Ziziphus spina-christi (Christ's thorn jujube)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Introductions
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Rainfall Regime
- Soil Tolerances
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Environmental Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Wood Products
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Links to Websites
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Desf.
Preferred Common Name
- Christ's thorn jujube
Other Scientific Names
- Rhamnus spina-christi L.
- Ziziphus spina-christi var. aucheri (Boiss.) Qaiser & Nazim.
- Ziziphus spina-christi var. spina-christi L.
International Common Names
- English: Christ's thorn; Syrian Christ-thorn
- French: epine du Christ; jujube
- Arabic: kurna; nabbag; nubak; sidr
Local Common Names
- Iran: serd
- Netherlands Antilles: apeldam
EPPO code
- ZIPSC (Ziziphus spina-christi)
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageZiziphus spina-christi is a perennial, drought hardy tree. Despite some uncertainty regarding its native range, most sources suggest it originates from the Sahara and Sahel regions of Africa and the Middle East. It is adapted to grow in water-stressed habitats such as savannas and deserts. It is widely cultivated for its fruit, timber and use as fodder for livestock, as well as providing a stock-proof hedge and living fence, but is also used as a dune stabilizer, because of its very deep taproot and spreading lateral roots and in traditional medicine. Due to its cultivation, it has been introduced to parts of northern and tropical Africa and Madagascar. In 1885, Z. spina-christi was introduced to Curacao in the Caribbean, where it is now considered invasive. It has also been introduced to the neighbouring islands of Aruba and Bonaire. This species is an aggressive colonizer that, forms spiny and impenetrable thickets displacing and outcompeting native flora.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Rhamnales
- Family: Rhamnaceae
- Genus: Ziziphus
- Species: Ziziphus spina-christi
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageThe family Rhamnaceae comprises 52 genera and 925 species distributed worldwide, particularly across tropical and warm temperate regions. The genus Ziziphus consists of approximately 100–170 species of deciduous or evergreen trees and shrubs known for being drought tolerant and very resistant to heat (Saied et al., 2008; Stevens, 2012). The species Ziziphus spina-christi has been among the key plants of the Middle East and the Sahel region since ancient times. The epithet name ‘spina-christi’ derives from the belief that this tree provided the crown of thorns said to have been placed on Jesus’ head before he was crucified (Dafni et al., 2005; Saied et al., 2008; Orwa et al., 2009). Phylogenetic analysis of chloroplast genomic SSR markers showed that Z. spina-christi clustered with Z. mauritiana, while Z. jujuba clustered with Z. acidojujuba (Huang et al., 2017). Morphological studies in Saudi Arabia recognized two varieties var. spina-christi and var. microphylla, but reported variation in growth habit, branch colour and pubescence, and leaf shape (Almalki and Alzahrani, 2018).
Description
Top of pageThe following description is from the Flora of Pakistan (2017) and Saied et al. (2008):
A medium-size tree, with spreading, greyish white branches, glabrous or slightly pubescent. Stipular spines in pairs, one erect, approx. 2 cm long, the other recurved 5–8 mm long, sometimes spines absent. Leaves 2–6 x 1–4 cm ovate-elliptic or suborbicular, glabrous or pubscent on nerves beneath, rounded to subcordate at base, obtuse or shortly acuminate, margin entire or obsoletely crenate, 3-nerved; petiole 3–12 mm long, glabrous or puberulous. Inflorescence axillary tomentose, pedicel woolly, approx. 3–5 mm long. Flowers 4–6 mm across, subsessile, greenish yellow, sweet scented. Calyx approx. 1 mm long, keeled within, pubescent, ovate, ± acute, 5 petals spathulate; 1.25–1.5 mm long. Styles short, bifid. Disc prominently 10-lobed, glabrous, grooved. Ovary 2-locular. Fruit is a globose drupe, red-yellow to yellow-green with a non-separating hard stone surrounded by edible fruit pulp, 10–30 cm diameter.
