Xanthium strumarium (common cocklebur)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
- Biology and Ecology
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Impact
- Threatened Species
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Links to Websites
- Distribution Maps
Don't need the entire report?
Generate a print friendly version containing only the sections you need.
Generate reportPictures
Top of pageIdentity
Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Xanthium strumarium L. (1753)
Preferred Common Name
- common cocklebur
Other Scientific Names
- Xanthium abyssinicum Wallr.
- Xanthium brasilicum Velloso
- Xanthium californicum E.L. Greene
- Xanthium canadense Mill., 1768
- Xanthium canavillesii Schouw., 1849
- Xanthium chinense Mill.
- Xanthium echinatum Murray, 1784
- Xanthium indicum Klatt, 1880
- Xanthium italicum Moretti
- Xanthium macrocarpum DC
- Xanthium occidentale Bertol.
- Xanthium orientale L. 1763
- Xanthium pensylvanicum Wallr. 1844
- Xanthium pungens Wallr. 1844
- Xanthium ripicola
- Xanthium sibiricum Patrin ex Widder, 1923
- Xanthium strumarium var. canadense (Mill.) Torr. & A. Gray
- Xanthium varians Greene
- Xanthium vulgare Hill
International Common Names
- English: clotbur; cocklebur; ditchbur
- Spanish: Chayotillo
- French: lampourde glouteron
- Portuguese: bardana-menor
Local Common Names
- Australia: noogoora bur; sheep bur
- Germany: Stachel- Spitzklette
- India: adhisishi; bada gokhru bhakra; chota dhatura
- Italy: lappola comune
- Japan: onamomi
- Malaysia: buah anjang
- Netherlands: ongedoornde stekelnoot
- Pakistan: puth kando
- South Africa: kankerroos
- Taiwan: tsai-er
- Thailand: kachab
- Turkey: siraco out
EPPO code
- XANPU (Xanthium pungens)
- XANST (Xanthium strumarium)
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageThe following summary is from Witt and Luke (2017):
Description
Annual much-branched herb with erect stems (20–150 cm high) without spines; stems stout, green, brownish or reddish-brown, roughly hairy.
Origin
Uncertain, but probably Central and South America.
Reason for Introduction
Bee forage and accidentally as a contaminant.
Invades
Roadsides, wasteland, disturbed land, fallow land, crops, plantations, drainage ditches, savannahs, water courses, lowlands, floodplains and sandy dry riverbeds.
Impacts
Rapidly forms large stands, displacing other plant species. X. strumarium is a major weed of row crops such as soybeans, cotton, maize and groundnuts in many parts of the world, including North America, southern Europe, the Middle East, South Africa, India and Japan. It also has a damaging impact on rice production in Southeast Asia. Cocklebur is also an alternative host for a number of crop pests. X. strumarium burrs lodge in animal hair and in sheep’s wool, reducing the quality and increasing treatment costs. The plants are toxic to livestock and can lead to death if eaten.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Asterales
- Family: Asteraceae
- Genus: Xanthium
- Species: Xanthium strumarium
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageDescription
Top of pageDistribution
Top of pageDistribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 10 Feb 2022Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Botswana | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Burundi | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Egypt | Present | Introduced | 1887 | ||||
Ethiopia | Present | Invasive | |||||
Kenya | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Lesotho | Present | Original citation: Wells et al., 1986 | |||||
Malawi | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Rwanda | Present | Introduced | Nauralized | ||||
South Africa | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Sudan | Present | ||||||
Tanzania | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Uganda | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Zambia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Zimbabwe | Present | Introduced | 1942 | Invasive | |||
Asia |
|||||||
Bhutan | Present | Original citation: Parker, 1992 | |||||
China | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Xinjiang | Present | Invasive | |||||
India | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Chhattisgarh | Present | ||||||
-Odisha | Present | ||||||
-Punjab | Present | ||||||
-Uttar Pradesh | Present | ||||||
-West Bengal | Present | ||||||
Iran | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Iraq | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Israel | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Japan | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Hokkaido | Present | ||||||
