Turnera ulmifolia (West Indian holly)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Rainfall Regime
- Soil Tolerances
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Environmental Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- References
- Links to Websites
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Turnera ulmifolia L.
Preferred Common Name
- West Indian holly
Other Scientific Names
- Turnera alba Liebm.
- Turnera ulmifolia var. angustifolia L. (Mill.) DC.
- Turnera ulmifolia var. ulmifolia
- Turnera ulmifolia var. velutina (C. Presl) Urb.
- Turnera ulmifolia. var. intermedia L. Urb.
International Common Names
- English: buttercup flower; false damiana; sage rose; sage-rose; yellow alder; yellow buttercups; yellow elder
- Spanish: clavel de oro; damiana; escoba amarilla; escobillo; malva cimarrona; marilópez; oreja de coyote (Mexico)
- French: du thym; marilope; marilope du thym; thym à feuilles d’orme; thym des savanes; thym marron
- Portuguese: albina; chanana; flor-do-guaruj
Local Common Names
- Brazil: chanana; relogio
- Cuba: mari-lope
- Dominican Republic: alo; marilópez
- Germany: Turnera, Ulmenblättrige
- Haiti: thym à feuilles d’orme; zombi nan bois
- India: Cuban buttercup
- Jamaica: ram-goat dashalong
- Mexico: caléndula
- Puerto Rico: mari López
- USA: gujg
EPPO code
- TURUL (Turnera ulmifolia)
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageT. ulmifolia is a small herb or sub-shrub with a wide geographic distribution. This species has been frequently introduced to be used as an ornamental and medicinal herb. It has escaped from cultivation, becoming widely naturalized in tropical and subtropical regions where it grows as a weed (Smith, 1981; Barrett and Shore; 1987; Wagner et al., 1999). T. ulmifolia appears to be adaptable to a great variety of soil and environmental conditions and this adaptability may explain its success in colonizing new habitats (Gilman, 2011). Currently, it is listed as invasive in Australia, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, and on several islands in the Pacific Ocean (Chong et al., 2009; Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 2011; PIER, 2014; Rojas-Sandoval and Acevedo-Rodriguez, 2014). Invasiveness in T.ulmifolia is mostly explained by the continuous year-round flowering that gives its populations a high reproductive capacity. Seed dispersal in this species is by ants which transport seeds relatively short distances. This local seed dispersion favours the establishment of dense populations and increases the likelihood of seed set in this species (Barrett, 1978; Barrett and Shore, 1987).
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Violales
- Family: Turneraceae
- Genus: Turnera
- Species: Turnera ulmifolia
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of page
Turneraceae is a family of flowering plants consisting of just over 200 species in 10 genera. The Cronquist system placed the Turneracids in the order Violales, but this is not currently recognized as a valid family by the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group in the APG III system of 2009, which includes the taxa in the Turneraceae in a widely circumscribed Passifloraceae. The taxonomic tree in this datasheet reflects the CAB Thesaurus, which currently uses the Cronquist system.
The bulk of the species in the Turneraceae occur in just two genera: Turnera with approximately 143 species and Piriquetia with 44 species (Shore et al., 2006). Turnera ulmifolia is a polymorphic polyploid complex of herbaceous, perennial weeds, exhibiting two contrasting patterns of floral morphology, where populations are either dimorphic or monomorphic for a range of floral traits (i.e., style length, stamen height, pollen size; Barrett and Shore, 1987; Cuautle and Rico-Gray, 2003).
Description
Top of pageT. ulmifolia is a shrubby or herbaceous perennial, up to 1.2 m tall, with aromatic and densely strigose foliage. Leaves clustered toward the tips of the branches, lanceolate to oblong-lanceolate or narrowly elliptic, 4-1× 2-3 (-5) cm, moderately to occasionally sparsely strigillose, margins doubly serrate, petioles 0.8-1.5 cm long, stipules erect, triangular, approximately 1.5 mm long. Calyx approximately 20 mm long, the tube 5-8 mm long, the lobes lanceolate, apex caudate; petals yellow, sometimes with a brown spot toward base, obovate, 20-35 mm long; ovary ovoid, with 6 small apical tubercles. Capsules ovoid, 7-8 mm long. Seeds narrowly obovoid, slightly curved, about 2.5 mm long (Liogier, 1997; Wagner et al., 1999).
