| Picture | Title | Caption | Copyright |
|---|---|---|---|
| Adult | Aonidiella orientalis (oriental yellow scale); Adult, Intercepted on Satureja from India in Atlanta, GA by CBPA Officer R. Godbois. | ©Charles Olsen, USDA APHIS PPQ, USDA APHIS PPQ/via Bugwood.org - CC BY-NC 3.0 | |
| Adult females | Aonidiella orientalis (oriental yellow scale); Adult females, Intercepted by CBP-AI M. Malerba from Dominican Republic at Atlanta, GA. | ©Charles Olsen, USDA APHIS PPQ, USDA APHIS PPQ/via Bugwood.org - CC BY-NC 3.0 | |
| Adult | Aonidiella orientalis (oriental yellow scale); Adult, Intercepted on Satureja from India in Atlanta, GA by CBPA Officer R. Godbois. | ©Charles Olsen, USDA APHIS PPQ, USDA APHIS PPQ/via Bugwood.org - CC BY-NC 3.0 | |
| Infestation | Aonidiella orientalis (oriental yellow scale); Infestation on foliage. Maiduguri, Nigeria. | ©William M. Ciesla, Forest Health Management International/via Bugwood.org - CC BY-NC 3.0 | |
| Infestation | Aonidiella orientalis (oriental yellow scale); Infestation on shoot. Maiduguri, Nigeria. | ©William M. Ciesla, Forest Health Management International/via Bugwood.org - CC BY-NC 3.0 | |
| Damage | Aonidiella orientalis (oriental yellow scale); Heavy damage to Azadirachta indica. Kano, Nigeria. | ©William M. Ciesla, Forest Health Management International/via Bugwood.org - CC BY-NC 3.0 | |
| Adult female | Aonidiella orientalis (oriental yellow scale); Adult female. New Zealand. June 2011. | ©Qing-Hai Fan - MAF Plant Health & Environment Laboratory (2011) Oriental Scale (Aonidiella orientalis) Available online: PaDIL - http://www.padil.gov.au - CC BY-NC 4.0 |
Datasheet
Aonidiella orientalis (oriental yellow scale)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- Risk of Introduction
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
- Growth Stages
- Symptoms
- List of Symptoms/Signs
- Biology and Ecology
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Impact
- Detection and Inspection
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pageIdentity
Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Aonidiella orientalis (Newstead, 1894)
Preferred Common Name
- oriental yellow scale
Other Scientific Names
- Aonidiella cocotiphagus (Marlatt) Ferns, 1938
- Aonidiella taprobana (Green) MacGillivray, 1921
- Aspidiotus cocotiphagus Marlatt, 1908
- Aspidiotus orientalis Newstead, 1894
- Aspidiotus osbeckiae Green, 1896
- Aspidiotus pedronis Green, 1905
- Aspidiotus taprobanus Green, 1905
- Chrysomphalus orientalis (Newstead) Lindinger, 1913
- Chrysomphalus pedroniformis Cockerell & Robinson, 1915
- Chrysomphalus pedronis (Green) Sanders, 1906
- Evaspidiotus orientalis (Newstead) Leonardi, 1898
- Furcaspis orientalis (Newstead) MacGillivray, 1921
International Common Names
- English: oriental red scale; oriental scale; scale, oriental; scale, oriental red; scale, oriental yellow; scale, red
EPPO code
- AONDOR (Aonidiella orientalis)
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Metazoa
- Phylum: Arthropoda
- Subphylum: Uniramia
- Class: Insecta
- Order: Hemiptera
- Suborder: Sternorrhyncha
- Unknown: Coccoidea
- Family: Diaspididae
- Genus: Aonidiella
- Species: Aonidiella orientalis
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of page
Aonidiella orientalis was first described by Newstead in 1894, as Aspidiotus orientalis, from an undetermined host in India. It has been redescribed as Aspidiotus osbeckiae Green, from Osbeckia in Sri Lanka, as Aspidiotus cocotiphagus Marlatt, from coconut in Cuba, and as Chrysomphalus pedroniformis Cockerell and Robinson, from grapes in the Philippines. This armoured scale is now located in the genus Aonidiella Berlese and Leonardi, within the tribe Aspidiotini of the subfamily Diaspidinae (McKenzie, 1938).
