Xyleborus dispar (pear blight beetle)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Risk of Introduction
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
- Growth Stages
- Symptoms
- List of Symptoms/Signs
- Biology and Ecology
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Plant Trade
- Wood Packaging
- Impact Summary
- Impact
- Impact: Biodiversity
- Detection and Inspection
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Xyleborus dispar (Fabricius, 1792)
Preferred Common Name
- pear blight beetle
Other Scientific Names
- Anisandrus aequalis Reitter
- Anisandrus dispar (Ferrari, 1867)
- Anisandrus dispar rugulosus Eggers, 1922
- Anisandrus pyri (Peck)
- Anisandrus swainei Drake, 1921
- Apate dispar Fabricius, 1792
- Bostrichus brevis Panzer, 1793
- Bostrichus dispar (Herbst, 1793)
- Bostrichus ratzeburgi Kolenati, 1846
- Bostrichus tachygraphus Sahlberg, 1834
- Bostrichus thoracicus Panzer, 1793
- Scolytus pyri Peck, 1817
- Tomicus dispar (Thomson, 1857)
- Tomicus pyri (Harris, 1852)
- Trypodendron dispar (Stephens, 1830)
- Xyleborus cerasi Eggers, 1937
- Xyleborus pyri (Zimmermann, 1868)
International Common Names
- English: ambrosia beetle; beetle, pear blight; European shothole borer; larger shothole borer; shothole borer
- Spanish: barrenador; taladrador; xileboro dispar
- French: bostryche disparate; bostryche dissemblable; xylébore disparate
Local Common Names
- Denmark: barkbille; vedborer, uens
- Finland: lustokuoriainen
- Germany: Borkenkaefer, ungleicher Holz-; Holzbohrer, ungleicher; ungleicher Borkenkäfer; ungleicher Holzbohrer; ungleicher Holzborkenkäfer
- Italy: anisandro dispari; bostrico dispari; xileboro disuguale; xyleboro (bostrico) disuguale
- Netherlands: houtboorkever; ongelijke houtkever; ongelijke houtschorskever
- Norway: lauvtrebarkbille
- Poland: rozwiertek nieparek
- Sweden: loevvedborre, svart
- Turkey: dalkiran
EPPO code
- XYLBDI (Xyleborus dispar)
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageTaxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Metazoa
- Phylum: Arthropoda
- Subphylum: Uniramia
- Class: Insecta
- Order: Coleoptera
- Family: Scolytidae
- Genus: Xyleborus
- Species: Xyleborus dispar
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageDescription
Top of pageEggs are oval (0.8-0.9 mm x 0.4 mm), pearly white and shiny.
Larvae
The mature larva has been described in detail and figured by Lekander (1968, as Anisandrus dispar). A few additional characters are given by Kalina (1970). Only characters which can be used to distinguish the species from other European genera of bark and ambrosia beetle larvae are given here. Head capsule and mouthparts unusually wide, head capsule index, 0.84. Antennae conical, not constricted at base. Labrum broad, with four anteromedian setae. Three pairs of median epipharyngeal setae, the posterior two pairs smaller and spine-like. Tormae long, diverging posteriorly, and bent sharply outwards near the anterior end. Mentum short and broad, narrowed posteriorly. Kalina (1975) notes that the larva is more similar to that of Xyleborus cryptographus, and less close to the larvae of Xyleborus monographus and Xyleborinus saxesenii.
Pupae
The pupa has been described by Nosek (1958), and distinguished from that of Xyleborinus saxesenii. The pupae of scolytids remain poorly known, and taxonomically important characters uncertain.
Adults
There is an evident morphological difference between both sexes. The male is much smaller than the female, 1.8-2.4 mm long (about 1.6 times as long as wide) and has a body strongly convex (thorax relatively small and abdomen short). The female is 3.2-3.7 mm long (twice as long as wide) and the body is more elongate and cylindrical than in the male. The female can be distinguished from related European species by the broad pronotum, which is wider than long, the disc finely shagreened, and finely, sparsely punctured; the elytra 1.3 to 1.4 times longer than wide, both disc and declivity with strongly punctured striae, the declivity steep, with minute granules on the interstriae. The males are uncommon, and rarely found outside the gallery system.
