Aonidiella orientalis (oriental yellow scale)

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Adult

Aonidiella orientalis (oriental yellow scale); Adult, Intercepted on Satureja from India in Atlanta, GA by CBPA Officer R. Godbois.

©Charles Olsen, USDA APHIS PPQ, USDA APHIS PPQ/via Bugwood.org - CC BY-NC 3.0

Adult females

Aonidiella orientalis (oriental yellow scale); Adult females, Intercepted by CBP-AI M. Malerba from Dominican Republic at Atlanta, GA.

©Charles Olsen, USDA APHIS PPQ, USDA APHIS PPQ/via Bugwood.org - CC BY-NC 3.0

Adult

Aonidiella orientalis (oriental yellow scale); Adult, Intercepted on Satureja from India in Atlanta, GA by CBPA Officer R. Godbois.

©Charles Olsen, USDA APHIS PPQ, USDA APHIS PPQ/via Bugwood.org - CC BY-NC 3.0

Infestation

Aonidiella orientalis (oriental yellow scale); Infestation on foliage. Maiduguri, Nigeria.

©William M. Ciesla, Forest Health Management International/via Bugwood.org - CC BY-NC 3.0

Infestation

Aonidiella orientalis (oriental yellow scale); Infestation on shoot. Maiduguri, Nigeria.

©William M. Ciesla, Forest Health Management International/via Bugwood.org - CC BY-NC 3.0

Damage

Aonidiella orientalis (oriental yellow scale); Heavy damage to Azadirachta indica. Kano, Nigeria.

©William M. Ciesla, Forest Health Management International/via Bugwood.org - CC BY-NC 3.0

Adult female

Aonidiella orientalis (oriental yellow scale); Adult female. New Zealand. June 2011.

©Qing-Hai Fan - MAF Plant Health & Environment Laboratory (2011) Oriental Scale (Aonidiella orientalis) Available online: PaDIL - http://www.padil.gov.au - CC BY-NC 4.0

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Aonidiella orientalis (Newstead, 1894)

Preferred Common Name

oriental yellow scale

Other Scientific Names

Aonidiella cocotiphagus (Marlatt) Ferns, 1938
Aonidiella taprobana (Green) MacGillivray, 1921
Aspidiotus cocotiphagus Marlatt, 1908
Aspidiotus orientalis Newstead, 1894
Aspidiotus osbeckiae Green, 1896
Aspidiotus pedronis Green, 1905
Aspidiotus taprobanus Green, 1905
Chrysomphalus orientalis (Newstead) Lindinger, 1913
Chrysomphalus pedroniformis Cockerell & Robinson, 1915
Chrysomphalus pedronis (Green) Sanders, 1906
Evaspidiotus orientalis (Newstead) Leonardi, 1898
Furcaspis orientalis (Newstead) MacGillivray, 1921

International Common Names

English: oriental red scale; oriental scale; scale, oriental; scale, oriental red; scale, oriental yellow; scale, red

EPPO code

AONDOR (Aonidiella orientalis)

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Metazoa
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: Uniramia
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Sternorrhyncha
Unknown: Coccoidea
Family: Diaspididae
Genus: Aonidiella
Species: Aonidiella orientalis

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

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Aonidiella orientalis was first described by Newstead in 1894, as Aspidiotus orientalis, from an undetermined host in India. It has been redescribed as Aspidiotus osbeckiae Green, from Osbeckia in Sri Lanka, as Aspidiotus cocotiphagus Marlatt, from coconut in Cuba, and as Chrysomphalus pedroniformis Cockerell and Robinson, from grapes in the Philippines. This armoured scale is now located in the genus Aonidiella Berlese and Leonardi, within the tribe Aspidiotini of the subfamily Diaspidinae (McKenzie, 1938).

Description

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As with all armoured scale species (Diaspididae), adults of A. orientalis are covered with a scale or cover that is morphologically separate from the body. The adult female is less strongly reniform than typical for its genus, with less developed prosomatic lobes (McKenzie, 1938).