Description
Top of page
As with all armoured scale species (Diaspididae), adults of A. orientalis are covered with a scale or cover that is morphologically separate from the body. The adult female is less strongly reniform than typical for its genus, with less developed prosomatic lobes (McKenzie, 1938).
The adult female scale cover is circular and flat in shape, almost white to pale brown or yellow, with yellow to dark brown exuviae positioned more or less centrally. Adult female insect with prosoma pyriform, expanding to subcircular and becoming moderately sclerotized around margins at maturity. Pygidium quite well sclerotized dorsally. Median lobes distinctly larger than second lobes, with fourth lobes represented by small points on either side. Plates lateral to third lobes not fringed, each with a long fleshy process present at mesal angle. Abdominal segments 1 to 3 with a submarginal row or cluster of dorsal macroducts present on each side. Thoracic tubercles are minute. Perivulvar pores present in 4 or 5 groups, ranging from 19 to 32 in number. Prevulvar scleroses and apophyses absent. Adult females measure 1.0-1.4 mm in length when slide-mounted (Williams and Watson, 1988).
Male scales are elongate to oval in shape and similar to females, but smaller, with yellow exuviae near one end (Williams and Watson, 1988).
The adult female scale cover is circular and flat in shape, almost white to pale brown or yellow, with yellow to dark brown exuviae positioned more or less centrally. Adult female insect with prosoma pyriform, expanding to subcircular and becoming moderately sclerotized around margins at maturity. Pygidium quite well sclerotized dorsally. Median lobes distinctly larger than second lobes, with fourth lobes represented by small points on either side. Plates lateral to third lobes not fringed, each with a long fleshy process present at mesal angle. Abdominal segments 1 to 3 with a submarginal row or cluster of dorsal macroducts present on each side. Thoracic tubercles are minute. Perivulvar pores present in 4 or 5 groups, ranging from 19 to 32 in number. Prevulvar scleroses and apophyses absent. Adult females measure 1.0-1.4 mm in length when slide-mounted (Williams and Watson, 1988).
Male scales are elongate to oval in shape and similar to females, but smaller, with yellow exuviae near one end (Williams and Watson, 1988).
Distribution
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A. orientalis is a tropical and subtropical species with a wide distribution, including the West Indies, Middle East, India, East Africa and South Africa, southern Asia and northern Australia (CIE, 1978). It has been accidentally distributed worldwide on host plants and also occurs in greenhouses in temperate areas.
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 12 May 2022| Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
| Angola | Present | ||||||
| Cameroon | Present | ||||||
| Egypt | Present | ||||||
| Ethiopia | Present | ||||||
| Kenya | Present | ||||||
| Mali | Present | ||||||
| Niger | Present | ||||||
| Nigeria | Present | ||||||
| Saint Helena | Present | ||||||
| Senegal | Present | ||||||
| Somalia | Present | ||||||
| South Africa | Present | ||||||
| Sudan | Present | ||||||
| Tanzania | Present | ||||||
| Zambia | Present | ||||||
Asia |
|||||||
| Bangladesh | Present | ||||||
| China | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
| -Guangdong | Present | ||||||
| Hong Kong | Present | ||||||
| India | Present | ||||||
| -Andaman and Nicobar Islands | Present | ||||||
| -Andhra Pradesh | Present | ||||||
| -Bihar | Present | ||||||
| -Delhi | Present | ||||||
| -Gujarat | Present | ||||||
| -Himachal Pradesh | Present | ||||||
| -Karnataka | Present | ||||||
| -Kerala | Present | ||||||
| -Madhya Pradesh | Present | ||||||
