection and Inspection
Top of page In the cassava field, look for bushy growth. In the field or in the cuttings store, examine stems of cassava closely (especially the bases) for pale to dark-brown, mussel-shaped scale covers.Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of page A. albus resembles Aonidomytilus solidaginis, but is readily recognisable when slide-mounted female specimens are examined at high power. In A. albus there are no perivulvar pores and the pygidial lobes are low; in A. solidaginis, perivulvar pores are present and the pygidial lobes are prominent (Ferris, 1941).Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Phytosanitary Measures
Planting sticks of cassava, and stored cassava, should be thoroughly inspected for A. albus scales before export, as there is a risk of their dissemination on such material (Lozano et al., 1977). Imported planting material of cassava should also be thoroughly inspected before planting and treated if necessary, to kill any scale insects present.
Cultural Control and Sanitary Methods
Crowded planting encourages the development and spread of A. albus infestations; use of clean planting material, and well-spaced planting, reduces the risk of serious infestation. Spacing cuttings out avoids creation of a microclimate that favours the spread of any infestation. Use of infested cuttings should be avoided as they often do not root (Lal and Pillai, 1981).
The main infective stage of A. albus is the first-instar crawler, which is quite short-lived in the absence of food. Infected fields should therefore be completely cleared of cassava and left empty for at least 3 days before re-planting with cassava; crop rotation is also a valuable insurance against the carry-over of any infestation.
Transport of infested material through fields planted with cassava also risks transfer of the infestation, as crawlers may drop (or be blown) off the harvested material onto plants still in the field. If possible, it is better to transport the harvest by a route that avoids newly planted cassava fields.
Host-Plant Resistance
The cultivar 'Butter stick' has been reported to be highly susceptible to attack by A. albus (Lal and Pillai, 1981).
Biological Control
No mention of use of natural enemies against A. albus has been found in the literature.
Chemical Control
Lozano et al. (1977) recommended a 5-minute dip of planting sticks in 200 ppm malathion or diazinin to kill any infestation. Lal and Pillai (1981) found that vertical storage of stems reduced infestation, and spraying of infested stems with 0.1% malathion or methyl demeton before planting minimised subsequent infestation problems in the field. Pillai et al. (1993) recommended the use of dimethoate and methyl demeton for control of A. albus.
In Madagascar, it was found that a 60-minute immersion in liquid extract from cassava roots (manipueira) would kill A. albus before the cuttings were used for planting; this was more effective than immersion in hot water (Razafindrakoto et al., 1999).
References
Top of pageAnantanarayanan KP, Subramanian TR, Muthukrishnan TS, 1957. A note on the tapioca scale (Aonidomytilus albus Cockerell). Madras Agricultural Journal, 44(7):281-286.
APPPC, 1987. Insect pests of economic significance affecting major crops of the countries in Asia and the Pacific region. Technical Document No. 135. Bangkok, Thailand: Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific region (RAPA).
Ballou CH, 1923. Nota sobre coccidos Cubanos. Memorias de Sociedad Cubana de Historia Natural "Felipe Poey", 2/4:85-87.
Bohlen E, 1973. Crop pests in Tanzania and their control. Berlin, Germany: Verlag Paul Parey.
Chua TH, Wood BJ, 1990. Other Tropical Fruit Trees and Shrubs. In: Rosen D, ed. Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 543-552.
Claps LE, Wolff VRS, González RH, 2001. Catálogo de las Diaspididae (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) exóticas de la Argentina, Brasil y Chile. Revista de la Socieded Entomológica Argentina, 60:9-34.
Cockerell TDA, 1893. The West Indian species of Mytilaspis and Pinnaspis. Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine, 29:155-158.
Cockerell TDA, 1899. Rhynchota, Hemiptera - Homoptera. [Aleurodidae and Coccidae]. Biologia Centrali Americana, 2:1-37.
De Lotto G, 1967. A contribution to the knowledge of the African Coccoidea (Homoptera). Journal of the Entomological Society of southern Africa, 29:109-120.
Dekle GW, 1976. Florida armored scale insects. In: Arthropods of Florida and Neighboring Land Areas. Gainesville, Florida: Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry, 3:1-345.
EPPO, 2014. PQR database. Paris, France: European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization. http://www.eppo.int/DATABASES/pqr/pqr.htm
Ferris GF, 1941. Atlas of the Scale Insects of North America. Series 3. Palo Alto, California: Stanford University Press.
Ferris GF, 1942. Atlas of the Scale Insects of North America. Series IV. The Diaspididae (Part IV). Stanford, California, USA: Stanford University Press.
Ferris GF, 1943. Additions to the knowledge of the Diaspididae (Homoptera: Coccoidea). (Contribution no. 41). Microentomology, 8:58-79.
Greathead DJ, 1990. Crawler behaviour and dispersal. 1.4.3. In: Rosen D, ed. Armoured Scales, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. World Crop Pests, Volume 4A. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier, 305-308.
Kondo T, 2001. Las cochinillas de Colombia (Hemiptera: Coccoidea). Biota Colombiana, 2(1):31-48.
Merrill GB, 1953. Bulletin of the State Plant Board, Florida, 1:53.
Mosquera PF, 1976. Escamas protegidas más frecuentes en Colombia. Boletín Técnico, Ministerio de Agrícola Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario, División de Sanidad Vegetal, 38:1-103.
Nakahara S, 1982. Checklist of the Armored Scales (Homoptera: Diapididae) of the Conterminous United States. Washington, USA: USDA, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Plant Protection and Quarantine, 110 pp.
