Turnera ulmifolia
(West Indian holly)

Pictures

Picture	Title	Caption	Copyright
Title Habit Caption Turnera ulmifolia (West Indian holly); habit. Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge, Florida, USA. September, 2009. Copyright ©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0	Habit	Turnera ulmifolia (West Indian holly); habit. Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge, Florida, USA. September, 2009.	©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0
Title Habit Caption Turnera ulmifolia (West Indian holly); flowering habit. Kahului, Maui, Hawaii, USA. August, 2009. Copyright ©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0	Habit	Turnera ulmifolia (West Indian holly); flowering habit. Kahului, Maui, Hawaii, USA. August, 2009.	©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0
Title Habit Caption Turnera ulmifolia (West Indian holly); habit. Moomomi, Molokai, Hawaii, USAi. May, 2005. Copyright ©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0	Habit	Turnera ulmifolia (West Indian holly); habit. Moomomi, Molokai, Hawaii, USAi. May, 2005.	©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0
Title Leaves and flower Caption Turnera ulmifolia (West Indian holly); leaves and flower, KiHana Nursery Kihei, Maui, Hawaii, USA. February, 2011. Copyright ©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0	Leaves and flower	Turnera ulmifolia (West Indian holly); leaves and flower, KiHana Nursery Kihei, Maui, Hawaii, USA. February, 2011.	©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0

Identity

Preferred Scientific Name

• Turnera ulmifolia L.

Preferred Common Name

• West Indian holly

Other Scientific Names

• Turnera alba Liebm.
• Turnera ulmifolia var. angustifolia L. (Mill.) DC.
• Turnera ulmifolia var. ulmifolia
• Turnera ulmifolia var. velutina (C. Presl) Urb.
• Turnera ulmifolia. var. intermedia L. Urb.

International Common Names

• English: buttercup flower; false damiana; sage rose; sage-rose; yellow alder; yellow buttercups; yellow elder
• Spanish: clavel de oro; damiana; escoba amarilla; escobillo; malva cimarrona; marilópez; oreja de coyote (Mexico)
• French: du thym; marilope; marilope du thym; thym à feuilles d’orme; thym des savanes; thym marron
• Portuguese: albina; chanana; flor-do-guaruj

Local Common Names

• Brazil: chanana; relogio
• Cuba: mari-lope
• Dominican Republic: alo; marilópez
• Germany: Turnera, Ulmenblättrige
• Haiti: thym à feuilles d’orme; zombi nan bois
• India: Cuban buttercup
• Jamaica: ram-goat dashalong
• Mexico: caléndula
• Puerto Rico: mari López
• USA: gujg

EPPO code

• TURUL (Turnera ulmifolia)

Summary of Invasiveness

T. ulmifolia is a small herb or sub-shrub with a wide geographic distribution. This species has been frequently introduced to be used as an ornamental and medicinal herb. It has escaped from cultivation, becoming widely naturalized in tropical and subtropical regions where it grows as a weed (Smith, 1981; Barrett and Shore; 1987; Wagner et al., 1999). T. ulmifolia appears to be adaptable to a great variety of soil and environmental conditions and this adaptability may explain its success in colonizing new habitats (Gilman, 2011). Currently, it is listed as invasive in Australia, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, and on several islands in the Pacific Ocean (Chong et al., 2009; Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 2011; PIER, 2014; Rojas-Sandoval and Acevedo-Rodriguez, 2014). Invasiveness in T.ulmifolia is mostly explained by the continuous year-round flowering that gives its populations a high reproductive capacity. Seed dispersal in this species is by ants which transport seeds relatively short distances. This local seed dispersion favours the establishment of dense populations and increases the likelihood of seed set in this species (Barrett, 1978; Barrett and Shore, 1987). 

Taxonomic Tree

• Domain: Eukaryota
•     Kingdom: Plantae
•         Phylum: Spermatophyta
•             Subphylum: Angiospermae
•                 Class: Dicotyledonae
•                     Order: Violales
•                         Family: Turneraceae
•                             Genus: Turnera
•                                 Species: Turnera ulmifolia

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Turneraceae is a family of flowering plants consisting of just over 200 species in 10 genera. The Cronquist system placed the Turneracids in the order Violales, but this is not currently recognized as a valid family by the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group in the APG III system of 2009, which includes the taxa in the Turneraceae in a widely circumscribed Passifloraceae. The taxonomic tree in this datasheet reflects the CAB Thesaurus, which currently uses the Cronquist system.