-Honshu | Present | ||||||
-Kyushu | Present | ||||||
-Ryukyu Islands | Present | ||||||
-Shikoku | Present | ||||||
Jordan | Present | Original citation: Abu-Irmaileh, 1982 | |||||
Lebanon | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Nepal | Present | Introduced | 1952 | ||||
North Korea | Present | Introduced | 1886 | ||||
Pakistan | Present | ||||||
Philippines | Present | ||||||
South Korea | Present | Introduced | 1886 | ||||
Taiwan | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Thailand | Present | ||||||
Turkey | Present | ||||||
Uzbekistan | Present | ||||||
Europe |
|||||||
Albania | Present | Original citation: Love, 1976 | |||||
Austria | Present | Original citation: Love, 1976 | |||||
Belgium | Present | Introduced | First reported: <1800 | ||||
Bulgaria | Present | Original citation: Love, 1976 | |||||
Croatia | Present | ||||||
Czechoslovakia | Present | Original citation: Love, 1976 | |||||
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Estonia | Present | Introduced | 1861 | ||||
France | Present | Original citation: Love, 1976 | |||||
-Corsica | Present | Introduced | 1834 | ||||
Germany | Present | Original citation: Love, 1976 | |||||
Greece | Present | ||||||
Hungary | Present | ||||||
Ireland | Present | Introduced | 1883 | ||||
Italy | Present | ||||||
Lithuania | Present | Introduced | 1873 | ||||
Netherlands | Present | Introduced | 1957 | ||||
Norway | Present | Introduced | 1879 | ||||
Poland | Present | Introduced | 1837 | ||||
Portugal | Present | Original citation: Love, 1976 | |||||
-Azores | Present | Original citation: Love, 1976 | |||||
Romania | Present | Original citation: Love, 1976 | |||||
Russia | Present | Introduced | 1861 | ||||
-Central Russia | Present | Original citation: Love, 1976 | |||||
-Northern Russia | Present | Original citation: Love, 1976 | |||||
-Southern Russia | Present | Original citation: Love, 1976 | |||||
Spain | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Balearic Islands | Present | Original citation: Love, 1976 | |||||
Sweden | Present | Introduced | 1863 | ||||
Switzerland | Present | Original citation: Love, 1976 | |||||
Ukraine | Present | Introduced | 1932 | ||||
United Kingdom | Present | Introduced | 1562 | ||||
North America |
|||||||
Canada | Present, Widespread | Original citation: Weaver & Lechowicz, 1983 | |||||
-Alberta | Present, Localized | Original citation: Weaver & Lechowicz, 1983 | |||||
-British Columbia | Present, Localized | Original citation: Weaver & Lechowicz, 1983 | |||||
-Manitoba | Present, Localized | Original citation: Weaver & Lechowicz, 1983 | |||||
-New Brunswick | Present, Localized | Original citation: Weaver & Lechowicz, 1983 | |||||
-Nova Scotia | Present, Localized | Original citation: Weaver & Lechowicz, 1983 | |||||
-Ontario | Present | Original citation: Weaver & Lechowicz, 1983 | |||||
-Prince Edward Island | Present | Original citation: Weaver & Lechowicz, 1983 | |||||
-Quebec | Present | Original citation: Weaver & Lechowicz, 1983 | |||||
-Saskatchewan | Present | Original citation: Weaver & Lechowicz, 1983 | |||||
Trinidad and Tobago | Present | ||||||
United States | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Alabama | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Arizona | Present | ||||||
-Arkansas | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-California | Present | ||||||
-Colorado | Present | ||||||
-Connecticut | Present | ||||||
-Delaware | Present | ||||||
-Florida | Present | ||||||
-Georgia | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Hawaii | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Idaho | Present | ||||||
-Illinois | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Indiana | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Iowa | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Kansas | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Kentucky | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Louisiana | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Maryland | Present | ||||||
-Massachusetts | Present | ||||||
-Michigan | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Minnesota | Present | ||||||
-Mississippi | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Missouri | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Montana | Present | ||||||
-Nebraska | Present | ||||||
-Nevada | Present | ||||||
-New Jersey | Present | ||||||
-New Mexico | Present | ||||||
