Turnera ulmifolia (West Indian holly)

Pictures

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Picture

Title

Caption

Copyright

Habit

Turnera ulmifolia (West Indian holly); habit. Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge, Florida, USA. September, 2009.

©Forest & Kim Starr-2009 - CC BY 3.0

Habit

Turnera ulmifolia (West Indian holly); flowering habit. Kahului, Maui, Hawaii, USA. August, 2009.

©Forest & Kim Starr-2009 - CC BY 3.0

Habit

Turnera ulmifolia (West Indian holly); habit. Moomomi, Molokai, Hawaii, USAi. May, 2005.

©Forest & Kim Starr-2005 - CC BY 3.0

Leaves and flower

Turnera ulmifolia (West Indian holly); leaves and flower, KiHana Nursery Kihei, Maui, Hawaii, USA. February, 2011.

©Forest & Kim Starr-2011 - CC BY 3.0

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Turnera ulmifolia L.

Preferred Common Name

West Indian holly

Other Scientific Names

Turnera alba Liebm.
Turnera ulmifolia var. angustifolia L. (Mill.) DC.
Turnera ulmifolia var. ulmifolia
Turnera ulmifolia var. velutina (C. Presl) Urb.
Turnera ulmifolia. var. intermedia L. Urb.

International Common Names

English: buttercup flower; false damiana; sage rose; sage-rose; yellow alder; yellow buttercups; yellow elder
Spanish: clavel de oro; damiana; escoba amarilla; escobillo; malva cimarrona; marilópez; oreja de coyote (Mexico)
French: du thym; marilope; marilope du thym; thym à feuilles d’orme; thym des savanes; thym marron
Portuguese: albina; chanana; flor-do-guaruj

Local Common Names

Brazil: chanana; relogio
Cuba: mari-lope
Dominican Republic: alo; marilópez
Germany: Turnera, Ulmenblättrige
Haiti: thym à feuilles d’orme; zombi nan bois
India: Cuban buttercup
Jamaica: ram-goat dashalong
Mexico: caléndula
Puerto Rico: mari López
USA: gujg

EPPO code

TURUL (Turnera ulmifolia)

Summary of Invasiveness

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T. ulmifolia is a small herb or sub-shrub with a wide geographic distribution. This species has been frequently introduced to be used as an ornamental and medicinal herb. It has escaped from cultivation, becoming widely naturalized in tropical and subtropical regions where it grows as a weed (Smith, 1981; Barrett and Shore; 1987; Wagner et al., 1999). T. ulmifolia appears to be adaptable to a great variety of soil and environmental conditions and this adaptability may explain its success in colonizing new habitats (Gilman, 2011). Currently, it is listed as invasive in Australia, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, and on several islands in the Pacific Ocean (Chong et al., 2009; Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 2011; PIER, 2014; Rojas-Sandoval and Acevedo-Rodriguez, 2014). Invasiveness in T.ulmifolia is mostly explained by the continuous year-round flowering that gives its populations a high reproductive capacity. Seed dispersal in this species is by ants which transport seeds relatively short distances. This local seed dispersion favours the establishment of dense populations and increases the likelihood of seed set in this species (Barrett, 1978; Barrett and Shore, 1987).

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Spermatophyta
Subphylum: Angiospermae
Class: Dicotyledonae
Order: Violales
Family: Turneraceae
Genus: Turnera
Species: Turnera ulmifolia

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

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Turneraceae is a family of flowering plants consisting of just over 200 species in 10 genera. The Cronquist system placed the Turneracids in the order Violales, but this is not currently recognized as a valid family by the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group in the APG III system of 2009, which includes the taxa in the Turneraceae in a widely circumscribed Passifloraceae. The taxonomic tree in this datasheet reflects the CAB Thesaurus, which currently uses the Cronquist system.

The bulk of the species in the Turneraceae occur in just two genera: Turnera with approximately 143 species and Piriquetia with 44 species (Shore et al., 2006). Turnera ulmifolia is a polymorphic polyploid complex of herbaceous, perennial weeds, exhibiting two contrasting patterns of floral morphology, where populations are either dimorphic or monomorphic for a range of floral traits (i.e., style length, stamen height, pollen size; Barrett and Shore, 1987; Cuautle and Rico-Gray, 2003).