Distribution
Top of pageT. ulmifolia is native to Mexico, Central America and several islands in the West Indies. It is widely naturalized in Australia, South America, Indonesia, Malaysia, Madagascar, and Oceania (e.g. Fiji, Hawaii, Kiribati, the Marshall Islands, New Caledonia and Palau; see distribution table for details; Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 2011; Broome et al., 2007; PIER, 2014; USDA-ARS, 2014).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 17 Dec 2021Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Madagascar | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized in Antsiranana, Mahajanga, Toamasina | |||
Mauritius | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Réunion | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Seychelles | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Sierra Leone | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Asia |
|||||||
British Indian Ocean Territory | |||||||
-Chagos Archipelago | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Cocos Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
India | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Gujarat | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Indonesia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Original citation: Steenis CGJJvan (1948-1954) | |||
Malaysia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Original citation: Steenis CGJJvan (1948-1954) | |||
Maldives | Present | ||||||
Singapore | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Sri Lanka | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
North America |
|||||||
Anguilla | Present | Native | |||||
Bahamas | Present | Native | |||||
Barbados | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
Belize | Present | Native | |||||
Bermuda | Present | ||||||
Bonaire, Saint Eustatius and Saba | |||||||
-Saba | Present | Native | |||||
-Sint Eustatius | Present | Native | |||||
British Virgin Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Guana, Tortola, Virgin Gorda | |||
Cayman Islands | Present | Native | |||||
Costa Rica | Present | Native | |||||
Cuba | Present | Native | |||||
Dominican Republic | Present | Native | |||||
Guadeloupe | Present | Native | |||||
Haiti | Present | Native | |||||
Honduras | Present | Native | |||||
Jamaica | Present | Native | |||||
Martinique | Present | Native | |||||
Mexico | Present | Native | Campeche, Chiapas, Guerrero, Jalisco, Michoacán, Oaxaca, Quintana Roo, Sinaloa, Tabasco, Tamaulipas, Veracruz, Yucatán | ||||
Netherlands Antilles | Present | Native | Saba, St Barthelemy, St Eustatius, St Martin | ||||
Nicaragua | Present | Native | |||||
Panama | Present | Native | |||||
Puerto Rico | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Saint Kitts and Nevis | Present | Native | |||||
Saint Lucia | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Sint Maarten | Present | Native | |||||
Trinidad and Tobago | Present | ||||||
Turks and Caicos Islands | Present | ||||||
U.S. Virgin Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | St Croix, St John, St Thomas | |||
United States | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Florida | Present | Native | |||||
-Hawaii | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Oceania |
|||||||
Australia | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Northern Territory | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Queensland | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Western Australia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Christmas Island | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Federated States of Micronesia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Fiji | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
French Polynesia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Kiribati | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Marshall Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Nauru | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
New Caledonia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Palau | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Wallis and Futuna | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
South America |
|||||||
Brazil | Present | Southern Brazil | |||||
Chile | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Easter Island | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Ecuador | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Galapagos Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Paraguay | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Peru | Present | Cajamarca, Huanuco, San Martín |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageT. ulmifolia has been widely introduced to be used as an ornamental and medicinal herb. In Puerto Rico, this species was first reported in 1881 (Bello, 1881). In the Virgin Islands it was first collected in 1882 on the island of St Thomas (US National Herbarium). By 1948, it has been reported as “abundant” in Malaysia and Indonesia (Steenis, 1948-1954). T. ulmifolia has been reported as an environmental weed becoming widely naturalized in northern Australia, Western Australia, the Northern Territory, and northern Queensland (Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 2011).
Habitat
Top of pageT. ulmifolia grows in coastal areas, sandy fields, roadsides, disturbed sites and abandoned farms (PROTA, 2014). In Hawaii, it has naturalized in dry, disturbed areas, from 30-190 m (Wagner et al., 1999). In Fiji, it is locally abundant and can be found naturalized especially in coconut plantations near sea level (Smith, 1981). In Indonesia, it grows in sunny dry localities, at elevation from 1-20 m, especially in the coastal zone under coconuts (Steenis, 1948-1954). In Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, it grows in coastal areas, sandy fields, hillsides and waste ground at lower and middle elevations (Liogier, 1997).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Natural | |
Littoral | Coastal dunes | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Littoral | Coastal dunes | Present, no further details | Natural |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
T. ulmifolia constitutes a polyploid complex with allopolyploid and autopolyploid species ranging from 2x to 8x (López et al., 2011).
Reproductive Biology
Two contrasting patterns of floral morphology have been reported for T. ulmifolia populations. Populations are either dimorphic or monomorphic for a range of floral traits (i.e., style length, stamen height, and pollen size) associated with the breeding system. Dimorphic populations exhibit typical features of the distylous genetic polymorphism with strong self-incompatibility and a 1:1 ratio of the long- and short-styled morphs (Barrett, 1978). Monomorphic populations are self-compatible with long styles and a range of stamen heights (Barrett and Shore, 1987).