-New York | Present | ||||||
-North Carolina | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-North Dakota | Present | ||||||
-Ohio | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Oklahoma | Present | ||||||
-Oregon | Present | ||||||
-Pennsylvania | Present | ||||||
-Rhode Island | Present | ||||||
-South Carolina | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-South Dakota | Present | ||||||
-Tennessee | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Texas | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Utah | Present | ||||||
-Virginia | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Washington | Present | ||||||
-West Virginia | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Wisconsin | Present | ||||||
-Wyoming | Present | ||||||
Oceania |
|||||||
Australia | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-New South Wales | Present | Original citation: Lazarides et al., 1997 | |||||
-Northern Territory | Present | Original citation: Lazarides et al., 1997 | |||||
-Queensland | Present | Original citation: Lazarides et al., 1997 | |||||
-South Australia | Present | Original citation: Lazarides et al., 1997 | |||||
-Victoria | Present | Original citation: Lazarides et al., 1997 | |||||
-Western Australia | Present | Original citation: Lazarides et al., 1997 | |||||
Fiji | Present | ||||||
New Zealand | Present | ||||||
Papua New Guinea | Present | ||||||
South America |
|||||||
Brazil | Present | ||||||
-Sao Paulo | Present |
Habitat
Top of pageHosts/Species Affected
Top of pageHost Plants and Other Plants Affected
Top of pageBiology and Ecology
Top of pageX. strumarium is a short-day plant which generally will not flower under photoperiods longer than 14 hours, although populations vary in critical night length with latitude of origin (Ray and Alexander, 1966; McMillan, 1975). X. strumarium has the C3 pathway of photosynthesis. It is self-compatible and primarily wind-pollinated.
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Alternaria zinniae | Pathogen | |||||
Alternariaster helianthi | Pathogen | |||||
Colletotrichum coccodes | Pathogen | |||||
Colletotrichum dematium | Pathogen | |||||
Colletotrichum orbiculare | Pathogen | |||||
Epiblema strenuana | Herbivore | |||||
Euaresta aequalis | Predator | |||||
Eucosma imbridana | Predator | |||||
Nupserha vexator | Predator | |||||
Protomyces gravidus | Pathogen | |||||
Puccinia canaliculata | Pathogen | |||||
Puccinia xanthii | Pathogen | |||||
Zygogramma bicolorata | Predator | Plants|Growing point; Plants|Inflorescence; Plants|Leaves |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageImpact
Top of pageIn soyabeans, cocklebur has been reported to cause the highest reductions in yield of all annual weeds in both northern and southern production areas of the USA (Stoller et al., 1987). Soyabean yield losses are estimated at 10 to 16% for 0.5 plants of X. strumarium per m of row, 65% for 4 plants and 80% for over 10 plants per m of row, for weeds emerging at the same time as the crop (Stoller et al., 1987; Rushing and Oliver, 1998). Similar yield losses from cocklebur were reported in Ontario, Canada (Weaver, 1991). In Italy, Sartorato et al. (1996) recommended an economic threshold of only 0.05 plants of X. strumarium per square m in soyabeans. In addition to direct yield losses through competition, infestations of X. strumarium decrease soyabean seed quality and harvesting efficiency. One cocklebur per m of row was shown to cause a 7.2% increase in foreign material in harvested soyabeans, a 5.2% increase in seed moisture content, decreased test weight by 58.6 g/L seed, and reduced combine speed (Ellis et al., 1998). The authors recommended use of a pre-harvest desiccant when cocklebur densities exceeded 0.5 plants per m of row.
In cotton in the USA, seed yield losses of 60 to 90 kg/ha (approximately 5%) have been reported from cocklebur growing at a density of one plant per 15 m of row in Mississippi (Snipes et al., 1982). Cotton yield losses from one plant of X. strumarium per 3 m of row varied from 6 to 27% in North Carolina (Byrd and Coble, 1991). The critical period for cocklebur in cotton lasted from 2 to 10 weeks after cotton emergence (Snipes et al., 1987).
In groundnuts, cocklebur has been reported to cause yield losses of 31-39% at a density of 0.5 plants and 88% at 4 plants per m of row in the southern USA (Royal et al., 1997a, b). Cocklebur densities higher than 1 plant per 2 m of row reduced deposition of the fungicide chlorothalonil by 34% (Royal et al., 1997b).