Description

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T. ulmifolia is a shrubby or herbaceous perennial, up to 1.2 m tall, with aromatic and densely strigose foliage. Leaves clustered toward the tips of the branches, lanceolate to oblong-lanceolate or narrowly elliptic, 4-1× 2-3 (-5) cm, moderately to occasionally sparsely strigillose, margins doubly serrate, petioles 0.8-1.5 cm long, stipules erect, triangular, approximately 1.5 mm long. Calyx approximately 20 mm long, the tube 5-8 mm long, the lobes lanceolate, apex caudate; petals yellow, sometimes with a brown spot toward base, obovate, 20-35 mm long; ovary ovoid, with 6 small apical tubercles. Capsules ovoid, 7-8 mm long. Seeds narrowly obovoid, slightly curved, about 2.5 mm long (Liogier, 1997; Wagner et al., 1999).

Plant Type

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Herbaceous
Perennial
Seed propagated
Shrub

Distribution

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T. ulmifolia is native to Mexico, Central America and several islands in the West Indies. It is widely naturalized in Australia, South America, Indonesia, Malaysia, Madagascar, and Oceania (e.g. Fiji, Hawaii, Kiribati, the Marshall Islands, New Caledonia and Palau; see distribution table for details; Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 2011; Broome et al., 2007; PIER, 2014; USDA-ARS, 2014).

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 10 Jan 2020

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	Invasive	Reference	Notes
Africa
Madagascar	Present	Introduced	Naturalized	Madagascar Catalogue (2014)	Naturalized in Antsiranana, Mahajanga, Toamasina
Mauritius	Present	Introduced	Naturalized	USDA-ARS (2014)	Naturalized
Réunion	Present	Introduced	Naturalized	CABI (Undated b)	Naturalized
Seychelles	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Fosberg (1983)
Sierra Leone	Present	Introduced		PROTA (2014)	Cultivated
Asia
British Indian Ocean Territory
-Chagos Archipelago	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Whistler (1996)
Cocos Islands	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Orchard (1993)
India	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Reddy (2008)
-Gujarat	Present	Introduced	Invasive	India Biodiversity (2014)
Indonesia	Present	Introduced	Invasive	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Steenis CGJJvan (1948-1954)
Malaysia	Present	Introduced	Invasive	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Steenis CGJJvan (1948-1954)
Maldives	Present			PIER (2014)
Singapore	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Chong et al. (2009)
Sri Lanka	Present	Introduced	Naturalized	USDA-ARS (2014)	Naturalized
North America
Anguilla	Present	Native		Broome et al. (2007)
Bahamas	Present	Native		Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Barbados	Present, Widespread	Native		Broome et al. (2007)
Belize	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2014)
Bermuda	Present			USDA-ARS (2014)
Bonaire, Saint Eustatius and Saba
-Saba	Present	Native		Broome et al. (2007)
-Sint Eustatius	Present	Native		Broome et al. (2007)
British Virgin Islands	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Rojas-Sandoval and Acevedo-Rodríguez (2014)	Guana, Tortola, Virgin Gorda
Cayman Islands	Present	Native		Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Costa Rica	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2014)
Cuba	Present	Native		Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Dominican Republic	Present	Native		Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Guadeloupe	Present	Native		Broome et al. (2007)
Haiti	Present	Native		Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Honduras	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2014)
Jamaica	Present	Native		Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Martinique	Present	Native		Broome et al. (2007)
Mexico	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2014)	Campeche, Chiapas, Guerrero, Jalisco, Michoacán, Oaxaca, Quintana Roo, Sinaloa, Tabasco, Tamaulipas, Veracruz, Yucatán
Netherlands Antilles	Present	Native		Broome et al. (2007)	Saba, St Barthelemy, St Eustatius, St Martin
Nicaragua	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2014)
Panama	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2014)
Puerto Rico	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Rojas-Sandoval and Acevedo-Rodríguez (2014)
Saint Kitts and Nevis	Present	Native		Broome et al. (2007)
Saint Lucia	Present	Introduced	Naturalized	Graveson (2012)	Naturalized
Sint Maarten	Present	Native		Broome et al. (2007)
Trinidad and Tobago	Present			USDA-ARS (2014)
Turks and Caicos Islands	Present			USDA-ARS (2014)
U.S. Virgin Islands	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Rojas-Sandoval and Acevedo-Rodríguez (2014)	St Croix, St John, St Thomas
United States	Present			CABI (Undated a)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Florida	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2014) Wunderlin and Hansen (2008) USDA-NRCS (2014)
-Hawaii	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Wagner et al. (1999)
Oceania
Australia	Present			CABI (Undated a)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Northern Territory	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries (2011)
-Queensland	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries (2011)
-Western Australia	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries (2011)
Christmas Island	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Swarbrick (1997)
Federated States of Micronesia	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Herrera et al. (2010)
Fiji	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Smith (1981)
French Polynesia	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Florence et al. (2013)
Kiribati	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Space and Imada (2004)
Marshall Islands	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Vander Velde and Vander Velde (2010)
Nauru	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Meyer (2000)
New Caledonia	Present	Introduced	Invasive	MacKee (1994)
Palau	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Space et al. (2009)
Wallis and Futuna	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Meyer (2007)
South America
Brazil	Present			Gracioso et al. (2002)	Southern Brazil
Chile	Present			CABI (Undated a)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Easter Island	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Meyer (2008)
Ecuador	Present			CABI (Undated a)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Galapagos Islands	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Paraguay	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Grosse (1996)
Peru	Present			Missouri Botanical Garden (2014)	Cajamarca, Huanuco, San Martín