Nakahara S, 1983. List of the Coccoidea species (Homoptera) of the United States Virgin Islands. United States Department of Agriculture, Plant Protection and Quarantine, APHIS [Mimeograph], 8142:1-21.
Sankaran T, Nagaraja H, Narasimham AU, 1984. On some South Indian armoured scales and their natural enemies. Proceedings of the 10th International Symposium of Central European Entomofaunistics, Budapest, 15-20 August 1983, 409-411.
Silva AGA, Gontalves CR, Galvpo DM, Gontalves AGL, Gomes J, Silva MN, Simoni L, 1968. Quarto catálogo dos insetos que vivem nas plantas do Brasil. Parte II, Tomo 1: Insetos, hospedeiros, inimigos naturais. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: MinistTrio da Agricultura, 622 pp.
Subramaniam TR, David BV, Thangavel P, Abraham EV, 1977. Insect pest problems of tuber crops in Tamil Nadu. Journal of Root Crops, 3(1):43-50.
Takahashi R, 1942. Some Coccidae from Malaya and Hongkong (Homoptera). Transactions of the Formosa Natural History Society, 32:63-68.
Tao C, 1999. List of Coccoidea (Homoptera) of China. Taichung, Taiwan: Taiwan Agricultural Research Institute, Wufeng, 1-176.
Thamburaj S, Kuppusamy S, undated. Varietal response to scales in tapioca. Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, India: National seminar on tuber crops production technology, 21, 22 November 1980, 90-92.
Urias Lopez MA, Carillo Sanches J, 1983. Plagas principales de la yuca, Manihot esculenta Crantz, en la sabana de Huimanguillo, Tabasco. Agricultura Técnica en México, 9:65-83.
Vargas HO, Brekelbaum T, Bellotti A, Lozano JC, 1978. The white scale (Aonidomytilus albus Ckll.) on cassava. In: Carlos Lozano J, ed. Proceedings cassava protection workshop CIAT, Cali, Colombia, 7-12 November, 1977, 199-202.
Watson GW, 2002. Arthropods of economic importance: Diaspididae of the world. An illustrated identification guide and information source. CD-ROM. Expert Center for Taxonomic Identification (ETI), University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands. ISBN No. 90-75000-48-0.
Wongkobrat A, 1988. Insect pests of cassava in Thailand. Cassava Newsletter, 12(1):5-7
Distribution References
APPPC, 1987. Insect pests of economic significance affecting major crops of the countries in Asia and the Pacific region. In: Technical Document No. 135, Bangkok, Thailand: Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific region (RAPA).
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated b. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Claps LE, Wolff VRS, González RH, 2001. Catalogue of the exotic species of Diaspididae (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) from Argentina, Brazil and Chile. (Catálogo de las Diaspididae (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) exóticas de la Argentina)., 60 9-34.
De Lotto G, 1967. A contribution to the knowledge of the African Coccoidea (Homoptera). In: Journal of the Entomological Society of southern Africa, 29 109-120.
EPPO, 2020. EPPO Global database. In: EPPO Global database, Paris, France: EPPO.
Merrill G B, 1953. [English title not available]. Bulletin of the State Plant Board, Florida. 53.
Mosquera PF, 1976. (Escamas protegidas más frecuentes en Colombia)., 38 Ministerio de Agrícola Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario, División de Sanidad Vegetal. 1-103.
Nakahara S, 1982. Checklist of the Armored Scales (Homoptera: Diapididae) of the Conterminous United States., Washington, USA: USDA, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Plant Protection and Quarantine. 110 pp.
Nakahara S, 1983. List of the Coccoidea species (Homoptera) of the United States Virgin Islands. In: United States Department of Agriculture, Plant Protection and Quarantine, APHIS [Mimeograph], 8142 1-21.
NHM, 1931. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1931a. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1937. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1942. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1954. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1968. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1977. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1978. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1979. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1982. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1983. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1984. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1985. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1987. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
Sankaran T, Nagaraja H, Narasimham AU, 1984. On some South Indian armoured scales and their natural enemies. [Proceedings of the 10th International Symposium of Central European Entomofaunistics, Budapest, 15-20 August 1983], 409-411.
Schotman C Y L, 1989. Plant pests of quarantine importance to the Caribbean. In: RLAC-PROVEG, 80 pp.
Silva AGA, Gontalves CR, Galvpo DM, Gontalves AGL, Gomes J, Silva MN, Simoni L, 1968. (Quarto catálogo dos insetos que vivem nas plantas do Brasil. Parte II, Tomo 1: Insetos, hospedeiros, inimigos naturais)., 1 (II) Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: MinistTrio da Agricultura. 622 pp.
Vargas HO, Brekelbaum T, Bellotti A, Lozano JC, 1978. The white scale (Aonidomytilus albus Ckll.) on cassava. [Proceedings cassava protection workshop CIAT, Cali, Colombia, 7-12 November, 1977], [ed. by Carlos Lozano J]. 199-202.
Wongkobrat A, 1988. Insect pests of cassava in Thailand. Cassava Newsletter. 12 (1), 5-7.
Distribution Maps
Top of pageUnsupported Web Browser:
One or more of the features that are needed to show you the maps functionality are not available in the web browser that you are using.
Please consider upgrading your browser to the latest version or installing a new browser.
More information about modern web browsers can be found at http://browsehappy.com/
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License.
Please click OK to ACCEPT or Cancel to REJECT