The bulk of the species in the Turneraceae occur in just two genera: Turnera with approximately 143 species and Piriquetia with 44 species (Shore et al., 2006). Turnera ulmifolia is a polymorphic polyploid complex of herbaceous, perennial weeds, exhibiting two contrasting patterns of floral morphology, where populations are either dimorphic or monomorphic for a range of floral traits (i.e., style length, stamen height, pollen size; Barrett and Shore, 1987; Cuautle and Rico-Gray, 2003).

Description

T. ulmifolia is a shrubby or herbaceous perennial, up to 1.2 m tall, with aromatic and densely strigose foliage. Leaves clustered toward the tips of the branches, lanceolate to oblong-lanceolate or narrowly elliptic, 4-1× 2-3 (-5) cm, moderately to occasionally sparsely strigillose, margins doubly serrate, petioles 0.8-1.5 cm long, stipules erect, triangular, approximately 1.5 mm long. Calyx approximately 20 mm long, the tube 5-8 mm long, the lobes lanceolate, apex caudate; petals yellow, sometimes with a brown spot toward base, obovate, 20-35 mm long; ovary ovoid, with 6 small apical tubercles. Capsules ovoid, 7-8 mm long. Seeds narrowly obovoid, slightly curved, about 2.5 mm long (Liogier, 1997; Wagner et al., 1999).

Plant Type

Distribution

T. ulmifolia is native to Mexico, Central America and several islands in the West Indies. It is widely naturalized in Australia, South America, Indonesia, Malaysia, Madagascar, and Oceania (e.g. Fiji, Hawaii, Kiribati, the Marshall Islands, New Caledonia and Palau; see distribution table for details; Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 2011; Broome et al., 2007; PIER, 2014; USDA-ARS, 2014). 

Distribution Table

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

History of Introduction and Spread

T. ulmifolia has been widely introduced to be used as an ornamental and medicinal herb. In Puerto Rico, this species was first reported in 1881 (Bello, 1881). In the Virgin Islands it was first collected in 1882 on the island of St Thomas (US National Herbarium). By 1948, it has been reported as “abundant” in Malaysia and Indonesia (Steenis, 1948-1954). T. ulmifolia has been reported as an environmental weed becoming widely naturalized in northern Australia, Western Australia, the Northern Territory, and northern Queensland (Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 2011). 

Habitat

T. ulmifolia grows in coastal areas, sandy fields, roadsides, disturbed sites and abandoned farms (PROTA, 2014). In Hawaii, it has naturalized in dry, disturbed areas, from 30-190 m (Wagner et al., 1999). In Fiji, it is locally abundant and can be found naturalized especially in coconut plantations near sea level (Smith, 1981). In Indonesia, it grows in sunny dry localities, at elevation from 1-20 m, especially in the coastal zone under coconuts (Steenis, 1948-1954). In Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, it grows in coastal areas, sandy fields, hillsides and waste ground at lower and middle elevations (Liogier, 1997). 

Habitat List

Biology and Ecology

Genetics

T. ulmifolia constitutes a polyploid complex with allopolyploid and autopolyploid species ranging from 2x to 8x (López et al., 2011).

Reproductive Biology

Two contrasting patterns of floral morphology have been reported for T. ulmifolia populations. Populations are either dimorphic or monomorphic for a range of floral traits (i.e., style length, stamen height, and pollen size) associated with the breeding system. Dimorphic populations exhibit typical features of the distylous genetic polymorphism with strong self-incompatibility and a 1:1 ratio of the long- and short-styled morphs (Barrett, 1978). Monomorphic populations are self-compatible with long styles and a range of stamen heights (Barrett and Shore, 1987).

Phenology

T. ulmifolia produces flowers and fruits all year round (Montano et al., 2011). In Mexico, a reproductive peak occurs during the summer (Torres-Hernández et al., 2000). This species has extrafloral nectaries which are frequently visited by ants (Camponotus planatus, C. atriceps, Conomyrma sp., Crematogaster crinosa, Forelius sp., Pseudomyrmex sp.), wasps (Polistes instabilis and Polybia occidentalis) and honeybees (Apis mellifera) which forage looking for the nectar produced (Cuautle and Rico-Gray, 2003).