History of Introduction and Spread

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T. ulmifolia has been widely introduced to be used as an ornamental and medicinal herb. In Puerto Rico, this species was first reported in 1881 (Bello, 1881). In the Virgin Islands it was first collected in 1882 on the island of St Thomas (US National Herbarium). By 1948, it has been reported as “abundant” in Malaysia and Indonesia (Steenis, 1948-1954). T. ulmifolia has been reported as an environmental weed becoming widely naturalized in northern Australia, Western Australia, the Northern Territory, and northern Queensland (Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 2011).

Habitat

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T. ulmifolia grows in coastal areas, sandy fields, roadsides, disturbed sites and abandoned farms (PROTA, 2014). In Hawaii, it has naturalized in dry, disturbed areas, from 30-190 m (Wagner et al., 1999). In Fiji, it is locally abundant and can be found naturalized especially in coconut plantations near sea level (Smith, 1981). In Indonesia, it grows in sunny dry localities, at elevation from 1-20 m, especially in the coastal zone under coconuts (Steenis, 1948-1954). In Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, it grows in coastal areas, sandy fields, hillsides and waste ground at lower and middle elevations (Liogier, 1997).

Habitat List

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Category	Sub-Category	Habitat	Presence	Status
Terrestrial	Managed	Disturbed areas	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Disturbed areas	Present, no further details	Natural
Terrestrial	Managed	Rail / roadsides	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Rail / roadsides	Present, no further details	Natural
Terrestrial	Managed	Urban / peri-urban areas	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Urban / peri-urban areas	Present, no further details	Natural
Terrestrial	Managed	Urban / peri-urban areas	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural
Littoral		Coastal areas	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Littoral		Coastal areas	Present, no further details	Natural
Littoral		Coastal dunes	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Littoral		Coastal dunes	Present, no further details	Natural

Biology and Ecology

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Genetics

T. ulmifolia constitutes a polyploid complex with allopolyploid and autopolyploid species ranging from 2x to 8x (López et al., 2011).

Reproductive Biology

Two contrasting patterns of floral morphology have been reported for T. ulmifolia populations. Populations are either dimorphic or monomorphic for a range of floral traits (i.e., style length, stamen height, and pollen size) associated with the breeding system. Dimorphic populations exhibit typical features of the distylous genetic polymorphism with strong self-incompatibility and a 1:1 ratio of the long- and short-styled morphs (Barrett, 1978). Monomorphic populations are self-compatible with long styles and a range of stamen heights (Barrett and Shore, 1987).

Phenology

T. ulmifolia produces flowers and fruits all year round (Montano et al., 2011). In Mexico, a reproductive peak occurs during the summer (Torres-Hernández et al., 2000). This species has extrafloral nectaries which are frequently visited by ants (Camponotus planatus, C. atriceps, Conomyrma sp., Crematogaster crinosa, Forelius sp., Pseudomyrmex sp.), wasps (Polistes instabilis and Polybia occidentalis) and honeybees (Apis mellifera) which forage looking for the nectar produced (Cuautle and Rico-Gray, 2003).