The adult female scale cover is circular and flat in shape, almost white to pale brown or yellow, with yellow to dark brown exuviae positioned more or less centrally. Adult female insect with prosoma pyriform, expanding to subcircular and becoming moderately sclerotized around margins at maturity. Pygidium quite well sclerotized dorsally. Median lobes distinctly larger than second lobes, with fourth lobes represented by small points on either side. Plates lateral to third lobes not fringed, each with a long fleshy process present at mesal angle. Abdominal segments 1 to 3 with a submarginal row or cluster of dorsal macroducts present on each side. Thoracic tubercles are minute. Perivulvar pores present in 4 or 5 groups, ranging from 19 to 32 in number. Prevulvar scleroses and apophyses absent. Adult females measure 1.0-1.4 mm in length when slide-mounted (Williams and Watson, 1988).

Male scales are elongate to oval in shape and similar to females, but smaller, with yellow exuviae near one end (Williams and Watson, 1988).

Distribution

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A. orientalis is a tropical and subtropical species with a wide distribution, including the West Indies, Middle East, India, East Africa and South Africa, southern Asia and northern Australia (CIE, 1978). It has been accidentally distributed worldwide on host plants and also occurs in greenhouses in temperate areas.

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 30 Jun 2021

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Reference	Notes
Africa
Angola	Present	NHM (1972)
Cameroon	Present	NHM (1992)
Egypt	Present	NHM (1988)
Ethiopia	Present	UK, CAB International (1978)
Kenya	Present	UK, CAB International (1978)
Mali	Present	Muniappan et al. (2012)
Niger	Present	NHM (1994)
Nigeria	Present	NHM (1994)
Saint Helena	Present	NHM (1959)
Senegal	Present	Muniappan et al. (2012)
Somalia	Present	UK, CAB International (1978)
South Africa	Present	UK, CAB International (1978)
Sudan	Present	UK, CAB International (1978) EPPO (2021)
Tanzania	Present	UK, CAB International (1978)
Zambia	Present	NHM (1996)
Asia
Bangladesh	Present	NHM (1927)
China	Present	CABI (Undated)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Guangdong	Present	UK, CAB International (1978)
Hong Kong	Present	NHM (1976)
India	Present	UK, CAB International (1978) Verma and Dinabandhoo (2005)
-Andaman and Nicobar Islands	Present	UK, CAB International (1978)
-Andhra Pradesh	Present	UK, CAB International (1978)
-Bihar	Present	UK, CAB International (1978)
-Delhi	Present	NHM (1980)
-Gujarat	Present	NHM (Undated)
-Himachal Pradesh	Present	Verma and Dinabandhoo (2005)
-Karnataka	Present	Shafee and Fatma (1984)
-Kerala	Present	NHM (1983)
-Madhya Pradesh	Present	UK, CAB International (1978)
-Maharashtra	Present	UK, CAB International (1978)
-Odisha	Present	NHM (1993)
-Punjab	Present	NHM (1978)
-Tamil Nadu	Present	UK, CAB International (1978)
-Uttar Pradesh	Present	UK, CAB International (1978)
-West Bengal	Present	NHM (1956)
Iran	Present	UK, CAB International (1978)
Iraq	Present	UK, CAB International (1978)
Israel	Present	Bugante et al. (1997)
Malaysia	Present	CABI (Undated)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Peninsular Malaysia	Present	UK, CAB International (1978)
Maldives	Present	NHM (1994)
Myanmar	Present	NHM (1918)
Nepal	Present	UK, CAB International (1978)
Oman	Present	NHM (1992) Elwan (2000)
Pakistan	Present	UK, CAB International (1978)
Philippines	Present	UK, CAB International (1978)
Saudi Arabia	Present	UK, CAB International (1978)
Sri Lanka	Present	UK, CAB International (1978)
Thailand	Present	NHM (1994)
United Arab Emirates	Present	NHM (Undated)
North America
Antigua and Barbuda	Present	NHM (1971)
Bahamas	Present	UK, CAB International (1978)
Barbados	Present	UK, CAB International (1978)
Cuba	Present	UK, CAB International (1978)
Curaçao	Present	UK, CAB International (1978)
Dominican Republic	Present	UK, CAB International (1978)
Guadeloupe	Present	UK, CAB International (1978) Matile-Ferrero and Étienne (2006)
Haiti	Present	UK, CAB International (1978) Schotman (1989)
Jamaica	Present	UK, CAB International (1978)
Martinique	Present	UK, CAB International (1978) Matile-Ferrero and Étienne (2006)
Mexico	Present	UK, CAB International (1978) Arriola Padilla et al. (2016)
Netherlands Antilles	Present	UK, CAB International (1978)
Panama	Present	UK, CAB International (1978)
Puerto Rico	Present	UK, CAB International (1978)
Saint Kitts and Nevis	Present	NHM (1996)
Saint Martin	Present	Matile-Ferrero and Étienne (2006)
Sint Maarten	Present	Matile-Ferrero and Étienne (2006)
Trinidad and Tobago	Present	UK, CAB International (1978)
U.S. Virgin Islands	Present	NHM (1979)
United States	Present	CABI (Undated)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Florida	Present	UK, CAB International (1978)
Oceania
Australia	Present	CABI (Undated) Elder and Smith (1995)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Northern Territory	Present	UK, CAB International (1978)
-Queensland	Present	UK, CAB International (1978)
Nauru	Present	NHM (Undated)
Papua New Guinea	Present	Williams and Watson (1988)
South America
Brazil	Present	MCKENZIE (1938) Costa et al. (2013)
-Ceara	Present	Costa et al. (2013)
Ecuador	Present	NHM (1984)
French Guiana	Present	EPPO (2021)