| -Maharashtra | Present | ||||||
| -Odisha | Present | ||||||
| -Punjab | Present | ||||||
| -Tamil Nadu | Present | ||||||
| -Uttar Pradesh | Present | ||||||
| -West Bengal | Present | ||||||
| Iran | Present | ||||||
| Iraq | Present | ||||||
| Israel | Present | ||||||
| Malaysia | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
| -Peninsular Malaysia | Present | ||||||
| Maldives | Present | ||||||
| Myanmar | Present | ||||||
| Nepal | Present | ||||||
| Oman | Present | ||||||
| Pakistan | Present | ||||||
| Philippines | Present | ||||||
| Saudi Arabia | Present | ||||||
| Sri Lanka | Present | ||||||
| Thailand | Present | ||||||
| United Arab Emirates | Present | ||||||
North America |
|||||||
| Antigua and Barbuda | Present | ||||||
| Bahamas | Present | ||||||
| Barbados | Present | ||||||
| Cuba | Present | ||||||
| Curaçao | Present | ||||||
| Dominican Republic | Present | ||||||
| Guadeloupe | Present | ||||||
| Haiti | Present | ||||||
| Jamaica | Present | ||||||
| Martinique | Present | ||||||
| Mexico | Present | ||||||
| Netherlands Antilles | Present | ||||||
| Panama | Present | ||||||
| Puerto Rico | Present | ||||||
| Saint Kitts and Nevis | Present | ||||||
| Saint Martin | Present | ||||||
| Sint Maarten | Present | ||||||
| Trinidad and Tobago | Present | ||||||
| U.S. Virgin Islands | Present | ||||||
| United States | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
| -Florida | Present | ||||||
Oceania |
|||||||
| Australia | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
| -Northern Territory | Present | ||||||
| -Queensland | Present | ||||||
| Nauru | Present | ||||||
| Papua New Guinea | Present | ||||||
South America |
|||||||
| Brazil | Present | ||||||
| -Ceara | Present | ||||||
| Ecuador | Present | ||||||
| French Guiana | Present | ||||||
Risk of Introduction
Top of page
Diaspididae are generally of quarantine importance, as they are primarily spread on plant stock through human activity. They are regularly intercepted at plant quarantine inspection centres.
A. orientalis was reported to be relatively new to the South Pacific area by Williams and Watson (1988), and therefore to be of potential phytosanitary risk. In the Caribbean it is regarded as an economic plant pest of quarantine importance (Schotman, 1989).
A. orientalis was reported to be relatively new to the South Pacific area by Williams and Watson (1988), and therefore to be of potential phytosanitary risk. In the Caribbean it is regarded as an economic plant pest of quarantine importance (Schotman, 1989).
Hosts/Species Affected
Top of page
A. orientalis is highly polyphagous. It can attack almost any host except conifers, according to Williams and Watson (1988). It can be an economic pest of crops from diverse families. These include: species of Citrus and Ficus, mango, papaya, bananas and other fruits; palm trees, including coconut and arecanut (Areca catechu); and tea (Camellia sinensis).
The distribution map includes records based on specimens of A. orientalis from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK). These are noted in the List of Countries (NHM, undated).
The distribution map includes records based on specimens of A. orientalis from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK). These are noted in the List of Countries (NHM, undated).
Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
Top of pageSymptoms
Top of page
Direct feeding damage on leaves and removal of plant sap reduces plant vigour. Feeding often causes depressions, discoloration and distortion of leaves. Heavy infestations can result in the yellowing of foliage and defoliation, dieback of small twigs and premature fruit drop (Rajagopal and Krishnamoorthy, 1996). Cosmetic damage may also occasionally occur to fruits.