Environmental Requirements

T. ulmifolia grows in areas with full sun or partial shade. This species is well-adapted to a variety of soil conditions including alkaline pH and dry sites. Freezing temperatures kill plants to the ground, but warm spring weather brings them back to life (Gilman, 2011).

Climate

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Climate	Status	Description
Af - Tropical rainforest climate	Preferred	> 60mm precipitation per month
Am - Tropical monsoon climate	Preferred	Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25]))
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer	Preferred	< 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25])
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate	Preferred	< 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25])

Air Temperature

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Parameter	Lower limit	Upper limit
Mean annual temperature (ºC)	20	35

Rainfall

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Parameter	Lower limit	Upper limit	Description
Mean annual rainfall	800	2500	mm; lower/upper limits

Rainfall Regime

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Bimodal
Uniform

Soil Tolerances

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Soil drainage

free

Soil reaction

acid
neutral

Notes on Natural Enemies

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White flies are often found on the foliage of T. ulmifolia and severe infestations of these insects can injure the plants. Aphids and scales can also infest the foliage, but they are usually not too serious (Gilman, 2011). The main leaf herbivore is the caterpillar Euptoieta hegesia (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae). This herbivore is most active from June to August, although it can be found year round (Cuautle and Rico-Gray, 2003).

Means of Movement and Dispersal

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T. ulmifolia spreads by seeds, which are dispersed by ants. These insects transport seeds relatively short distances from maternal plants, favouring the establishment of dense populations (Barrett, 1978; Barrett and Shore, 1987; Staples et al, 2000).

Pathway Causes

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Cause	Notes	Long Distance	Local	References
Disturbance	Naturalized in open, waste places	Yes	Yes	Smith (1981)
Escape from confinement or garden escape	Escaped and naturalized	Yes	Yes	Wagner et al. (1999)
Medicinal use	Cultivated as a medicinal herb for its leaves	Yes	Yes	PROTA (2014)
Ornamental purposes	Often grown as ornamental	Yes	Yes	USDA-ARS (2014)

Pathway Vectors

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Vector	Notes	Long Distance	Local	References
Debris and waste associated with human activities	Seeds	Yes	Yes	USDA-ARS (2014)

Impact Summary

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Category	Impact
Cultural/amenity	Positive and negative
Economic/livelihood	Positive and negative
Environment (generally)	Positive and negative

Environmental Impact

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T. ulmifolia is a weed that has escaped from cultivation and has become widely naturalized in tropical and subtropical regions of the world (Smith, 1981; Barrett and Shore; 1987; Wagner et al., 1999). This species has the potential to grow forming dense mono-specific thickets and monopolizing resources principally in coastal areas (PIER, 2014).

Risk and Impact Factors

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Invasiveness

Proved invasive outside its native range
Has a broad native range
Abundant in its native range
Is a habitat generalist
Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
Pioneering in disturbed areas
Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
Long lived
Fast growing
Has high reproductive potential
Gregarious

Impact outcomes

Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
Modification of successional patterns
Monoculture formation
Reduced native biodiversity
Threat to/ loss of native species

Impact mechanisms

Competition - monopolizing resources
Competition - smothering
Rapid growth

Likelihood of entry/control

Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately

Uses

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T. ulmifolia is grown as ornamental for its showy yellow flowers that blossom year-round (Montano et al., 2011). Plants are also used as border plants and ground cover (Lorenzi, 2008). A tea made from leaves of this species is used in traditional medicine in South America and the West Indies to treat gastrointestinal problems (constipation, diarrhea), colds and flu, and circulatory problems (heart palpitations), menstrual spasms, and dermatological issues (Gracioso et al., 2002, Montana et al., 2011; USDA-ARS, 2014).

Uses List

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Environmental

Amenity

Medicinal, pharmaceutical

Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
Traditional/folklore

Ornamental

Potted plant
Propagation material
Seed trade

References

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Acevedo-Rodríguez P; Strong MT, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, 98:1192 pp. Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm

Barrett SCH, 1978. Heterostyly in a tropical weed: the reproductive biology of the Turnera ulmifolia complex (Turneraceae). Canadian Journal of Botany, 56(15):1713-1725.