Phenology
T. ulmifolia produces flowers and fruits all year round (Montano et al., 2011). In Mexico, a reproductive peak occurs during the summer (Torres-Hernández et al., 2000). This species has extrafloral nectaries which are frequently visited by ants (Camponotus planatus, C. atriceps, Conomyrma sp., Crematogaster crinosa, Forelius sp., Pseudomyrmex sp.), wasps (Polistes instabilis and Polybia occidentalis) and honeybees (Apis mellifera) which forage looking for the nectar produced (Cuautle and Rico-Gray, 2003).
Environmental Requirements
T. ulmifolia grows in areas with full sun or partial shade. This species is well-adapted to a variety of soil conditions including alkaline pH and dry sites. Freezing temperatures kill plants to the ground, but warm spring weather brings them back to life (Gilman, 2011).
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
Af - Tropical rainforest climate | Preferred | > 60mm precipitation per month | |
Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Preferred | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Mean annual rainfall | 800 | 2500 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageWhite flies are often found on the foliage of T. ulmifolia and severe infestations of these insects can injure the plants. Aphids and scales can also infest the foliage, but they are usually not too serious (Gilman, 2011). The main leaf herbivore is the caterpillar Euptoieta hegesia (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae). This herbivore is most active from June to August, although it can be found year round (Cuautle and Rico-Gray, 2003).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageT. ulmifolia spreads by seeds, which are dispersed by ants. These insects transport seeds relatively short distances from maternal plants, favouring the establishment of dense populations (Barrett, 1978; Barrett and Shore, 1987; Staples et al, 2000).
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Disturbance | Naturalized in open, waste places | Yes | Yes | Smith (1981) |
Escape from confinement or garden escape | Escaped and naturalized | Yes | Yes | Wagner et al. (1999) |
Medicinal use | Cultivated as a medicinal herb for its leaves | Yes | Yes | PROTA (2014) |
Ornamental purposes | Often grown as ornamental | Yes | Yes | USDA-ARS (2014) |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Debris and waste associated with human activities | Seeds | Yes | Yes | USDA-ARS (2014) |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Cultural/amenity | Positive and negative |
Economic/livelihood | Positive and negative |
Environment (generally) | Positive and negative |
Environmental Impact
Top of pageT. ulmifolia is a weed that has escaped from cultivation and has become widely naturalized in tropical and subtropical regions of the world (Smith, 1981; Barrett and Shore; 1987; Wagner et al., 1999). This species has the potential to grow forming dense mono-specific thickets and monopolizing resources principally in coastal areas (PIER, 2014).
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Abundant in its native range
- Is a habitat generalist
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
- Long lived
- Fast growing
- Has high reproductive potential
- Gregarious
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Modification of successional patterns
- Monoculture formation
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Competition - smothering
- Rapid growth
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Uses
Top of pageT. ulmifolia is grown as ornamental for its showy yellow flowers that blossom year-round (Montano et al., 2011). Plants are also used as border plants and ground cover (Lorenzi, 2008). A tea made from leaves of this species is used in traditional medicine in South America and the West Indies to treat gastrointestinal problems (constipation, diarrhea), colds and flu, and circulatory problems (heart palpitations), menstrual spasms, and dermatological issues (Gracioso et al., 2002, Montana et al., 2011; USDA-ARS, 2014).
Uses List
Top of pageEnvironmental
- Amenity
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
- Traditional/folklore
Ornamental
- Potted plant
- Propagation material
- Seed trade
References
Top of pageAcevedo-Rodríguez P; Strong MT, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, 98:1192 pp. Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm
Barrett SCH; Shore JS, 1987. Variation and evolution of breeding systems in the Turnera ulmifolia L. complex (Turneraceae). Evolution, 41:340-354.
Bello Espinosa D, 1881. [English title not available]. (Apuntes para la flora de Puerto Rico. Primera parte.) Anal. Soc. Española de Hist. Nat, 10:231-304.
Broome R; Sabir K; Carrington S, 2007. Plants of the Eastern Caribbean. Online database. Barbados: University of the West Indies. http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/index.html
Chong KY; Tan HTW; Corlett RT, 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species. Singapore: Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore, 273 pp. http://lkcnhm.nus.edu.sg/nus/pdf/PUBLICATION/LKCNH%20Museum%20Books/LKCNHM%20Books/flora_of_singapore_tc.pdf
Florence J; Chevillotte H; Ollier C; Meyer J-Y, 2013. Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP) (Botanical database of the Nadeaud Herbarium of French Polynesia). http://www.herbier-tahiti.pf
Fosberg FR, 1983. Natural history of Cousin Island. In: Floristics and ecology of Western Indian Ocean islands. Atoll Research Bulletin, 273:253 pp.