Risk of Introduction

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Diaspididae are generally of quarantine importance, as they are primarily spread on plant stock through human activity. They are regularly intercepted at plant quarantine inspection centres.

A. orientalis was reported to be relatively new to the South Pacific area by Williams and Watson (1988), and therefore to be of potential phytosanitary risk. In the Caribbean it is regarded as an economic plant pest of quarantine importance (Schotman, 1989).

Hosts/Species Affected

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A. orientalis is highly polyphagous. It can attack almost any host except conifers, according to Williams and Watson (1988). It can be an economic pest of crops from diverse families. These include: species of Citrus and Ficus, mango, papaya, bananas and other fruits; palm trees, including coconut and arecanut (Areca catechu); and tea (Camellia sinensis).

The distribution map includes records based on specimens of A. orientalis from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK). These are noted in the List of Countries (NHM, undated).

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

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Plant name	Family	Context	References
Acacia (wattles)	Fabaceae	Wild host
Aegle marmelos (golden apple)	Rutaceae	Other
Agave	Agavaceae	Wild host
Agave sisalana (sisal hemp)	Agavaceae	Other
Albizia lebbeck (Indian siris)	Fabaceae	Wild host
Annona	Annonaceae	Wild host
Annona squamosa (sugar apple)	Annonaceae	Other
Areca	Arecaceae	Main
Azadirachta indica (neem tree)	Meliaceae	Other
Bauhinia variegata (mountain ebony)	Fabaceae	Other
Cajanus cajan (pigeon pea)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Matile-Ferrero and Étienne (2006)
Calotropis gigantea (Yercum fibre)	Apocynaceae	Other
Calotropis procera (apple of sodom)	Apocynaceae	Other
Camellia	Theaceae	Wild host
Camellia sinensis (tea)	Theaceae	Main
Carica papaya (pawpaw)	Caricaceae	Main	Elder and Smith (1995)
Cassia fistula (Indian laburnum)	Fabaceae	Other
Citrus	Rutaceae	Main
Cocos nucifera (coconut)	Arecaceae	Main	Matile-Ferrero and Étienne (2006)
Codiaeum variegatum (garden croton)	Euphorbiaceae	Wild host
Cucurbita (pumpkin)	Cucurbitaceae	Other
Cycas	Cycadaceae	Other
Cycas revoluta (sago cycas)	Cycadaceae	Other
Cycas rumphii	Cycadaceae	Unknown	Matile-Ferrero and Étienne (2006)
Dalbergia sissoo	Fabaceae	Other
Elaeis guineensis (African oil palm)	Arecaceae	Other
Eugenia	Myrtaceae	Wild host
Feijoa	Myrtaceae	Wild host
Ficus	Moraceae	Other
Ficus benghalensis (banyan)	Moraceae	Other
Ficus benjamina (weeping fig)	Moraceae	Other
Ficus carica (common fig)	Moraceae	Other
Gomphocarpus physocarpus (balloon cotton bush)	Asclepiadaceae	Unknown	Matile-Ferrero and Étienne (2006)
Gossypium hirsutum (Bourbon cotton)	Malvaceae	Other
Hedera (Ivy)	Araliaceae	Wild host
Hibiscus (rosemallows)	Malvaceae	Wild host
Litchi chinensis (lichi)	Sapindaceae	Other
Mangifera indica (mango)	Anacardiaceae	Main	Matile-Ferrero and Étienne (2006)
Manilkara zapota (sapodilla)	Sapotaceae	Main
Melia azedarach (Chinaberry)	Meliaceae	Other
Metroxylon	Arecaceae	Other
Morus nigra (black mulberry)	Moraceae	Other
Musa (banana)	Musaceae	Other	Matile-Ferrero and Étienne (2006)
Nerium oleander (oleander)	Apocynaceae	Other
Olea europaea subsp. europaea (European olive)	Oleaceae	Other
Osbeckia	Melastomataceae	Other
Persea americana (avocado)	Lauraceae	Other