Barrett SCH; Shore JS, 1987. Variation and evolution of breeding systems in the Turnera ulmifolia L. complex (Turneraceae). Evolution, 41:340-354.

Bello Espinosa D, 1881. [English title not available]. (Apuntes para la flora de Puerto Rico. Primera parte.) Anal. Soc. Española de Hist. Nat, 10:231-304.

Broome R; Sabir K; Carrington S, 2007. Plants of the Eastern Caribbean. Online database. Barbados: University of the West Indies. http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/index.html

Charles Darwin Foundation, 2008. Database inventory of introduced plant species in the rural and urban zones of Galapagos. Database inventory of introduced plant species in the rural and urban zones of Galapagos. Galapagos, Ecuador: Charles Darwin Foundation, unpaginated.

Chong KY; Tan HTW; Corlett RT, 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species. Singapore: Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore, 273 pp. http://lkcnhm.nus.edu.sg/nus/pdf/PUBLICATION/LKCNH%20Museum%20Books/LKCNHM%20Books/flora_of_singapore_tc.pdf

Cuautle M; Rico-Gray V, 2003. The effect of wasps and ants on the reproductive success of the extrafloral nectaried plant Turnera ulmifolia (Turneraceae). Functional Ecology, 17(3):417-423.

Florence J; Chevillotte H; Ollier C; Meyer J-Y, 2013. Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP) (Botanical database of the Nadeaud Herbarium of French Polynesia). http://www.herbier-tahiti.pf

Fosberg FR, 1983. Natural history of Cousin Island. In: Floristics and ecology of Western Indian Ocean islands. Atoll Research Bulletin, 273:253 pp.

Gilman EF, 2011. Turnera ulmifolia. Yellow Alder, Yellow Elder. Document FPS-593., USA: Environmental Horticulture, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu

Gracioso Jde S; Vilegas W; Hiruma-Lima CA; Brito ARMS, 2002. Effects of tea from Turnera ulmifolia L. on mouse gastric mucosa support the turneraceae as a new source of antiulcerogenic drugs. Biological & Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 25(4):487-491.

Graveson R, 2012. The Plants of Saint Lucia (in the Lesser Antilles of the Caribbean). The Plants of Saint Lucia (in the Lesser Antilles of the Caribbean). http://www.saintlucianplants.com

Grosse A, 1996. Flora and Fauna Catalog of Introduced Paraguay species. I3N - IABIN Invasive Information Network.

Herrera K; Lorence DH; Flynn T; Balick MJ, 2010. Checklist of the vascular plants of Pohnpei with local names and uses. Lawai, Hawaii, USA: National Tropical Botanical Garden, 146 pp.

India Biodiversity, 2014. Online Portal of India Biodiversity. http://indiabiodiversity.org/species/list

Liogier AH, 1997. Descriptive flora of Puerto Rico and adjacent islands. San Juan, Puerto Rico: University of Puerto Rico.

López A; Panseri AF; Poggio L; Fernández A, 2011. Nuclear DNA content in the polyploid complex Turnera ulmifolia (Turnera L., Passifloraceae). Plant Systematics and Evolution, 296(3/4):225-230. http://www.springerlink.com/content/8v670768g24m1250/

Lorenzi H, 2008. Plantas ornamentais no Brasil: arbustivas, herbáceas e trepadeiras ([English title not available]). Nova Odessa, Brazil: Instituto Plantarum.

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Madagascar Catalogue, 2014. Catalogue of the Vascular Plants of Madagascar. St. Louis, Missouri, USA and Antananarivo, Madagascar: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/project/mada

Meyer JY, 2000. Preliminary review of the invasive plants in the Pacific Islands (SPREP member countries). In: Invasive species in the Pacific: A technical review and draft regional strategy [ed. by Sherley G]. Samoa: South Pacific Regional Environment Programme, 190 pp.