List of Symptoms/Signs
Top of page| Sign | Life Stages | Type |
|---|---|---|
| Fruit / discoloration | ||
| Fruit / external feeding | ||
| Leaves / abnormal colours | ||
| Leaves / abnormal forms | ||
| Leaves / abnormal leaf fall | ||
| Leaves / external feeding | ||
| Leaves / yellowed or dead | ||
| Stems / dieback | ||
| Stems / distortion | ||
| Stems / external feeding |
Biology and Ecology
Top of page
The eggs are laid under the female scale cover. The larvae (forst instar crawlers) emerge from under the female, and crawl for several hours until they find suitable host plant tissue into which to insert their stylets. The females subsequently remain immobile, with successive moults adding to the size of the scale. Females have two moults before attaining maturity. The males have additional prepupal and pupal moults before attaining a winged adult stage. Adult males lack mouthparts, do not feed and are relatively short-lived. Mating and the laying of eggs is the most important route by which crawlers are produced (Rajagopal and Krishnamoorthy, 1996).
In laboratory studies, males took an average of 19.5 days to proceed from the crawler stage to adult and females took an average of 44.2 days from the crawler stage to production of the first crawler of the subsequent generation (Elder and Smith, 1995).
In Iran, five generations per year were recorded, with the maximum population density in the fourth and fifth generations. Reproduction was most frequently viviparous, but oviparous and ovoviviparous reproduction were also observed (Khalaf and Sokhansanj, 1993; Farid, 1994).
Four annual generations, two in winter and two in spring, were observed on weeping fig (Ficus benjamina) in Saudi Arabia, where populations were lowest in summer, probably due to high temperatures (Badawi and Al-Ahmed, 1990). In India, three generations a year were recorded (Glover, 1933).
Crawlers and female scales feed on dilute sap and surplus carbohydrate and nitrogen is converted into material to construct the scale cover, and not into honeydew as in other scale insect families.
In laboratory studies, males took an average of 19.5 days to proceed from the crawler stage to adult and females took an average of 44.2 days from the crawler stage to production of the first crawler of the subsequent generation (Elder and Smith, 1995).
In Iran, five generations per year were recorded, with the maximum population density in the fourth and fifth generations. Reproduction was most frequently viviparous, but oviparous and ovoviviparous reproduction were also observed (Khalaf and Sokhansanj, 1993; Farid, 1994).
Four annual generations, two in winter and two in spring, were observed on weeping fig (Ficus benjamina) in Saudi Arabia, where populations were lowest in summer, probably due to high temperatures (Badawi and Al-Ahmed, 1990). In India, three generations a year were recorded (Glover, 1933).
Crawlers and female scales feed on dilute sap and surplus carbohydrate and nitrogen is converted into material to construct the scale cover, and not into honeydew as in other scale insect families.
Natural enemies
Top of page| Natural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ablerus aonidiellae | Parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
| Anagyrus pseudococci | Parasite | |||||
| Aphytis aonidiae | Parasite | |||||
| Aphytis lingnanensis | Parasite | |||||
| Aphytis melinus | Parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
| Aphytis philippinensis | Parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | India; Karnataka; Tamil Nadu | Calotropis gigantea; Securinega virosa | ||
| Aphytis riyadhi | Parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
| Arrhenophagus chionaspidis | Parasite | |||||
| Azotus bharathius | Parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
| Azotus fumipennis | Parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
| Chilocorus baileyii | Predator | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
| Chilocorus circumdatus | Predator | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
| Chilocorus nigrita | Predator | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
| Chilocorus renipustulatus | Predator | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
| Coccobius aligarhensis | Parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
| Coccobius reticulatus | Parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
| Coccophagoides orientalis | Parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
| Coccophagus ceroplastae | Parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
| Comperiella bifasciata | Predator/parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
| Comperiella indica | Parasite | |||||
| Comperiella lemniscata | Predator/parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
| Encarsia aurantii | Parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
| Encarsia citrina | Parasite | Adults; Eggs; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
| Habrolepis rouxi | Parasite | |||||
| Marietta leopardina | Parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
| Marlattiella maculata | Parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
| Pharoscymnus horni | Predator | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
| Pharoscymnus simmondsi | Predator | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
| Physcus gunturensis | Parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
| Promuscidea unfasciativentris | Parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
| Sticholotis marginalis | Predator | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
| Thomsonisca amathus | Parasite |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of page
Although A. orientalis has a wide distribution, its natural enemies have only been reported from a few countries, most notably India, Pakistan and Saudi Arabia (Rajagopal and Krishnamoorthy, 1996). In India, natural enemies were identified on a range of crops by Mani and Krishnamoorthy (1996). They recorded A. orientalis being parasitized by species of Aphytis on banana and custard apple (Annona reticulata), for example, but levels of parasitism were generally low.