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 17 Dec 2021Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
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Algeria | Present, Localized | Native | |||||
Morocco | Present, Localized | Native | |||||
Tunisia | Present, Localized | Native | |||||
Asia |
|||||||
Armenia | Present | Native | |||||
Azerbaijan | Present | Native | |||||
China | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Heilongjiang | Present | Native | |||||
-Shaanxi | Present | Native | |||||
Georgia | Present | Native | |||||
Iran | Present, Localized | Native | |||||
Japan | Absent, Intercepted only | ||||||
Mongolia | Present | Native | |||||
Turkey | Present, Localized | Native | |||||
Europe |
|||||||
Austria | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
Belarus | Present, Localized | Native | |||||
Belgium | Present, Localized | Native | |||||
Bosnia and Herzegovina | Present, Localized | Native | |||||
Bulgaria | Present, Localized | Native | |||||
Croatia | Present, Localized | Native | |||||
Czechia | Present, Localized | Native | |||||
Czechoslovakia | Present, Localized | Native | |||||
Denmark | Present, Localized | Native | |||||
Estonia | Present, Localized | Native | |||||
Finland | Present, Localized | Native | |||||
France | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
Germany | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
Greece | Present, Localized | Native | |||||
Hungary | Present, Localized | Native | |||||
Italy | Present, Localized | Native | |||||
Latvia | Present, Localized | Native | |||||
Liechtenstein | Present, Localized | Native | |||||
Lithuania | Present, Localized | Native | |||||
Luxembourg | Present, Localized | Native | |||||
Moldova | Present, Localized | Native | |||||
Netherlands | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
North Macedonia | Present, Localized | Native | |||||
Norway | Present, Localized | Native | |||||
Poland | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
Romania | Present, Localized | Native | |||||
Russia | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Central Russia | Present, Localized | Native | |||||
-Eastern Siberia | Present, Localized | Native | |||||
-Southern Russia | Present, Localized | Native | |||||
-Western Siberia | Present, Localized | Native | |||||
Serbia | Present | ||||||
Serbia and Montenegro | Present, Localized | Native | |||||
Slovakia | Present, Localized | Native | |||||
Slovenia | Present, Localized | Native | |||||
Spain | Present, Localized | Native | |||||
Sweden | Present, Localized | Native | |||||
Switzerland | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
Ukraine | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
United Kingdom | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
North America |
|||||||
Canada | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-British Columbia | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Nova Scotia | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Ontario | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Quebec | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
United States | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-California | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Idaho | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Illinois | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Maine | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Maryland | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Massachusetts | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Michigan | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Missouri | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-New Hampshire | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-New Jersey | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-New York | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-North Carolina | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Ohio | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Oregon | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Pennsylvania | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Rhode Island | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-South Carolina | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Utah | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Virginia | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Washington | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-West Virginia | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageIn Asia, it is known from the Middle East through Siberia to Sakhalin Island and north-eastern China. In Africa, it is present only in the North in Mediterranean countries (Stark, 1952; Balachowsky, 1963; Postner, 1974; Schedl, 1981; Pfeffer, 1995; Yanovskii, 1999).
In North America, where it was accidentally introduced from Europe before 1817 (Wood, 1977), X. dispar now occurs in eastern North America west to the Great Lakes states and south to South Carolina, western Canada, the Pacific Northwest states and California (Linsley and MacLeod, 1942; Bright 1968; Wood, 1982; Kovach and Gorsuch, 1985; Hobson and Bright, 1994). The distribution in North America suggest two introductions, one in the east and one in the west.
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageHosts/Species Affected
Top of pageFavoured species are fruit trees, such as apple, apricot, peach, nectarine, pear, cherry, plum, hazel (Mathers, 1940; Linsley and MacLeod, 1942; Vasseur and Schvester, 1948; Schvester, 1954; Balachowsky, 1963; Postner, 1974; Viggiani, 1979; Chepurnaya and Myalova, 1981; Mani and Schwaller, 1983; Kovach and Gorsuch, 1985; Furniss and Johnson, 1987; Hesjedal and Edland, 1988; Schick and Thines, 1988; Juillard-Condat and Perrau, 1989; Schröder, 1996; Lagowska and Winiarska, 1997; Morone and Scortichini, 1998). Of forest trees, maple, oak (Postner, 1974), birch, poplar, alder (Balachowsky, 1963), chestnut (Schvester, 1954; Bud, 1972) and Chinese chestnut (Tsankov and Ganchev, 1988) are mostly attacked. Damage on urban hawthorn trees has also been reported (Nachtigall, 1993).
Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
Top of pageSymptoms
Top of pageIn April/May small, round entry holes (about 2 mm in diameter) become visible in the bark of trunks and larger branches. Fine, white frass trickles out from such holes. In plants still in good health, plant sap or gum (especially in Prunus) flows out of the holes.
In general, X. dispar attacks only stressed trees which are already damaged by frost, drought, wetness, transplanting, root feeders or diseases. The beetle may also attack trees before conspicuous external evidence appears to indicate the stressed condition of the tree. Attacks by X. dispar may be regarded as symptomatic of an altered physiological condition in the tree. However, Vasseur and Schvester (1948), Schvester (1954), Egger (1973), Postner (1974), Viggiani (1979), Schröder (1996) and Perny (1998) report that apparently healthy trees, especially apple, pear, apricot and hazel, may also be attacked. This occurs mainly when insect populations are high.
List of Symptoms/Signs
Top of pageSign | Life Stages | Type |
---|---|---|
Stems / dieback | ||
Stems / gummosis or resinosis | ||
Stems / internal feeding | ||
Stems / mycelium present | ||
Stems / visible frass | ||
Whole plant / frass visible | ||
Whole plant / internal feeding | ||
Whole plant / plant dead; dieback | ||
Whole plant / unusual odour |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageAs soon as the maximum daily temperature in spring reaches 18-20°C the female beetles start flying and searching for host plants. This is mostly in April/May, but sometimes as early as March (Schneider-Orelli, 1913; Schvester, 1954; Roediger, 1956; Egger, 1973; Mani and Schwaller, 1983; Mani et al., 1990, 1992; Schröder, 1996). The emergence of the females usually continues for 4-8 weeks depending on weather conditions.
The main flight activity of the beetles is between 14:00 h and 16:00 h (Mani et al., 1990, 1992). In orchards with high populations, a distinct swarming of females was directly observed. Traps in open fields often caught many beetles, indicating that the beetles may fly over long distances. Catches of beetles in traps indicated that the flight in a shady forest started and finished later than in the adjacent orchard (Mani et al., 1990, 1992). A similar situation may be the cause of the unusually long period of trap catches (4 months) observed by Markalas and Kalapanida (1997) in a forest.
After emergence, females may start boring in the same tree in which they have developed, if this is still in a suitable condition, or disperse to find another suitable host plant. The females first bore a short, radial entrance tunnel (1-3 cm deep) before excavating a transverse tunnel to either side. From each of these, cylindrical breeding galleries are produced, directed perpendicularly both upwards and downwards (Schneider-Orelli, 1913; Egger, 1973; Postner, 1974; Alford, 1984; Mani et al., 1990). In smaller trunks or in branches, the galleries are often simpler.
Shortly after the beginning of boring, when the ambrosia fungus has become established, the female starts egg laying. The female then continues excavating the gallery and laying eggs. Larvae emerge a few days after oviposition. Adults and larvae feed on the fungus growing in the tunnels. In June/July pupation takes place and in July/August beetles of the new generation appear. Full development takes about 2 months. Due to the long flight and oviposition period of the females, different developmental stages may be found in a gallery at the same time. Teneral adults enter diapause and are unable to attack trees and to breed. The diapause is terminated during the winter (Schvester, 1954).
Beetles pass the winter in the breeding galleries, tightly packed one behind the other. The following spring, the young females of the new generation leave the gallery system through the parental entrance hole. Brother-sister mating takes place in the gallery. Males are unable to fly and usually die within the parental nest. However, it was noted long ago by Schneider-Orelli (1913) that males can sometimes be found in spring crawling on the bark of attacked trees, and may mate with overwintered females from other galleries. The ratio of males to females is very variable. Egger (1973) found some galleries in which males outnumbered females, but more usually the sex ratio is biased towards females, from 1:5 to 1:15, and occasionally higher. The average number of beetles in a gallery is about 25, depending on the size and quality of the gallery, with a maximum of about 40 (Schneider-Orelli, 1913; Schvester, 1954; Egger, 1973).