The economic impact of X. strumarium in maize is somewhat lower than for soyabeans, cotton and groundnuts. Yields of maize in Illinois, USA have been reported to decrease by 10% at 1 cocklebur per m of row, to a maximum yield loss of 27% at a density of 4.7 cockleburs per m of row (Becket et al., 1988).
Infestations of X. strumarium can also cause significant yield losses in horticultural row crops (Weaver and Lechowicz, 1983). In snap beans, yield losses of 5 to 50% were reported for densities of X. strumarium ranging from 0.5 to 8 per square m (Neary and Majek, 1990).
X. strumarium also has a detrimental impact on livestock production which has been best documented in Australia, where it is abundant in sheep-grazing regions in the eastern half of the continent in Queensland and New South Wales (Wapshere, 1974; Hocking and Liddle, 1986). The burs lodge in animal hair and sheep wool, and are difficult to remove when the wool is processed after shearing. Contaminated wool requires special treatment and may have a price penalty of 25% or more (Wapshere, 1974). The prickly burs can cause considerable discomfort to animals by clinging to hair on the legs and matting the tails and manes of horses.
X. strumarium also has an economic impact in pastures, where cattle, sheep and pigs may be poisoned by eating young plants. The cotyledons contain a toxic compound, carboxyatractyloside, which is absent in older plants (Weaver and Lechowicz, 1982; Hocking and Liddle, 1986; Martin et al., 1992). Symptoms include vomiting, muscular spasms, liver degeneration and occasionally death.
Cocklebur serves as a host for a number of pathogens of crops. Sunflowers have been reported to be damaged by the rust Puccinia xanthii, commonly found on cocklebur, and by alternaria leaf spot (Alternaria helianthi), also found on cocklebur in North America (Hocking and Liddle, 1986). Cocklebur is reported to be a host for Sclerotinia minor and S. sclerotiorum which contaminate soyabean and discolour seed and result in a lowered price (Hocking and Liddle, 1986). X. strumarium is also an alternate host for the insect Spilosoma obliqua (Lepidoptera) which attacks Egyptian clover in India (Dhaliwal, 1993), and for Colletotrichum capsici, which causes anthracnose on tomato fruit and cotton seedlings in the USA (Mclean and Roy, 1991).
The Xanthium genus is closely related to the Ambrosia (ragweed) genus, and X. strumarium produces large amounts of highly antigenic pollen (Reddi et al., 1980). The glandular hairs on the leaves and stem secrete a substance which causes contact dermititis in allergic individuals (King, 1966).
Threatened Species
Top of pageThreatened Species | Conservation Status | Where Threatened | Mechanism | References | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Schiedea apokremnos (Kauai schiedea) | CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition (unspecified) | US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010) |
Uses
Top of pageSimilarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageBoth species are sometimes confused with burdocks (Arctium spp.). The latter are biennials which produce a rosette of large leaves during their first year, and spherical burs densely covered with hooked spines during their second year.
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Cultural Control
Seedlings of X. strumarium can be controlled by cultivation, but older plants often produce shoots from axillary buds if the root has not been severed. Adoption of zero or reduced tillage systems can potentially reduce Xanthium populations, because burs seldom germinate on the soil surface (Vencill and Banks, 1994).
Chemical Control
X. strumarium is controlled by many soil-applied and foliar herbicides. In France, Mamarot and Rodriguez (1997) give recommendations for a range of treatments including sulcitrone in maize, amitrole directed in maize, bentazon and fomesafen in soyabeans.
In Brazil, Lorenzi (1984) tabulates susceptiblity to bentazon, dicamba, 2,4-D and glyphosate, but states that the weed is resistant to metolachlor, asulam, butachlor, butylate,cyanazine, linuron, oxadiazon, pendimethalin, trifluralin and vernolate. In Papua New Guinea, Henty and Pritchard (1975) indicate susceptibility to 2,4-D, MCPB, amitrole, ametryne and diuron recommended for broad-leaved weeds, including atrazine, dicamba, metribuzin, bentazon, acifluorfen, and imazethapyr.