Distribution
Top of pageThe exact native distribution of Z. spina-christi is uncertain. Orwa et al. (2009) list the species as native to a large area of Africa from Mauritania in West Africa, through the Sahara and Sahel regions to the Red Sea in the east. However, other authors consider that the native range of this species also comprises the Arabian Peninsula, Egypt, Syria, Palestine, Israel, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan and India (Flora of Pakistan, 2017; USDA-ARS, 2017). In Egypt it is cultivated in parks and villages (Saied et al., 2008). It is recorded as introduced in northern and tropical Africa and Madagascar (Orwa et al., 2009). In the Caribbean, it is introduced and naturalized in Aruba, Curacao and Bonaire; it is also listed as invasive in Curacao (Van der Burg et al., 2012).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 29 Apr 2022Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Planted | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
||||||||
Algeria | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Chad | Present | Native | ||||||
Comoros | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Djibouti | Present | Native | ||||||
Egypt | Present | Planted | ||||||
Eritrea | Present | Native | ||||||
Ethiopia | Present | Native | ||||||
Kenya | Present | Native | ||||||
Libya | Present | Native | ||||||
Madagascar | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Mali | Present | Native | ||||||
Mauritania | Present | Native | ||||||
Morocco | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Nigeria | Present | Native | ||||||
Senegal | Present | Native | ||||||
Somalia | Present | Native | ||||||
Sudan | Present | Native | Planted | |||||
Tanzania | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Zanzibar Island | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Tunisia | Present | Native | Planted | |||||
Zimbabwe | Present | Native | ||||||
Asia |
||||||||
Afghanistan | Present | Native | ||||||
India | Present | Planted | ||||||
Iran | Present | Planted | ||||||
Iraq | Present | Planted | ||||||
Israel | Present | Planted | ||||||
Jordan | Present | Planted | ||||||
Lebanon | Present | Native | ||||||
Oman | Present | |||||||
Pakistan | Present | Native | ||||||
Palestine | Present | |||||||
Saudi Arabia | Present | Planted | ||||||
Syria | Present | Planted | ||||||
Turkey | Present | Native | ||||||
United Arab Emirates | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Yemen | Present | Native | ||||||
Europe |
||||||||
Netherlands | Present | Introduced | ||||||
North America |
||||||||
Aruba | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | ||||
Bonaire, Saint Eustatius and Saba | ||||||||
-Bonaire | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | ||||
Curaçao | Present | Introduced | Invasive |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageZ. spina-christi was introduced from Palestine into Curacao in 1885. It has since escaped into the wild and is naturalized in Curacao, Aruba and Bonaire in the Caribbean (Van der Burg et al., 2012).
Introductions
Top of pageIntroduced to | Introduced from | Year | Reason | Introduced by | Established in wild through | References | Notes | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Natural reproduction | Continuous restocking | |||||||
Palestine | Curaçao | 1885 | No | No | Van der Burg et al. (2012) |
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageZ. spina-christi is widely cultivated, primarily across arid and semiarid habitats in Africa and Asia (Orwa et al., 2009; USDA-ARS, 2017). It is possible that this species could be introduced and spread as an escape from cultivation, particularly in these areas.
Habitat
Top of pageZ. spina-christi grows in dry areas, deserts, semi-desert washes, valleys and savannas (African Plant Database, 2017). It often grows along the edges of ponds, riverbanks and wadis where groundwater is available (Orwa et al., 2009).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Deserts | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Deserts | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Deserts | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Arid regions | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Arid regions | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Arid regions | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGrowth and reproduction
Flowers of Z. spina-christi are small, yellow-green and hermaphrodite, and are visited and pollinated by insects, especially bees (Nuru et al., 2012). In Saudi Arabia, Z. spina-christi has been recorded flowering in September. Flowering time in Sudan is August to December, and fruiting extends from October to April (Saied et al., 2008). In a study of the phenology of the flowers of Z. spina-christi in Saudi Arabia, most opened early in the morning. Anthers started to dehisce between 06:00 h and 10:00 h. By 10:00 h, flowers started to secrete considerable amounts of nectar, peaking at 14:00 h. The stigma then starts to become shiny and receptive between 14:00 h and 18:00 h. Nectar secretion was positively correlated with temperature, indicating the adaptation of this tree species to hot climates (Nuru et al., 2012). In a study of seven genotypes in Israel, Asatryan and Tel-Nur (2013) reported that anthesis occurred in early morning (06:30 h), late morning (08:30 h) and midday (12:00 h). Asynchrony of the sequence of flowering occurred in around 20% of flowers during the last 2 weeks of the flowering season. Pollen viability was in the range 35.1–46.1%. In hand self pollinated flowers, pollen tube growth was arrested on the stigmas while, in hand cross pollinated flowers, the number of pollen tubes that approached the ovaries decreased with only a single pollen tube finally reaching the ovary. Following controlled self pollination, flowers dropped off one or two days after pollination with zero fruit set. Cross pollinated flowers set viable seed. The results suggest the existence of a gametophytic self incompatibility system.