X. dispar belongs to the group of ambrosia beetles (Schneider-Orelli, 1913; Francke-Grosmann, 1963; Batra, 1963, 1967; French and Roeper, 1972, 1975). The larvae are exclusively mycetophagous; they do not feed on wood, but on the symbiotic fungus Ambrosiella hartigii, which grows in the tunnels. It grows as a continuous palisade within the galleries of the active brood. A. hartigii has two growth forms. The ambrosial form (conidia and sprout cells) is produced in association with the insect and the mycelial form is produced in vitro without the insect. French and Roeper (1972) found that larvae feed on the mycelial form in vitro, but ambrosia is required by the larvae to develop and pupate. They also believe that the main mechanism for ambrosia induction and control involves a secretion of the insect. Oocyte development and oviposition occurred only after the post-diapause females had fed on the ambrosial form of the fungus. French and Roeper (1975) also observed a tending and nursing behaviour of the females. The quality of the host tissues affects fungal growth.
The fungus is transferred by the mother beetle to the new gallery in a mycangium (Batra, 1963, 1967). In X. dispar, the mycangia are paired, pocket-shaped organs situated underneath the mesonotum (Francke-Grosmann, 1956; Batra, 1963).
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Eurytoma morio | Parasite | Arthropods|Larvae | ||||
Perniphora robusta | Parasite | Arthropods|Larvae |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageFew species of parasitoid Hymenoptera have been recorded from X. dispar (Noyes, 2003) and it is unlikely that any cause major mortality. Perniphora robusta attacks ambrosia beetles (Trypodendron spp., Xyleborus spp.) throughout Europe (Balazy, 1963; Capecki, 1963; Hedqvist, 1963). Its larvae feed externally on the beetle larvae (Eichhorn and Graf, 1974). Habritys brevicornis has a very wide range of hosts which includes sphecid wasps and stratiomyiid flies, in addition to bark beetles (Noyes, 2003). Vrestovia querci was described from specimens attacking X. dispar in Quercus sp. (Noyes, 2003) and is known only from the original collection in China (Shaanxi). Eurytoma morio is a polyphagous species which attacks both scolytids and their parasitoids (Hedqvist, 1963). Schvester (1950) found a nematode of the family Allantonematidae, Parasitylenchus xylebori, in the body cavity of adult females, and found that it reduced their fecundity, but nothing more is known of the species.
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageAdult females fly readily, and flight is one the main means of movement and dispersal to previously uninfected areas.
Vector Transmission
In addition to the ambrosia fungus Ambrosiella hartigii, the females of ambrosia beetles often also transfer other microorganisms (Schneider-Orelli, 1913; Francke-Grosmann, 1956; Zimmermann, 1973). Natali et al. (1994) found that X. dispar females, collected in three different biotopes of hazel growing in Italy, transferred 15 bacterial species, three yeasts and three fungi. Tiberi and Ragazzi (1998) (see also Sousa, 2002) found that X. dispar collected from oak trees (Quercus) in decline, transmitted the fungi Fusarium eumartii [Nectria haematococca), F. solani and Verticillium dahliae, and suggest that the beetles can exploit the trees more easily as a result of the activity of these fungi.
Plant Trade
Top of pagePlant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transport | Pest stages | Borne internally | Borne externally | Visibility of pest or symptoms |
---|---|---|---|---|
Bark | arthropods/adults | Yes | Pest or symptoms usually visible to the naked eye | |
Stems (above ground)/Shoots/Trunks/Branches | arthropods/adults; arthropods/eggs; arthropods/larvae; arthropods/pupae | Yes | Pest or symptoms not visible to the naked eye but usually visible under light microscope | |
Wood | arthropods/adults; arthropods/eggs; arthropods/larvae; arthropods/pupae | Yes | Pest or symptoms not visible to the naked eye but usually visible under light microscope |
Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport |
---|
Bulbs/Tubers/Corms/Rhizomes |
Flowers/Inflorescences/Cones/Calyx |
Fruits (inc. pods) |
Growing medium accompanying plants |
Leaves |
Roots |
Seedlings/Micropropagated plants |
True seeds (inc. grain) |
Wood Packaging
Top of pageWood Packaging liable to carry the pest in trade/transport | Timber type | Used as packing |
---|---|---|
Loose wood packing material | Fresh sapwood | Yes |
Solid wood packing material with bark | Fresh sapwood | Yes |
Solid wood packing material without bark | Fresh sapwood | Yes |
Wood Packaging not known to carry the pest in trade/transport |
---|
Non-wood |
Processed or treated wood |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Animal/plant collections | None |
Animal/plant products | None |
Biodiversity (generally) | None |
Crop production | Negative |
Environment (generally) | None |
Fisheries / aquaculture | None |
Forestry production | Negative |
Human health | None |
Livestock production | None |
Native fauna | None |
Native flora | None |
Rare/protected species | None |
Tourism | None |
Trade/international relations | None |
Transport/travel | None |
Impact
Top of pageIn several countries of Europe and North America, X. dispar is sporadically a serious pest of fruit trees such as apple, apricot, peach, nectarine, pear, cherry and plum, and of hazel (Mathers, 1940; Linsley and MacLeod, 1942; Vasseur and Schvester, 1948; Schvester, 1954; Balachowsky, 1963; Postner, 1974; Viggiani, 1979; Mani and Schwaller, 1983; Hesjedal and Edland, 1988; Schick and Thines, 1988; Juillard-Condat and Perrau, 1989; Mani et al., 1990, 1992; Natali et al., 1994; Schröder, 1996; Lagowska and Winiarska, 1997; Saruhan and Tuncer, 2001). Less often, damage occurs in vineyards (Ioakimov, 1925; Russ, 1966; Mani et al., 1990, 1992). In the north-western states of America and western Canada, X. dispar is an important pest in chestnut (Castanea spp.) orchards (Bhagwandin, 1993; Kühnholz et al., 2003).