Phoenix dactylifera (date-palm)	Arecaceae	Other
Pistacia lentiscus (mastic tree)	Anacardiaceae	Other
Plumeria (frangipani)	Apocynaceae	Other
Polyphagous (polyphagous)		Main
Prunus (stone fruit)	Rosaceae	Other
Prunus persica (peach)	Rosaceae	Other
Psidium guajava (guava)	Myrtaceae	Main	Matile-Ferrero and Étienne (2006)
Punica granatum (pomegranate)	Punicaceae	Other
Ravenala madagascariensis	Strelitziaceae	Other	Matile-Ferrero and Étienne (2006)
Ricinus	Euphorbiaceae	Wild host
Ricinus communis (castor bean)	Euphorbiaceae	Other	Matile-Ferrero and Étienne (2006)
Rosa (roses)	Rosaceae	Wild host
Salix (willows)	Salicaceae	Wild host
Schleichera oleosa (Macassar oil tree)	Sapindaceae	Other
Solanum (nightshade)	Solanaceae	Other
Solanum arundo	Solanaceae	Other
Spondias dulcis (otaheite apple)	Anacardiaceae	Other
Syzygium cumini (black plum)	Myrtaceae	Other
Tamarindus indica (tamarind)	Fabaceae	Main	Matile-Ferrero and Étienne (2006)
Vitis (grape)	Vitaceae	Wild host
Vitis vinifera (grapevine)	Vitaceae	Other
Washingtonia filifera (desert fanpalm)	Arecaceae	Unknown	Matile-Ferrero and Étienne (2006)
Washingtonia robusta (mexican washington-palm)	Arecaceae	Unknown	Matile-Ferrero and Étienne (2006)
Ziziphus	Rhamnaceae	Wild host
Ziziphus jujuba (common jujube)	Rhamnaceae	Other
Ziziphus mauritiana (jujube)	Rhamnaceae	Other

Growth Stages

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Flowering stage, Fruiting stage, Seedling stage, Vegetative growing stage

Symptoms

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Direct feeding damage on leaves and removal of plant sap reduces plant vigour. Feeding often causes depressions, discoloration and distortion of leaves. Heavy infestations can result in the yellowing of foliage and defoliation, dieback of small twigs and premature fruit drop (Rajagopal and Krishnamoorthy, 1996). Cosmetic damage may also occasionally occur to fruits.

List of Symptoms/Signs

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Sign	Life Stages	Type
Fruit / discoloration
Fruit / external feeding
Leaves / abnormal colours
Leaves / abnormal forms
Leaves / abnormal leaf fall
Leaves / external feeding
Leaves / yellowed or dead
Stems / dieback
Stems / distortion
Stems / external feeding

Biology and Ecology

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The eggs are laid under the female scale cover. The larvae (forst instar crawlers) emerge from under the female, and crawl for several hours until they find suitable host plant tissue into which to insert their stylets. The females subsequently remain immobile, with successive moults adding to the size of the scale. Females have two moults before attaining maturity. The males have additional prepupal and pupal moults before attaining a winged adult stage. Adult males lack mouthparts, do not feed and are relatively short-lived. Mating and the laying of eggs is the most important route by which crawlers are produced (Rajagopal and Krishnamoorthy, 1996).

In laboratory studies, males took an average of 19.5 days to proceed from the crawler stage to adult and females took an average of 44.2 days from the crawler stage to production of the first crawler of the subsequent generation (Elder and Smith, 1995).

In Iran, five generations per year were recorded, with the maximum population density in the fourth and fifth generations. Reproduction was most frequently viviparous, but oviparous and ovoviviparous reproduction were also observed (Khalaf and Sokhansanj, 1993; Farid, 1994).