Hayat (1986) listed a number of other parasitoids known to attack A. orientalis in the families Encyrtidae and Aphelinidae. Comperiella bifasciata and C. lemniscata are probably the only two parasitoids that are naturally effective at checking populations of A. orientalis over most of its range (Rajagopal and Krishnamoorthy, 1996).
Coccinellid beetles and lacewings are frequent predators of A. orientalis in a variety of crops (Mani and Krishnamoorthy, 1996).
Hyperparasites of the most common parasites of A. orientalis include Ablerus spp., Azotus spp., Marietta spp. and Zaomma spp. (Ofek et al., 1997).
Hayat (1986) listed a number of other parasitoids known to attack A. orientalis in the families Encyrtidae and Aphelinidae. Comperiella bifasciata and C. lemniscata are probably the only two parasitoids that are naturally effective at checking populations of A. orientalis over most of its range (Rajagopal and Krishnamoorthy, 1996).
Coccinellid beetles and lacewings are frequent predators of A. orientalis in a variety of crops (Mani and Krishnamoorthy, 1996).
Hyperparasites of the most common parasites of A. orientalis include Ablerus spp., Azotus spp., Marietta spp. and Zaomma spp. (Ofek et al., 1997).
Impact
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A. orientalis is highly polyphagous and is therefore potentially a serious pest of a wide range of crops. It is considered to be a serious pest in certain areas of the world, notably on coconut and arecanut in South India (Rajagopal and Krishnamoorthy, 1996), and on coconut in Florida, USA (Dekle and Merrill, 1976).
The greatest economic impact attributed to A. orientalis is often in areas it has recently invaded. In Australia, for example, A. orientalis first spread from the Torres Strait Islands to Queensland in 1956. It caused problems for the first time in papaya during 1988, and is now the most important pest on papaya in northern Queensland (Elder et al., 1998).
It is an important pest of tamarind trees in India (Rajagopal and Krishnamoorthy, 1996), and of species of Citrus (especially Omani lime, sweet lime and grapefruit) in Iran (Farid, 1994) and Asia (Rosen, 1990). It is also a serious pest on coconuts in Malaysia and Sri Lanka, mango in the Philippines and Israel, papaya in Malaysia and Australia, and guava in India (Rosen, 1990). In Nigeria, Niger and northern Cameroon, A. orientalis infestations damage neem (Azadirachta indica) and can kill trees (Boa, 1995).
A. orientalis disrupts lac production, a resinous secretion from the insect Laccifer lacca collected in India and Indonesia, by feeding on the same hosts and thereby decreasing the purity and yield of the product (Rajagopal and Krishnamoorthy, 1996).
The greatest economic impact attributed to A. orientalis is often in areas it has recently invaded. In Australia, for example, A. orientalis first spread from the Torres Strait Islands to Queensland in 1956. It caused problems for the first time in papaya during 1988, and is now the most important pest on papaya in northern Queensland (Elder et al., 1998).
It is an important pest of tamarind trees in India (Rajagopal and Krishnamoorthy, 1996), and of species of Citrus (especially Omani lime, sweet lime and grapefruit) in Iran (Farid, 1994) and Asia (Rosen, 1990). It is also a serious pest on coconuts in Malaysia and Sri Lanka, mango in the Philippines and Israel, papaya in Malaysia and Australia, and guava in India (Rosen, 1990). In Nigeria, Niger and northern Cameroon, A. orientalis infestations damage neem (Azadirachta indica) and can kill trees (Boa, 1995).
A. orientalis disrupts lac production, a resinous secretion from the insect Laccifer lacca collected in India and Indonesia, by feeding on the same hosts and thereby decreasing the purity and yield of the product (Rajagopal and Krishnamoorthy, 1996).