In most cases, only single trees or groups of trees are attacked and destroyed, but sometimes whole new plantings of young trees are severely damaged. This happens mostly in the second year after planting, to young plants in poor condition (Mani and Schwaller, 1983; Mani et al., 1992; Morone and Scortichini, 1998). In such cases, important economic losses can occur.
In European forests, losses due to X. dispar are sometimes important. Severe attack has been observed in young plantations of maple and oaks (Postner, 1974), of chestnut (Schvester, 1954; Bud, 1972), Chinese chestnut (Tsankov and Ganchev, 1988) and in some stands of birch, poplar and alder (Balachowsky, 1963). In Austria, sometimes massive attacks up to 4 m high have been observed both on fungus-infected and healthy trees of sycamore maple, ash, oak and cherry (Perny, 1998).
Impact: Biodiversity
Top of pageDetection and Inspection
Top of pageOpening the attacked plant part reveals a ramified gallery system which is easy to distinguish from the gallery system of bark beetles.
During the flight period in spring, beetles can be caught in alcohol traps (see Biotechnical Control). The traps must be placed in spring as soon as the maximum temperature rises to 18-20°C.
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pagePrevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Cultural Control
In most areas, X. dispar is considered to be a secondary pest (Schneider-Orelli, 1913; Linsley and MacLeod, 1942; Balachowsky, 1963; Postner, 1974; Zöggeler, 1987; Schick and Thines, 1988; Juillard-Condat and Perrau, 1989; Keimer, 1990; Mani et al., 1990, 1992; Schröder, 1996; but compare Bhagwandin, 1993; Perny, 1998; Kühnholz et al., 2003). Weakened trees are especially attractive to this beetle.
For this reason all cultural measures improving the health of trees must have priority. New plantations are at risk, particularly during the first and the second spring after planting. Avoid drying of roots before and after planting. Remove and destroy infected trees and branches immediately when attack is observed, or at the latest before the beetles of the new generation leave the galleries the following spring.
Biological Control
No method of biological control of X. dispar exists at present. The natural enemies listed do not provide effective control, and augmentation is not likely to produce much improvement. Canganella et al. (1994) suggest that the bacteria (Pseudomonas chlororaphis and Bacillus subtilis) they found on the insect and in the galleries may represent the starting point for future research.
Biotechnical Control
Schvester (1954) observed that attacked trees often produce an odour of alcohol. He explained this by the interruption or slowing down of plant sap transport and by the fermentation of this sap. Roling and Kearby (1975) showed that oak trees injected with ethanol attracted ambrosia beetles. Ethanol is apparently a good signal for a suitable host plant, especially for an ambrosia beetle cultivating a fungus in wet plant tissue (Klimetzek et al., 1986). All these observations may explain why many ambrosia beetles are attracted by alcohol traps.
In forests, window flight traps baited with ethanol are used, often in combination with pheromones, to estimate the flight periods and flight pattern of bark and ambrosia beetles (Moeck, 1970; Roling and Kearby, 1975; Annila, 1977; Schroeder and Lindelöw, 1989; Markalas and Kalapanida, 1997).