Four annual generations, two in winter and two in spring, were observed on weeping fig (Ficus benjamina) in Saudi Arabia, where populations were lowest in summer, probably due to high temperatures (Badawi and Al-Ahmed, 1990). In India, three generations a year were recorded (Glover, 1933).

Crawlers and female scales feed on dilute sap and surplus carbohydrate and nitrogen is converted into material to construct the scale cover, and not into honeydew as in other scale insect families.

Natural enemies

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Natural enemy	Type	Life stages	Biological control in	Biological control on
Ablerus aonidiellae	Parasite	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Anagyrus pseudococci	Parasite
Aphytis aonidiae	Parasite
Aphytis lingnanensis	Parasite
Aphytis melinus	Parasite	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Aphytis philippinensis	Parasite	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs	India; Karnataka; Tamil Nadu	Calotropis gigantea; Securinega virosa
Aphytis riyadhi	Parasite	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Arrhenophagus chionaspidis	Parasite
Azotus bharathius	Parasite	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Azotus fumipennis	Parasite	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Chilocorus baileyii	Predator	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Chilocorus circumdatus	Predator	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Chilocorus nigrita	Predator	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Chilocorus renipustulatus	Predator	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Coccobius aligarhensis	Parasite	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Coccobius reticulatus	Parasite	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Coccophagoides orientalis	Parasite	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Coccophagus ceroplastae	Parasite	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Comperiella bifasciata	Predator/parasite	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Comperiella indica	Parasite
Comperiella lemniscata	Predator/parasite	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Encarsia aurantii	Parasite	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Encarsia citrina	Parasite	Adults; Eggs; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Habrolepis rouxi	Parasite
Marietta leopardina	Parasite	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Marlattiella maculata	Parasite	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Pharoscymnus horni	Predator	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Pharoscymnus simmondsi	Predator	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Physcus gunturensis	Parasite	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Promuscidea unfasciativentris	Parasite	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Sticholotis marginalis	Predator	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Thomsonisca amathus	Parasite

Notes on Natural Enemies

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Although A. orientalis has a wide distribution, its natural enemies have only been reported from a few countries, most notably India, Pakistan and Saudi Arabia (Rajagopal and Krishnamoorthy, 1996). In India, natural enemies were identified on a range of crops by Mani and Krishnamoorthy (1996). They recorded A. orientalis being parasitized by species of Aphytis on banana and custard apple (Annona reticulata), for example, but levels of parasitism were generally low.

Hayat (1986) listed a number of other parasitoids known to attack A. orientalis in the families Encyrtidae and Aphelinidae. Comperiella bifasciata and C. lemniscata are probably the only two parasitoids that are naturally effective at checking populations of A. orientalis over most of its range (Rajagopal and Krishnamoorthy, 1996).

Coccinellid beetles and lacewings are frequent predators of A. orientalis in a variety of crops (Mani and Krishnamoorthy, 1996).

Hyperparasites of the most common parasites of A. orientalis include Ablerus spp., Azotus spp., Marietta spp. and Zaomma spp. (Ofek et al., 1997).

Impact

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A. orientalis is highly polyphagous and is therefore potentially a serious pest of a wide range of crops. It is considered to be a serious pest in certain areas of the world, notably on coconut and arecanut in South India (Rajagopal and Krishnamoorthy, 1996), and on coconut in Florida, USA (Dekle and Merrill, 1976).

The greatest economic impact attributed to A. orientalis is often in areas it has recently invaded. In Australia, for example, A. orientalis first spread from the Torres Strait Islands to Queensland in 1956. It caused problems for the first time in papaya during 1988, and is now the most important pest on papaya in northern Queensland (Elder et al., 1998).

It is an important pest of tamarind trees in India (Rajagopal and Krishnamoorthy, 1996), and of species of Citrus (especially Omani lime, sweet lime and grapefruit) in Iran (Farid, 1994) and Asia (Rosen, 1990). It is also a serious pest on coconuts in Malaysia and Sri Lanka, mango in the Philippines and Israel, papaya in Malaysia and Australia, and guava in India (Rosen, 1990). In Nigeria, Niger and northern Cameroon, A. orientalis infestations damage neem (Azadirachta indica) and can kill trees (Boa, 1995).

A. orientalis disrupts lac production, a resinous secretion from the insect Laccifer lacca collected in India and Indonesia, by feeding on the same hosts and thereby decreasing the purity and yield of the product (Rajagopal and Krishnamoorthy, 1996).