Seeds of Z. spina-christi are polyembryonic, producing two seedlings on germination (Zeinelabdin and Mohammed, 2016). Seed germination is epigeal and seedling growth is moderate, reaching 40–50 cm after 4–5 months (Saied et al., 2008).
Environmental Requirements
Z. spina-christi is drought hardy, very resistant to heat and can be found in desert and arid areas with a mean annual rainfall from 50 mm to 500 mm and a mean annual temperature in the range 19–28°C. It prefers alluvial plains with deep soils, but it also grows on clay (where water is available) as well as on moderately saline soils, usually at elevations between sea level and 2000 m. This species is frost tender and is able to withstand water logging for up to 2 months; it can also tolerate a dry season of 8–10 months (Saied et al., 2008; Orwa et al., 2009; PROTA, 2017). Evergreen where water supply is adequate, Z. spina-christi is deciduous during the dry season in arid areas (Azam-Ali et al., 2006). Ecological studies of Z. spina-christi in Bushehr Province, Iran were reported by Sadeghi et al. (2009). The largest stands were noted on alluvial fans with loamy, sandy loam and clay-silty soils, which were slightly alkaline (pH 7–8.2).
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Tolerated | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
BS - Steppe climate | Preferred | > 430mm and < 860mm annual precipitation | |
BW - Desert climate | Preferred | < 430mm annual precipitation | |
Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year | Tolerated | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
35 | 20 | 400 | 2000 |
Air Temperature
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit |
---|---|---|
Absolute minimum temperature (ºC) | -5 | 2 |
Mean annual temperature (ºC) | 19 | 28 |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Dry season duration | 8 | 10 | number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall |
Mean annual rainfall | 50 | 500 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- seasonally waterlogged
Soil reaction
- neutral
Soil texture
- heavy
- light
- medium
Special soil tolerances
- infertile
- saline
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageZ. spina-christi spreads via seed. Seeds are primarily dispersed by wind, animals and humans; fruits are sold in local markets (Saied et al., 2008).
It is cultivated throughout the tropics and therefore has been intentionally introduced to many countries outside its native range (Orwa et al., 2009).
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Crop production | Often cultivated for its fruits | Yes | Yes | Orwa et al. (2009) |
Escape from confinement or garden escape | Yes | Yes | Van der Burg et al. (2012) | |
Food | Fruits | Yes | Yes | Orwa et al. (2009) |
Forage | Yes | Yes | Orwa et al. (2009) | |
Habitat restoration and improvement | Dune stabilization | Yes | Yes | Orwa et al. (2009) |
Hedges and windbreaks | Yes | Yes | USDA-ARS (2017) | |
Medicinal use | Traditional medicine | Yes | Yes | Neuwinger (2000) |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Plants or parts of plants | Trade at local markets | Yes | Saied et al. (2008) | |
Wind | Yes | Yes | Saied et al. (2008) |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Cultural/amenity | Positive |
Economic/livelihood | Positive and negative |
Environment (generally) | Positive and negative |
Human health | Positive |
Environmental Impact
Top of pageZ. spina-christi is an aggressive colonizer that forms spiny, impenetrable thickets that displace and outcompete native vegetation. It is very difficult to control once established and has an extraordinary regenerative capacity. In addition, the seeds have a hard, woody shell allowing them to remain viable for a long time (Orwa et al., 2009; Van der Burg et al., 2012; PROTA, 2017).