The red wing trap, baited with ethanol (Rebell rosso), has been developed in Switzerland to attract X. dispar in orchards and vineyards. It has proved to be useful in monitoring and in control systems (Mani et al., 1986, 1988, 1990, 1992). This method has become accepted in several countries (Zöggeler, 1987; Juillard-Condat and Perrau, 1989; Schröder, 1996; Lagowska and Winiarska, 1997). For other designs of trap using ethanol as a bait, see, for example, Bambara et al. (2002), Oliver and Mannion (2001) and Grégoire et al. (2003).
For monitoring, one or two traps per hectare of orchard or vineyard have to be placed in spring, when maximum temperatures rise above 17°C. In favourable weather conditions, the lure (250 ml 50% ethanol denatured with 1% toluene) has to be replaced every 2-3 days. When catches reach 20 beetles per trap per day, the risk of attack of some importance is indicated.
For control of X. dispar in an endangered orchard or vineyard, eight traps per hectare need to be placed. Such a control system will reduce the beetle population and the damage considerably.
The red wing trap attracts a variety of other insect species (especially Diptera), but only a few honey bees and known natural enemies of insect pests.
Chemical Control
Chemical control of X. dispar is very difficult and expensive due to its protected breeding sites and its resistance to many insecticides. Therefore, sprays are only applied in exceptional cases. Compounds used previously may no longer be used. Compounds registered at present, such as carbaryl, organophosphates and pyrethroids (Viggiani, 1979; Dominik and Kinelski, 1985; Juillard-Condat and Perrau, 1989; Schröder, 1996) often give only partial control.
Insecticides are applied when the insects start flying and searching for suitable host plants (maximum temperature 18-20°C; first catches in alcohol traps) or at the latest, when the first beetles start boring entrance holes. The concentration of the insecticide is often higher than usual and the whole tree, especially the trunk and larger branches, should be sprayed thoroughly. When trap catches continue to be significant the application has to be repeated after 2-3 weeks.
Integrated Pest Management
Control of X. dispar must rely on a combination of different methods. All measures promoting plant health are essential. Attacked plant parts must be removed in time. In orchards with a risk of damage, alcohol traps should be placed for monitoring or for control. Only in exceptional cases do insecticide sprays become necessary. Eventually, it may be possible to develop the use of non-host volatiles as repellents to prevent, or at least reduce, attacks (Borden et al., 2003).
References
Top of page1992. Scolytids. Zashchita Rastenii (Moskva), No. 4:62-63
Balachowsky AS, 1949. Coleopteres, Scolytides. Faune de France 50. Paris, France: Lechevalier
Balachowsky AS, 1963. Famille des Scolytidae. In: Balachowsky AS, ed. Entomologie appliquée à l'agriculture. Masson, Paris, I ColéoptFres, Vol. 2, 1237-1287
Balazy S, 1963. Some remarks on Perniphora robusta Rusch. (Hym. Pteromalidae). Polskie Pismo Entomologiczne, (B) 29-30:91-94. (Polish with english summary)
Bambara S, Stephan D, Reeves E, 2002. Asian ambrosia beetle trapping. North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service. http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/ent/notes/O&T/trees/note122/note122.html
Batra LR, 1963. Ecology of Ambrosia fungi and their dissemination by beetles. Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science, 66(2):213-236
Batra LR, 1967. Ambrosia fungi: A taxonomic revision, and nutritional studies of some species. Mycologia, 59:976-1017
Bhagwandin HO, 1993. The shothole borer: an ambrosia beetle of concern for chestnut orcharding in the Pacific Northwest. Annual Report of the Northern Nut Growers' Association, 84:168-177
Borden JH, Chong LJ, Gries R, Pierce HD Jr, 2003. Potential for nonhost volatiles as repellents in integrated pest management of ambrosia beetles. Integrated Pest Management Reviews, 6:221-236