Detection and Inspection

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Look for circular, flat, pale-yellow to reddish-brown scales on leaves, but sometimes on branches, trunks, shoots and fruits of host plants.

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

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A. orientalis is easily distinguished from most other Aonidiella species as the adult female's body is less heavily sclerotized and fails to become strongly reniform at maturity. It also has conspicuous submarginal groups of macroducts on either side of the free abdominal segments. However, it is similar to A. simplex and A. andersoni, although both these species lack perivulvar pores, which are present in A. orientalis females (McKenzie, 1938).

Prevention and Control

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Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Cultural Control

The pruning of lower stalks and water management can be useful in controlling A. orientalis (Khalaf and Sokhansanj, 1993) in Iran. In India, the cutting and burning of damaged shoots can keep A. orientalis populations under control in ber (Ziziphus mauritiana), whereas the removal and destruction of damaged tree parts can aid control during the early stages of infestation in tamarind (Rajagopal and Krishnamoorthy, 1996).

Damaging infestations on neem in West Africa are associated with water stress (Boa, 1995).

Biological Control

A. orientalis has been successfully controlled by three parasitoids on papaya in Queensland, Australia. Comperiella lemniscata was introduced from Hainan Island in China and from the Torres Strait in northern Queensland, and released during 1991. Within 12 months, parasitism rates rose as high as 80% and rejection of fruit for market dropped from 20-30 to 1-2%. Aphytis melinus was also augmentatively released and rates of parasitism were increased, although this parasitoid had to be continually re-released. Encarsia citrina occurred naturally, producing levels of up to 80% parasitism, and was also therefore important in the biological control of A. orientalis (Elder et al., 1998).

C. lemniscata and two predatory coccinellids, Chilocorus circumdatus and C. baileyii, were introduced into Israel from Australia for the control of A. orientalis on mango (Ofek et al., 1997). Rajagopal and Krishnamoorthy (1996) indicated the potential of the parasite Comperiella bifasciata and the predator Chilocorus nigrita as biological control agents.

Chemical Control

The usual chemical treatment is mineral oil sprays (Khalaf and Sokhansanj, 1993), although these are not routinely recommended as they interfere with the natural biological control of pest insects in orchards and plantations. Malathion, dimethoate or diazinon have also previously been recommended for dealing with severe infestations in papaya, tamarind and other crops (Rajagopal and Krishnamoorthy, 1996).

References

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Arriola Padilla VJ; Estrada Martínez E; Romero Nápoles J; González Hernández H; Pérez Miranda R, 2016. Scale insects (Hemiptera: Coccomorpha) on ornamental plants in greenhouses from the central zone of the Morelos state, Mexico. (Insectos escama (Hemiptera: Coccomorpha) en plantas ornamentales en viveros de la zona centro del estado de Morelos, México.) Interciencia, 41(8):552-560. http://www.interciencia.org/v41_08/indexe.html

Badawi A; Al-Ahmed AM, 1990. The population dynamics of the oriental scale insect, Aonidiella orientalis (Newstead) and factors affecting its seasonal abundance. Arab Gulf Journal of Scientific Research, 8(3):81-89.

Boa ER, 1995. A guide to the identification of diseases and pests of neem (Azadirachta indica). RAP Publication 1995/41. Bangkok, Thailand, FAO, 16-20, 34, 71 pp.

CIE, 1978. Distribution Maps of Pests, Map No. 386. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Costa EM; Godoy MS; Araujo EL; Silva RIR; Wolff VRdos S, 2013. First report of the infestation of Azadirachta indica A. Juss by Aonidiella orientalis (Newstead) (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) in Brazil. Bioscience Journal, 29(Supplement 1):1441-1445. http://www.seer.ufu.br/index.php/biosciencejournal/article/view/15088/13289

Dekle GW; Merrill GB, 1976. Florida armored scale insects. Arthropods of Florida and Neighbouring Land Areas No. 3. Gainesville, USA: Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, 32, 345 pp.

Elder RJ; Smith D, 1995. Mass rearing of Aonidiella orientalis (Newstead) (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) on butternut gramma. Journal of the Australian Entomological Society, 34(3):253-254; 6 ref.

Elder RJ; Smith D; Bell KL, 1998. Successful parasitoid control of Aonidiella orientalis (Newstead) (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) on Carica papaya L. Australian Journal of Entomology, 37(1):74-79; 11 ref.