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Abundant in its native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Is a habitat generalist
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
- Long lived
- Fast growing
- Gregarious
- Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Modification of successional patterns
- Monoculture formation
- Reduced amenity values
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Competition - smothering
- Rapid growth
- Produces spines, thorns or burrs
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
- Difficult/costly to control
Uses
Top of pageEconomic Value
Z. spina-christi is widely cultivated for its fruits across the Sahara, Tunisia, Algeria, Niger, East Africa, Israel and Iran. The fruit is edible and occasionally sweet, but the flavour and texture are inferior to other Ziziphus spp. The fruits are eaten fresh or dried. They may also be ground into a floury meal or paste, used as a condiment or for making confectionary (Elsheshetawy and Faid, 2015). Sundried fruits are ground into a powder, water is added and the mixture shaped into cakes similar to gingerbread (Azam-Ali et al., 2006).
The wood is also used for fuelwood and for making high quality charcoal. The tree coppices well. The hard, heavy and termite resistant red or dark brown wood is used for spear shafts, posts, roofing beams, tool handles, utensils, artistic woodwork and cabinet making. The leaves provide valuable animal forage and fodder under open grazing conditions. Sheep and goats consume the fruits and camels consume the foliage. Grown as a windbreak it is also used as a living fence due to its thorny branches (Neuwinger, 2000; Saied et al. 2008; Orwa et al., 2009; Asgarpanah and Haghighat, 2012; Nuru et al., 2012; PROTA, 2017).
Flowers also valued as a nectar source for honeybees (Sudhersan et al., 2016). It is the most important tree for honey production within its native range, particularly in the Middle East where the excellent flavoured honey from this tree is considered a speciality and sells for up to $190/kg, the most expensive honey sold in the region. In West Africa it is intercropped with millet (Orwa et al., 2009; Nuru et al., 2012).
Social Benefit
Flavonoids, alkaloids and saponins are the main phytochemicals that are reported from this plant species. Geranyl acetone, methyl hexadecanoate, methyl octadecanoate, farnesyl acetone, hexadecanol and ethyl octadecanoate are characterized as the major components of the leaves’ volatile oil. The various various alkaloids include ziziphine, jubanine and amphibine, alpha terpinol and linalol (Younes et al., 1996). Due to the easy collection of the plant materials, its low cost, and remarkable biological activities, Z. spina-christi has long been used in traditional Middle Eastern and African medicine, particularly the fruits, seeds, leaves, roots and bark (Asgarpanah and Haghighat, 2012). In the Sahel region, the roots are used to treat headaches, while the spines or ashes of the species are applied to snake bites. Boiled leaves are applied to various surface wounds, and also have anti-helminthic and anti-diarrhetic properties (Malgras, 1992; Boulos, 1983). In Egypt and the southern Sahara, a narcotic beverage is made from the fruits, which is considered to be a tranquilizer and sedative (Younes et al., 1996). In Morocco, the fruits are used as an emollient and astringent agent. It is also reputed to reduce abscesses and boils and poultice of young leaves are used to reduce eye inflammations. Among Bedouin in Israel the fruits were formerly used as an abortifacient, and as a control agent for rodent pests (Shappira et al., 1990). Azam-Ali et al. (2006) reported that in Saudi Arabia the fruits, when eaten in quantity, act as a laxative and the stem bark is used to relieve fevers and toothache.
Aqueous leaf extracts showed strong antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Salmonella enteric, but no activity against Staphylococcus aureus. However, hydroalcoholic leaf extracts showed antimicrobial activity against S. aureus, but not against the other three bacteria (Masoumian and Zandi, 2017). In mice Mubaraki et al. (2017) demonstrated a protective effect of leaf extracts against Plasmodium berghei-induced cerebral tissue injuries, markedly reducing weight loss in malarial mice compared with the control. Leaf extracts were also tested for antioxidant, hypoglycaemic and antidiabetic activities in mice (Al-Ghamdi and Shahat, 2017). Butanolic extracts showed potential hypoglycaemic activity while methanol, ethyl acetate and butanolic extracts had high DPPH free radical scavenging ability equivalent to 89, 96 and 80.3% of the activity of the standard control drug glibenclamide, respectively. Almeer et al. (2018) reported that leaf extracts ameliorated liver damage in mice caused by the schistosomiasis causing parasite Schistosome mansoni. The leaf extracts had anti-apoptotic, anti-fibrotic and antioxidant effects. A significant decline in the number of worms and eggs was also noted up to 8 weeks post-infection.