Bright DE, Skidmore RE, 1997. A catalog of Scolytidae and Platypodidae (Coleoptera), Supplement 1 (1990-1994). Ottawa, Canada: NRC Research Press, 368 pp
Bright DE, Skidmore RE, 2002. A catalogue of Scolytidae and Platypodidae (Coleoptera), Supplement 2 (1995-1999). Ottawa, Canada: NRC Research Press, 523 pp
Bud N, 1972. Anisandrus dispar (Ferrari) - un daunator periculos al plantatiilor tinere de castan comestibil. Revista Padurilor, 87(4):196-198
Capecki Z, 1963. Perniphora robusta Ruschka (Pteromalidae, Hymenoptera) and Ipideurytoma spessiotsevi Bouc. et Nov. (Eurytomidae, Hymenoptera) parasites of Trypodendron lineatum Ol. (Scolytidae, Coleoptera) in Poland. Ekologia Polska, Warszawa 11A, (12):303-308
Chepurnaya VI, Myalova LA, 1981. Pests and diseases of cherry. Zashchita Rastenii, No. 7:53-55
Dominik J, Kinelski S, 1985. Studies on the effectiveness of some insecticides containing synthetic pyrethroids for protecting timber from certain wood-boring insects [Badanie przydatnosci niektorych insectycydow opartych na syntetycznych piretroidach do dezynsekcji drewna opanowanego przez niektore szkodniki techniczne]. Sylwan, 129(6):67-70
Duffy EAJ, 1953. Handbooks for the Identification of British Insects. Coleoptera: Scolytidae and Platypodidae. London, UK: Royal Entomological Society of London, 5(15)
Francke-Grosmann H, 1956. Hautdrüsen als Träger der Pilzsymbiose bei Ambrosiakäfern. Zeitschrift für Morphologie und Oekologie der Tiere, 45:275-308
Francke-Grosmann H, 1963. Some new aspects in forest entomology. Annual Review of Entomology, 8:415-438
Frankenhuyzen A van, 1992. Schadelijke en Nuttige Insekten en Mijten in Fruitgewassen. The Hague, The Netherlands: Nederlandse Fruittelers Organisatie
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Hedqvist KJ, 1963. Die Feinde der Borkenkafer in Schweden I Erzwespe (Chalcidoidea)-Studia Forestalia Suecica, 11:1-176
Ioakimov D, 1925. Beschädigungen der Rebe durch die Larve des Käfers Anisandrus dispar F. Mitteilungen der Bulgarischen Entomologischen Gesellschaft, 2:56
Juillard-Condat L, Perrau C, 1989. Le Xylébore disparate. Phytoma, 409:61-63
Kalina V, 1970. A contribution to the knowledge of the larvae of European bark beetles (Coleoptera, Scolytidae). Acta Entomologica Bohemoslovaca, 67:116-132
Kalina V, 1975. Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Larven Europäischer Borkenkäfer. III. (Col., Scolytidae). Studia Entomologica Forestalia, 2:41-59
Klimetzek D, Köhler J, Vité JP, Kohnle U, 1986. Dosage response to ethanol mediates host selection by 'secondary' bark beetles. Naturwissenschaften, 73:270-272
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Lagowska B, Winiarska, W, 1997. The shot hole borer - a pest of fruit trees [Rozwiertek nieparek - szkodnik drzew owocowych]. Ochrona Roslin, 41(8):16
Lekander B, 1968. Scandinavian bark beetle larvae. Royal College of Forestry, Sweden, Research Notes, 4:1-186
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Mani E, Remund U, Schwaller F, 1988. Einsatz der Alkoholfalle zur Reduktion von Holzbohrerschäden in Obstanlagen. Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Obst- und Weinbau, 124:206-210
Mani E, Schwaller F, 1983. Zur Flugüberwachung und Bekämpfung des Ungleichen Holzbohrers, Xyleborus (Anisandrus) dispar F. Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Obst- und Weinbau, 119:104-108
Mathers WMG, 1940. The shot hole borer, Anisandrus pyri (Peck), in British Columbia (Coleoptera, Scolytidae). Canadian Entomologist, 72(10):189-190
Moeck HA, 1970. Ethanol as a primary attractant for the ambrosia beetle Trypodendron lineatum (Coleoptera: Scolytidae). Canadian Entomologist, 102:985-995
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Nosek J, 1958. K morfologii kukel Xyleborus dispar F. a Xyleborus saxeseni Rtzb. Zoologicke a Entomologicke Listy, 7:87-90