Elwan AA, 2000. Survey of the insect and mite pests associated with date palm trees in Al-Dakhliya region, Sultanate of Oman. Egyptian Journal of Agricultural Research, 78(2):653-664.

Farid A, 1994. Study on bio-ecology and control of Aonidiella orientalis in Jiroft and Hormozgan. Applied Entomology and Phytopathology, 61(1/2):29, 96-105.

Glover PM, 1933. Aspidiotus (Furcaspis) orientalis Newstead, its economic importance in lac cultivation and its control. Indian Lac Research Institute Bulletin, 16:1-22.

Hayat M, 1986. Chalidoidea hosts. Host parasite list. Oriental Insects, 20:323-383.

Khalaf J; Sokhansanj M, 1993. Bioecological studies on orientalis yellow scale (Aonidiella orientalis New.) and its control by integrated methods in Fars province. Applied Entomology and Phytopathology, 60(1/2):53-59 (Persian), 11-12 (English).

Mani M; Krishnamoorthy A, 1996. Aonidiella orientalis (Newstead) (Diaspididae, Homoptera) and its natural enemies found on sapota, ber, custard apple and banana. Entomon, 21(3/4):273-274; 7 ref.

Matile-Ferrero, D., Étienne, J., 2006. Scale insects from the French Antilles and some other Caribbean islands [Hemiptera, Coccoidea]. (Cochenilles des antilles françaises et de quelques autres îles des caraïbes [Hemiptera, Coccoidea]). Revue Française d'Entomologie, 28(4), 161-190.

McKenzie HL, 1938. The genus Aonidiella (Homoptera: Coccoidea: Diaspididae). Microentomology, 3:1-36.

Muniappan R; Watson GW; Vaughan L; Gilbertson R; Noussourou M, 2012. New records of mealybugs, scale insects, and whiteflies (Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha) from Mali and Senegal. Journal of Agricultural and Urban Entomology, 28(1):1-7. http://scentsoc.org/Volumes/JAUE/28/28001.pdf

Ofek G; Huberman G; Yzhar Y; Wysoki M; Kuzlitzky W; Reneh S; Inbal Z, 1997. The control of the oriental red scale, Aonidiella orientalis Newstead and the California red scale, A. aurantii (Maskell) (Homoptera: Diaspididae) in mango orchards in Hevel Habsor (Israel). Alon Hanotea, 51(5):212-218; 8 ref.

Rajagopal D; Krishnamoorthy A, 1996. Bionomics and management of oriental yellow scale, Aonidiella orientalis (Newstead) (Homoptera:Diaspididae): an over view. Agricultural Reviews (Karnal), 17(3/4):139-146; 38 ref.

Rosen D, 1990. World Crop Pests. 4B. Armoured Scale Insects: their biology, natural enemies and control. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier Science Publishers, 688 pp.

Schotman CYL, 1989. Plant pests of quarantine importance to the Caribbean. RLAC-PROVEG, No. 21:80 pp.

Shafee SA; Fatma A, 1984. Taxonomic notes on Indian species of Echthroplexis Forster (Hymenoptera, Encyrtidae), with descriptions of two new species. Mitteilungen der Schweizerischen Entomologischen Gesellschaft, 57(4):371-376.

Shalaby FF; Hafez AA; Hamed AR; Morsi GA, 2000. Description and biological studies on Aspidiotiphagus citrinus Craw. (Aphelinidae: Hymenoptera) a new record parasitoid on Aonidiella orientalis (Newst.) in Egypt. Annals of Agricultural Science, Moshtohor, 38(1):531-544.

Verma SP; Dinabandhoo CL, 2005. Armoured scales (Homoptera: Diaspididae) associated with temperate and subtropical fruit trees in Himachal Pradesh. Acta Horticulturae, 696:423-426. http://www.actahort.org

Williams DJ; Watson GW, 1988. The Scale Insects of the Tropical South Pacific Region. Part 1. The Armoured Scales (Diaspididae). Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Wysoki M, 1997. Present status of arthropod fauna in mango orchards in Israel. In: Lavi U, Degani C, Gazit S, Lahav E, Pesis E, Prusky D, Tomer E, Wysoki M, eds. Proceedings of the 5th International Mango Symposium, Volume 2. Acta Horticulturae, 455:805-811.