Populations resistant to imidazolinones and to the arsenical herbicides MSMA/DSMA have been reported in the USA (Heap, 1997).
Biological Control
Biological control of X. strumarium has been attempted with Alternaria helianthi (Abbas and Barrentine, 1995), and the rust Puccinia xanthii (Julien et al., 1979). Seed predation by the moth, Phaneta imbridana, and the trypetid fly, Euaresta aequalis, in the USA, may provide some control (Hare and Futuyma, 1978; Hare, 1980).
A. helianthi caused necrotic lesions on leaves of A. retroflexus, and resulted in 100% or 67% mortality of plants grown under growth chamber or outdoor conditions, respectively, when applied as a solution of conidia to seedlings (Abbas and Barrentine, 1995). The authors suggested that a phytotoxin could be isolated from A. helianthi and sprayed as a mycoherbicide.
The rust P. xanthii occurs in North America and India and was accidentally introduced into Australia (Hocking and Liddle, 1986). It causes deformation of the leaves, splitting of the petioles and stems, and finally leaf drop, but it has not provided significant large-scale control of X. strumarium.
Seed damage ranged from 0 to 28% for Phaneta imbridana, and from 0 to 42% for Euaresta aequalis, on natural populations of X. strumarium in New York. E. aequalis was introduced into Australia from North America in the 1930's. It became established only in the vicinity of Brisbane, and has not contributed significantly to the control of X. strumarium (Hocking and Liddle, 1986).
As summarized by Julien (1992), additional attempts at biological control have included: the lepidopteran Epiblema strenuana which was introduced from Mexico to Australia in 1984 and became widely established, reducing weed vigour and competiveness; Mecas saturnina (Coleoptera), introduced from N. America to Australia in 1963, but thought to have died out; and Nupserha vexator, introduced from India to Fuji and Australia, without notable success.
References
Top of pageHare JD, Futuyma DJ, 1978. Different effects of variation of Xanthium strumarium L. (Compositae) on two insect seed predators. Oecologia, 37:109-120
Heap IM, 1997. International Survey of Herbicide-Resistant Weeds. Annual Report, Weed Science Society of America
Kaul V, 1965. Physiological-ecology of Xanthium strumarium L. II. Physiology of seeds in relation to its distribution. Journal of Indian Botanical Society, 44:365-380
Kaul V, 1971. Physiological-ecology of Xanthium strumarium L. IV. Effect of climatic factors on growth and distribution. New Phytologist, 70:799-812
King LJ, 1966. Weeds of the World. Biology and Control. New York, USA: Interscience Publ
Love D, Dansereau P, 1959. Biosystematic studies on Xanthium: Taxonomic appraisal and ecological status. Canadian Journal of Botany, 37:173-208
McMillan C, 1974. Experimental hybridization in Xanthium strumarium of American complexes with diverse photoperiodic adaptation. Canadian Journal of Botany, 52:849-859
McMillan C, 1975. Experimental hybridization of Xanthium strumarium (Compositae) from Asia and America. 1. Responses of F1 hybrids to photoperiod and temperature. American Journal of Botany, 62(1):41-47
Ray PM, Alexander WE, 1966. Photoperiodic adaptation to latitude in Xanthium strumarium. American Journal of Botany, 53:806-816
Reddi CS, Reddi EUB, Bai AJ, Raju KVR, Reddi MS, 1980. The ecology of anther dehiscence, pollen liberation and dispersal in Xanthium strumarium L. Indian Journal of Ecology, 7:171-181
Sartorato I, Berti A, Zanin G, 1996. Estimation of economic thresholds for weed control in soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.). Crop Protection, 15:63-68
United States Department of Agriculture, 1970. Selected Weeds of the United States. Agriculture Handbook No. 366. Washington DC, USA: USDA
Distribution References
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS) | http://griis.org/ | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Distribution Maps
Top of pageSelect a dataset
Map Legends
-
CABI Summary Records
Map Filters
Unsupported Web Browser:
One or more of the features that are needed to show you the maps functionality are not available in the web browser that you are using.
Please consider upgrading your browser to the latest version or installing a new browser.
More information about modern web browsers can be found at http://browsehappy.com/