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Ohno K, 1991. Studies on Scolytidae and Platypodidae (Coleoptera) found on imported timber at Japanese ports. IV. A key to the species of genus Xyleborus. Research Bulletin, Plant Protection Service, Japan, 27:13-40
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Postner M, 1974. Scolytidae (= Ipidae), Borkenkäfer. In: Schwenke W, ed. Die Forstschadlinge Europas. Vol. 2. Hamburg, Berlin, Germany: Parey, 334-482
Roediger H, 1956. Zur Biologie und Bekämpfung des Ungleichen Holzbohrers (Xyleborus dispar F.). Nachrichtenblatt für den Deutschen Pflanzenschutzdienst, 8:36-40
Russ K, 1966. Ungleicher Holzbohrer (Anisandrus dispar) an Reben. Pflanzenarzt, 19(7):83
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Schick W, Thines G, 1988. Der Ungleiche Holzbohrer - eine Plage in vielen Apfelanlagen. Obst und Garten, 107(56):143-144
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Schvester D, 1954. Le Xylébore disparate, Anisandrus dispar F. (Coléoptere Scolytide) en France. Annales des Epiphyties, Serie C, 5:225-257
Skiba NS, Parii IF, 1989. Pests and diseases of cherry. Zashchita Rastenii (Moskva), No. 8:48-51
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Wood SL, Bright DE, 1992. A catalog of Scolytidae and Platypodidae (Coleoptera), Part 2: Taxonomic index. Great Basin Naturalist Memoirs, 13: 1-1553
Yanovskii VM, Tegshzhargal D, 1984. Bark beetles (Coleoptera, Scolytidae) of the Mongolian People's Republic. Nasekomye Mongolii, 9:404-417. (In Russian)
Yin H-F, Huang F-S, Li Z-L, eds, 1984. Economic Insect Fauna of China, Fasc. 29, Coleoptera: Scolytidae. Beijing: Science Press, 205 pp
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Distribution References
Anon, 1984. Economic Insect Fauna of China, Fasc. 29, Coleoptera: Scolytidae., [ed. by Yin H-F, Huang F-S, Li Z-L]. Beijing, Science Press. 205 pp.
Balachowsky AS, 1963. (Famille des Scolytidae). In: Entomologie appliquée à l'agriculture, 2 [ed. by Balachowsky AS]. Masson, Paris: I ColéoptFres. 1237-1287.
Bright DE, Skidmore RE, 2002. A catalogue of Scolytidae and Platypodidae (Coleoptera), Supplement 2 (1995-1999., Ottawa, Canada: NRC Research Press. 523 pp.
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated b. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Chepurnaya V I, Myalova L A, 1981. Pests and diseases of cherry. Zashchita Rastenii. 53-55.
Frankenhuyzen A van, 1992. (Schadelijke en Nuttige Insekten en Mijten in Fruitgewassen)., The Hague, The Netherlands: Nederlandse Fruittelers Organisatie.
Juillard-Condat L, Perrau C, 1989. (Le Xylébore disparate). In: Phytoma, 409 61-63.
Mani E, Schwaller F, 1983. (Zur Flugüberwachung und Bekämpfung des Ungleichen Holzbohrers, Xyleborus (Anisandrus) dispar F). In: Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Obst- und Weinbau, 119 104-108.
Postner M, 1974. (Scolytidae (= Ipidae), Borkenkäfer). In: Die Forstschadlinge Europas, 2 [ed. by Schwenke W]. Hamburg, Berlin, Germany: Parey. 334-482.
Roediger H, 1956. (Zur Biologie und Bekämpfung des Ungleichen Holzbohrers (Xyleborus dispar F.)). In: Nachrichtenblatt für den Deutschen Pflanzenschutzdienst, 8 36-40.
Russ K, 1966. (Ungleicher Holzbohrer (Anisandrus dispar) an Reben). In: Pflanzenarzt, 19 (7) 83.
Schedl KE, 1981. (Familie: Scolytidae (Borken- und Ambrosiakäfer)). In: Die Käfer Mitteleuropas, 10 [ed. by Freude H, Harde KW, Lohse GA]. Krefeld, Germany: Goecke & Evers. 34-99.
Schröder WO, 1996. (Ungleicher Holzbohrer und kleiner Holzbohrer). In: Rheinische Monatsschrift, 1 13-15.
Skiba N S, Parii I F, 1989. Pests and diseases of cherry. Zashchita Rasteniĭ (Moskva). 48-51.
Wood SL, Bright DE, 1992. A catalog of Scolytidae and Platypodidae (Coleoptera), Part 2: Taxonomic index. In: Great Basin Naturalist Memoirs, 13 1-1553.
Yanovskii VM, Tegshzhargal D, 1984. Bark beetles (Coleoptera, Scolytidae) of the Mongolian People's Republic. In: Nasekomye Mongolii, 9 404-417.
Zöggeler M, 1987. (Alkoholfalle zur Flugüberwachung und Bekämpfung des Ungleichen Holzbohrers). In: Obst- und Weinbau, 24 74-75.
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