Meyer JY, 2007. Rapport de mission sur l'Ile d'Uvea (Wallis & Futuna) du 6 au 17 Novembre 2007: Inventaire preliminaire de la flore vasculaire secondaire ([English title not available]). Papeete, Tahiti: Ministère de l'Education, l'Enseignement Supérieur et la Recherche, 39 pp. http://www.li-an.fr/jyves/Meyer_2007_Rapport_Plantes_Introduites_Wallis.pdf

Meyer JY, 2008. Report of the expert mission to Rapa Nui, 2-11 June 2008. Strategic action plan to control invasive alien plants on Rapa Nui (Easter Island) (Rapport de mission d'expertise a Rapa Nui du 02 au 11 Juin 2008: Plan d'action strategique pour lutter contre les plantes introduites envahissantes sur Rapa Nui (Île de pâques)). Papeete, Tahiti: Délégation à la Recherche, Ministère de l'Education, l'Enseignement supérieur et la Recherche, 62 pp. http://www.li-an.fr/jyves/Meyer_2008_Rapport_Expertise_Rapa_Nui.pdf

Missouri Botanical Garden, 2014. Tropicos database. St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/

Montano HG; Contaldo N; Pimentel JP; Cunha JJO; Paltrinieri S; Bertaccini A; Maini S, 2011. Turnera ulmifolia, a new phytoplasmas host species. Bulletin of Insectology, 64:S99-S100.

Orchard AE, 1993. Flora of Australia. Vol. 50, Oceanic islands 2. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service.

PIER, 2014. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html

PROTA, 2014. PROTA4U web database. Grubben GJH, Denton OA, eds. Wageningen, Netherlands: Plant Resources of Tropical Africa. http://www.prota4u.org/search.asp

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Reddy CS, 2008. Catalogue of invasive alien flora of India. Life Science Journal, 5:84-89.

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Shore JS; Arbo MM; Fernández A, 2006. Breeding system variation, genetics and evolution in the Turneraceae. New Phytologist, 171(3):539-551. http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2006.01807.x

Smith AC, 1981. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji (spermatophytes only). Volume 2. 1981, 818 pp.; many pl. (8 col.).

Space JC; Imada CT, 2004. Report to the Republic of Kiribati on invasive plant species on the islands of Tarawa, Abemama, Butaritari and Maiana. Cont. no. 2003-006 to the Pac. Biol. Surv. USDA Forest Service and Bishop Museum, Honolulu.

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Staples GW; Herbst D; Imada CT, 2000. Survey of invasive or potentially invasive cultivated plants in Hawaii. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers, 65:35 pp.

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Stevens PF, 2012. Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/

Swarbrick JT, 1997. Environmental weeds and exotic plants on Christmas Island, Indian Ocean. Report to Parks Australia. J.T. Swarbrick, Weed Science Consultancy, 131 pp.

Torres-Hernández L; Rico-Gray V; Castillo-Guevara C; Vergara JA, 2000. Effect of nectar-foraging ants and wasps on the reproductive fitness of Turnera ulmifolia (Turneraceae) in a coastal sand dune in Mexico. Acta Zoologica Mexicana, No.81:13-21.

USDA-ARS, 2014. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx

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Wunderlin RP; Hansen BF, 2008. Atlas of Florida Vascular Plants. Tampa, Florida, USA: University of South Florida. http://www.plantatlas.usf.edu/

Distribution References

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Vander Velde N, Vander Velde B, 2010. Survey of Invasive Plant Species and Other Plants of Mili Atoll, Marshall Islands., USDA Forest Resource Management Grant Program. 6 pp. + 23 pp.

Wagner WL, Herbst DR, Sohmer SH, 1999. Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawaii, Revised ed., Honolulu, USA: University of Hawaii Press.

Whistler WA, 1996. Botanical survey of Diego Garcia, Chagos Archipelago, British Indian Ocean Territory., Isle Botanica. 49 pp. http://www.zianet.com/tedmorris/dg/2005NRMP-Appendixe-botanicalsurvey.pdf

Wunderlin RP, Hansen BF, 2008. Atlas of Florida Vascular Plants., Tampa, Florida, USA: University of South Florida. http://www.plantatlas.usf.edu/

Links to Websites

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Website	URL	Comment
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway	https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6	Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list.

Contributors

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05/02/15 Original text by:

Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA

Pedro Acevedo-Rodríguez, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA

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Turnera ulmifolia (West Indian holly)

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