Gilman EF, 2011. Turnera ulmifolia. Yellow Alder, Yellow Elder. Document FPS-593., USA: Environmental Horticulture, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu
Graveson R, 2012. The Plants of Saint Lucia (in the Lesser Antilles of the Caribbean). The Plants of Saint Lucia (in the Lesser Antilles of the Caribbean). http://www.saintlucianplants.com
Grosse A, 1996. Flora and Fauna Catalog of Introduced Paraguay species. I3N - IABIN Invasive Information Network.
Herrera K; Lorence DH; Flynn T; Balick MJ, 2010. Checklist of the vascular plants of Pohnpei with local names and uses. Lawai, Hawaii, USA: National Tropical Botanical Garden, 146 pp.
India Biodiversity, 2014. Online Portal of India Biodiversity. http://indiabiodiversity.org/species/list
Liogier AH, 1997. Descriptive flora of Puerto Rico and adjacent islands. San Juan, Puerto Rico: University of Puerto Rico.
Lorenzi H, 2008. Plantas ornamentais no Brasil: arbustivas, herbáceas e trepadeiras ([English title not available]). Nova Odessa, Brazil: Instituto Plantarum.
Madagascar Catalogue, 2014. Catalogue of the Vascular Plants of Madagascar. St. Louis, Missouri, USA and Antananarivo, Madagascar: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/project/mada
Meyer JY, 2007. Rapport de mission sur l'Ile d'Uvea (Wallis & Futuna) du 6 au 17 Novembre 2007: Inventaire preliminaire de la flore vasculaire secondaire ([English title not available]). Papeete, Tahiti: Ministère de l'Education, l'Enseignement Supérieur et la Recherche, 39 pp. http://www.li-an.fr/jyves/Meyer_2007_Rapport_Plantes_Introduites_Wallis.pdf
Meyer JY, 2008. Report of the expert mission to Rapa Nui, 2-11 June 2008. Strategic action plan to control invasive alien plants on Rapa Nui (Easter Island) (Rapport de mission d'expertise a Rapa Nui du 02 au 11 Juin 2008: Plan d'action strategique pour lutter contre les plantes introduites envahissantes sur Rapa Nui (Île de pâques)). Papeete, Tahiti: Délégation à la Recherche, Ministère de l'Education, l'Enseignement supérieur et la Recherche, 62 pp. http://www.li-an.fr/jyves/Meyer_2008_Rapport_Expertise_Rapa_Nui.pdf
Missouri Botanical Garden, 2014. Tropicos database. St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/
Montano HG; Contaldo N; Pimentel JP; Cunha JJO; Paltrinieri S; Bertaccini A; Maini S, 2011. Turnera ulmifolia, a new phytoplasmas host species. Bulletin of Insectology, 64:S99-S100.
Orchard AE, 1993. Flora of Australia. Vol. 50, Oceanic islands 2. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service.
PIER, 2014. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
PROTA, 2014. PROTA4U web database. Grubben GJH, Denton OA, eds. Wageningen, Netherlands: Plant Resources of Tropical Africa. http://www.prota4u.org/search.asp
Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 2011. Special edition of Environmental Weeds of Australia for Biosecurity Queensland., Australia: The University of Queensland and Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries. http://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/03030800-0b07-490a-8d04-0605030c0f01/media/Html/Index.htm
Reddy CS, 2008. Catalogue of invasive alien flora of India. Life Science Journal, 5:84-89.
Rojas-Sandoval J; Acevedo-Rodríguez P, 2014. Naturalization and invasion of alien plants in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Biological Invasions. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10530-014-0712-3
Space JC; Imada CT, 2004. Report to the Republic of Kiribati on invasive plant species on the islands of Tarawa, Abemama, Butaritari and Maiana. Cont. no. 2003-006 to the Pac. Biol. Surv. USDA Forest Service and Bishop Museum, Honolulu.
Space JC; Lorence DH; LaRosa AM, 2009. Report to the Republic of Palau: 2008 update on Invasive Plant Species. Hilo, Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service, 227. http://www.sprep.org/att/irc/ecopies/countries/palau/48.pdf
Staples GW; Herbst D; Imada CT, 2000. Survey of invasive or potentially invasive cultivated plants in Hawaii. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers, 65:35 pp.