Environmental Services
Z. spina-christi is often planted for soil erosion control and dune stabilization due to its deep taproots and spreading lateral roots (Orwa et al., 2009; Sudhersan et al., 2016). The tree is planted around towns and villages for shade as it makes useful windbreaks and shelterbelts. It is known to improve soil fertility by increasing available phosphorous (Saied et al. 2008).
Uses List
Top of pageAnimal feed, fodder, forage
- Fodder/animal feed
Environmental
- Amenity
- Boundary, barrier or support
- Erosion control or dune stabilization
- Shade and shelter
- Soil improvement
- Windbreak
Fuels
- Fuelwood
General
- Sociocultural value
Human food and beverage
- Beverage base
- Fruits
- Honey/honey flora
Materials
- Wood/timber
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Traditional/folklore
Wood Products
Top of pageFurniture
Roundwood
- Posts
Sawn or hewn building timbers
- For light construction
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Control
There is no information available for the chemical or biological control of this species. However, a combination of clear-cutting methods followed by the application of herbicides such as triclopyr and picloram has been recommended in Australia for the control of the closely related invasive species Z. jujuba (Weeds of Australia, 2017). On the other hand, Ziziphus species (including the invasive species Z. jujuba and Z. spina-christi) have been promoted as potential crops for dry and arid zones (Baumer, 1983; Azam-Ali et al., 2006; Saied et al., 2008; Nuru et al., 2012), despite the risk of naturalization and potential invasiveness. Currently, there are no restrictions for the international movement of this species.
References
Top of pageAbd El Raouf A, Moustafa AA, Abd El Wahab RH, Helmy MA, Batanouny KH, 1996. Phenology, germination and propagation of some wild trees and shrubs in south Sinai, Egypt. Egyptian Journal of botany, 36: 91-107
Adam, Y. O., Pretzsch, J., 2010. Contribution of local trade in Ziziphus spina-christi L. fruits to rural household's economy in Rashad locality, Sudan. Forestry Ideas, 16(1), 9 pp. https://forestry-ideas.info/issues/issues_Download.php?download=3
African Plant Database, 2017. https://www.ville-ge.ch/musinfo/bd/cjb/africa/recherche.php
Baumer M, 1983. Notes on trees and shrubs in arid and semi-arid regions, Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Dafni A, Levy S, Lev E, 2005. The ethnobotany of Christ's Thorn Jujube (Ziziphus spina-christi) in Israel. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 1, 8.
Flora of Pakistan, 2017. Flora of Pakistan/Pakistan Plant Database (PPD). St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Tropicos website.http://www.tropicos.org/Project/Pakistan
Kazmi SMA, 1982. Some firewood species of Somalia. Somali Range Bulletin, No. 13, 12-17
Nuru A, Awad AM, Al-Ghamdi AA, Alqarni AS, Radloff SE, 2012. Nectar of Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Willd (Rhamnaceae): dynamics of secretion and potential for honey production. Journal of Apicultural Science, 56(2), 49-59.
Orwa C, Mutua A, Kindt R, Jamnadass R, Simons A, 2009. Agroforestree Database: a tree reference and selection guide version 4.0. Kenya: World Agroforestry Centre.http://www.worldagroforestry.org/output/agroforestree-database
PROTA, 2017. PROTA4U webdatabase. Wageningen, Netherlands: Plant Resources of Tropical Africa.https://www.prota4u.org/database/search.asp
Stevens PF, 2012. Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/
USDA-ARS, 2017. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory.http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl
Van der Burg WJ, de Freitas J, Debrot AO, Lotz LAP, 2012. Naturalised and invasive alien plant species in the Caribbean Netherlands: status, distribution, threats, priorities and recommendations. PRI report 437. Wageningen, Netherlands: Plant Research International.
Weeds of Australia, 2017. Weeds of Australia. Biosecurity Queensland Edition. http://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/media/Html/index.htm
Distribution References
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Contributors
Top of page18/09/17 Updated by:
Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
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