Detection and Inspection
Top of page
Look for circular, flat, pale-yellow to reddish-brown scales on leaves, but sometimes on branches, trunks, shoots and fruits of host plants.
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of page
A. orientalis is easily distinguished from most other Aonidiella species as the adult female's body is less heavily sclerotized and fails to become strongly reniform at maturity. It also has conspicuous submarginal groups of macroducts on either side of the free abdominal segments. However, it is similar to A. simplex and A. andersoni, although both these species lack perivulvar pores, which are present in A. orientalis females (McKenzie, 1938).
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Cultural Control
The pruning of lower stalks and water management can be useful in controlling A. orientalis (Khalaf and Sokhansanj, 1993) in Iran. In India, the cutting and burning of damaged shoots can keep A. orientalis populations under control in ber (Ziziphus mauritiana), whereas the removal and destruction of damaged tree parts can aid control during the early stages of infestation in tamarind (Rajagopal and Krishnamoorthy, 1996).
Damaging infestations on neem in West Africa are associated with water stress (Boa, 1995).
Biological Control
A. orientalis has been successfully controlled by three parasitoids on papaya in Queensland, Australia. Comperiella lemniscata was introduced from Hainan Island in China and from the Torres Strait in northern Queensland, and released during 1991. Within 12 months, parasitism rates rose as high as 80% and rejection of fruit for market dropped from 20-30 to 1-2%. Aphytis melinus was also augmentatively released and rates of parasitism were increased, although this parasitoid had to be continually re-released. Encarsia citrina occurred naturally, producing levels of up to 80% parasitism, and was also therefore important in the biological control of A. orientalis (Elder et al., 1998).
C. lemniscata and two predatory coccinellids, Chilocorus circumdatus and C. baileyii, were introduced into Israel from Australia for the control of A. orientalis on mango (Ofek et al., 1997). Rajagopal and Krishnamoorthy (1996) indicated the potential of the parasite Comperiella bifasciata and the predator Chilocorus nigrita as biological control agents.
Chemical Control
The usual chemical treatment is mineral oil sprays (Khalaf and Sokhansanj, 1993), although these are not routinely recommended as they interfere with the natural biological control of pest insects in orchards and plantations. Malathion, dimethoate or diazinon have also previously been recommended for dealing with severe infestations in papaya, tamarind and other crops (Rajagopal and Krishnamoorthy, 1996).
References
Top of pageBoa ER, 1995. A guide to the identification of diseases and pests of neem (Azadirachta indica). RAP Publication 1995/41. Bangkok, Thailand, FAO, 16-20, 34, 71 pp.
CIE, 1978. Distribution Maps of Pests, Map No. 386. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.
Glover PM, 1933. Aspidiotus (Furcaspis) orientalis Newstead, its economic importance in lac cultivation and its control. Indian Lac Research Institute Bulletin, 16:1-22.
Hayat M, 1986. Chalidoidea hosts. Host parasite list. Oriental Insects, 20:323-383.
McKenzie HL, 1938. The genus Aonidiella (Homoptera: Coccoidea: Diaspididae). Microentomology, 3:1-36.
Rosen D, 1990. World Crop Pests. 4B. Armoured Scale Insects: their biology, natural enemies and control. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier Science Publishers, 688 pp.
Wysoki M, 1997. Present status of arthropod fauna in mango orchards in Israel. In: Lavi U, Degani C, Gazit S, Lahav E, Pesis E, Prusky D, Tomer E, Wysoki M, eds. Proceedings of the 5th International Mango Symposium, Volume 2. Acta Horticulturae, 455:805-811.
Distribution References
CABI, Undated. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
NHM, 1918. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1927. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1956. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1959. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1971. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1972. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1976. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1978. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1979. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1980. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1983. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1984. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1988. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1992. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1993. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1994. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1996. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, Undated. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
Schotman C Y L, 1989. Plant pests of quarantine importance to the Caribbean. In: RLAC-PROVEG, 80 pp.
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