Steenis CGJJvan, 1948-1954. Flora Malesiana, Series I. Noordhoff-Kolff, Djakarta. 1948-1954, 14 volumes., Indonesia: Ministry of Agriculture. http://www.archive.org/search.php?query=Flora%20Malesiana
Stevens PF, 2012. Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/
Swarbrick JT, 1997. Environmental weeds and exotic plants on Christmas Island, Indian Ocean. Report to Parks Australia. J.T. Swarbrick, Weed Science Consultancy, 131 pp.
USDA-ARS, 2014. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx
USDA-NRCS, 2014. The PLANTS Database. Baton Rouge, USA: National Plant Data Center. http://plants.usda.gov/
Vander Velde N; Vander Velde B, 2010. Survey of Invasive Plant Species and Other Plants of Mili Atoll, Marshall Islands. Unpublished report. USDA Forest Resource Management Grant Program, 6 pp + 23 pp.
Wagner WL; Herbst DR; Sohmer SH, 1999. Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawaii, Revised ed. Honolulu, USA: University of Hawaii Press.
Whistler WA, 1996. Botanical survey of Diego Garcia, Chagos Archipelago, British Indian Ocean Territory. Isle Botanica (online), 49 pp. http://www.zianet.com/tedmorris/dg/2005NRMP-Appendixe-botanicalsurvey.pdf
Wunderlin RP; Hansen BF, 2008. Atlas of Florida Vascular Plants. Tampa, Florida, USA: University of South Florida. http://www.plantatlas.usf.edu/
Distribution References
Broome R, Sabir K, Carrington S, 2007. Plants of the Eastern Caribbean., Barbados: University of the West Indies. http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/index.html
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated b. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Florence J, Chevillotte H, Ollier C, Meyer J-Y, 2013. Nadeaud botanical database of the Herbarium of French Polynesia. (Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP))., https://nadeaud.ilm.pf/
Fosberg FR, 1983. Natural history of Cousin Island. In: Floristics and ecology of Western Indian Ocean islands. Atoll Research Bulletin, 273 253 pp.
Graveson R, 2012. The Plants of Saint Lucia (in the Lesser Antilles of the Caribbean)., http://www.saintlucianplants.com
Grosse A, 1996. Flora and Fauna Catalog of Introduced Paraguay species. In: I3N - IABIN Invasive Information Network,
Herrera K, Lorence DH, Flynn T, Balick MJ, 2010. Checklist of the vascular plants of Pohnpei with local names and uses., Lawai, Hawaii, USA: National Tropical Botanical Garden. 146 pp.
India Biodiversity, 2014. Online Portal of India Biodiversity., http://indiabiodiversity.org/species/list
Madagascar Catalogue, 2014. Catalogue of the Vascular Plants of Madagascar., St. Louis, Missouri and Antananarivo, USA, Madagascar: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/project/mada
Meyer JY, 2007. (Rapport de mission sur l'Ile d'Uvea (Wallis & Futuna) du 6 au 17 Novembre 2007: Inventaire preliminaire de la flore vasculaire secondaire ([English title not available]))., Papeete, Tahiti, French Polynesia: Ministère de l'Education, l'Enseignement Supérieur et la Recherche. 39 pp. http://www.li-an.fr/jyves/Meyer_2007_Rapport_Plantes_Introduites_Wallis.pdf
Meyer JY, 2008. Report of the expert mission to Rapa Nui, 2-11 June 2008. Strategic action plan to control invasive alien plants on Rapa Nui (Easter Island). ((Rapport de mission d'expertise a Rapa Nui du 02 au 11 Juin 2008: Plan d'action strategique pour lutter contre les plantes introduites envahissantes sur Rapa Nui (Île de pâques)))., Papeete, Tahiti, Délégation à la Recherche, Ministère de l'Education, l'Enseignement supérieur et la Recherche. 62 pp. http://www.li-an.fr/jyves/Meyer_2008_Rapport_Expertise_Rapa_Nui.pdf
Missouri Botanical Garden, 2014. Tropicos database., St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/
Orchard AE, 1993. Flora of Australia. In: Oceanic islands 2, 50 Canberra, Australian Government Publishing Service.
PIER, 2014. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk., Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
PROTA, 2014. PROTA4U web database., [ed. by Grubben GJH, Denton OA]. Wageningen, Netherlands: Plant Resources of Tropical Africa. http://www.prota4u.org/search.asp
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Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
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GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Contributors
Top of page05/02/15 Original text by:
Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
Pedro Acevedo-Rodríguez, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
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