Distribution References

Arriola Padilla V J, Estrada Martínez E, Romero Nápoles J, González Hernández H, Pérez Miranda R, 2016. Scale insects (Hemiptera: Coccomorpha) on ornamental plants in greenhouses from the central zone of the Morelos state, Mexico. (Insectos escama (Hemiptera: Coccomorpha) en plantas ornamentales en viveros de la zona centro del estado de Morelos, México.). Interciencia. 41 (8), 552-560. http://www.interciencia.org/v41_08/indexe.html

Bugante R D Jr, Lizada M C C, Ramos M B de, Lavi U, Degani C, Gazit S, Lahav E, Pesis E, Prusky D, Tomer E, Wysoki M, 1997. Proceedings of the 5th international mango symposium, Tel Aviv, Israel, 1-6 September 1996. In: Acta Horticulturae [Proceedings of the 5th international mango symposium, Tel Aviv, Israel, 1-6 September 1996.], 2 797-804.

CABI, Undated. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI

CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI

Costa E M, Godoy M S, Araujo E L, Silva R I R, Wolff V R dos S, 2013. First report of the infestation of Azadirachta indica A. Juss by Aonidiella orientalis (Newstead) (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) in Brazil. Bioscience Journal. 29 (Supplement 1), 1441-1445. http://www.seer.ufu.br/index.php/biosciencejournal/article/view/15088/13289

Elder R J, Smith D, 1995. Mass rearing of Aonidiella orientalis (Newstead) (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) on butternut gramma. Journal of the Australian Entomological Society. 34 (3), 253-254.

Elwan A A, 2000. Survey of the insect and mite pests associated with date palm trees in Al-Dakhliya region, Sultanate of Oman. Egyptian Journal of Agricultural Research. 78 (2), 653-664.

EPPO, 2021. EPPO Global database. In: EPPO Global database, Paris, France: EPPO. https://gd.eppo.int/

Matile-Ferrero D, Étienne J, 2006. Scale insects from the French Antilles and some other Caribbean islands [Hemiptera, Coccoidea]. (Cochenilles des antilles françaises et de quelques autres îles des caraïbes [Hemiptera, Coccoidea].). Revue Française d'Entomologie. 28 (4), 161-190.

MCKENZIE H L, 1938. The Genus Aonidiella (Homoptera; Coccoidea; Diaspididae). Microentomology. 3 (pt. 1), 1-36 pp.

Muniappan R, Watson G W, Vaughan L, Gilbertson R, Noussourou M, 2012. New records of mealybugs, scale insects, and whiteflies (Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha) from Mali and Senegal. Journal of Agricultural and Urban Entomology. 28 (1), 1-7. http://scentsoc.org/Volumes/JAUE/28/28001.pdf DOI:10.3954/1523-5475-28.1.1

NHM, 1918. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).

NHM, 1927. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).

NHM, 1956. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).

NHM, 1959. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).

NHM, 1971. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).

NHM, 1972. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).

NHM, 1976. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).

NHM, 1978. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).

NHM, 1979. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).

NHM, 1980. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).

NHM, 1983. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).

NHM, 1984. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).

NHM, 1988. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).

NHM, 1992. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).

NHM, 1993. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).

NHM, 1994. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).

NHM, 1996. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).

NHM, Undated. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).

Schotman C Y L, 1989. Plant pests of quarantine importance to the Caribbean. In: RLAC-PROVEG, 80 pp.

Shafee S A, Fatma A, 1984. Taxonomic notes on Indian species of Echthroplexis Förster (Hymenoptera, Encyrtidae), with descriptions of two new species. Mitteilungen der Schweizerischen Entomologischen Gesellschaft. 57 (4), 371-376.

UK, CAB International, 1978. Aonidiella orientalis. [Distribution map]. In: Distribution Maps of Plant Pests, Wallingford, UK: CAB International. Map 386. DOI:10.1079/DMPP/20056600386

Verma S P, Dinabandhoo C L, 2005. Armoured scales (Homoptera: Diaspididae) associated with temperate and subtropical fruit trees in Himachal Pradesh. Acta Horticulturae. 423-426. http://www.actahort.org

Williams D J, Watson G W, 1988. The scale insects of the tropical South Pacific Region. Part 1. The armoured scales (Diaspididae). Wallingford, UK: CAB International. 290pp.

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Aonidiella orientalis (oriental yellow scale)

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