Environmental Requirements

T. ulmifolia grows in areas with full sun or partial shade. This species is well-adapted to a variety of soil conditions including alkaline pH and dry sites. Freezing temperatures kill plants to the ground, but warm spring weather brings them back to life (Gilman, 2011).

Climate

Air Temperature

Rainfall

Rainfall Regime

Soil Tolerances

Soil drainage

• free

Soil reaction

• acid
• neutral

Notes on Natural Enemies

White flies are often found on the foliage of T. ulmifolia and severe infestations of these insects can injure the plants. Aphids and scales can also infest the foliage, but they are usually not too serious (Gilman, 2011). The main leaf herbivore is the caterpillar Euptoieta hegesia (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae). This herbivore is most active from June to August, although it can be found year round (Cuautle and Rico-Gray, 2003).

Means of Movement and Dispersal

T. ulmifolia spreads by seeds, which are dispersed by ants. These insects transport seeds relatively short distances from maternal plants, favouring the establishment of dense populations (Barrett, 1978; Barrett and Shore, 1987; Staples et al, 2000).

Pathway Causes

Pathway Vectors

Impact Summary

Environmental Impact

T. ulmifolia is a weed that has escaped from cultivation and has become widely naturalized in tropical and subtropical regions of the world (Smith, 1981; Barrett and Shore; 1987; Wagner et al., 1999). This species has the potential to grow forming dense mono-specific thickets and monopolizing resources principally in coastal areas (PIER, 2014).  

Risk and Impact Factors

• Proved invasive outside its native range
• Has a broad native range
• Abundant in its native range
• Is a habitat generalist
• Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
• Pioneering in disturbed areas
• Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
• Long lived
• Fast growing
• Has high reproductive potential
• Gregarious

• Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
• Modification of successional patterns
• Monoculture formation
• Reduced native biodiversity
• Threat to/ loss of native species

• Competition - monopolizing resources
• Competition - smothering
• Rapid growth

• Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately

Uses

T. ulmifolia is grown as ornamental for its showy yellow flowers that blossom year-round (Montano et al., 2011). Plants are also used as border plants and ground cover (Lorenzi, 2008). A tea made from leaves of this species is used in traditional medicine in South America and the West Indies to treat gastrointestinal problems (constipation, diarrhea), colds and flu, and circulatory problems (heart palpitations), menstrual spasms, and dermatological issues (Gracioso et al., 2002, Montana et al., 2011; USDA-ARS, 2014). 

Uses List

Environmental

• Amenity

Medicinal, pharmaceutical

• Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
• Traditional/folklore

Ornamental

• Potted plant
• Propagation material
• Seed trade

References

Acevedo-Rodríguez P; Strong MT, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, 98:1192 pp. Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm

Barrett SCH, 1978. Heterostyly in a tropical weed: the reproductive biology of the Turnera ulmifolia complex (Turneraceae). Canadian Journal of Botany, 56(15):1713-1725.

Barrett SCH; Shore JS, 1987. Variation and evolution of breeding systems in the Turnera ulmifolia L. complex (Turneraceae). Evolution, 41:340-354.

Bello Espinosa D, 1881. [English title not available]. (Apuntes para la flora de Puerto Rico. Primera parte.) Anal. Soc. Española de Hist. Nat, 10:231-304.

Broome R; Sabir K; Carrington S, 2007. Plants of the Eastern Caribbean. Online database. Barbados: University of the West Indies. http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/index.html

Charles Darwin Foundation, 2008. Database inventory of introduced plant species in the rural and urban zones of Galapagos. Database inventory of introduced plant species in the rural and urban zones of Galapagos. Galapagos, Ecuador: Charles Darwin Foundation, unpaginated.

Chong KY; Tan HTW; Corlett RT, 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species. Singapore: Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore, 273 pp. http://lkcnhm.nus.edu.sg/nus/pdf/PUBLICATION/LKCNH%20Museum%20Books/LKCNHM%20Books/flora_of_singapore_tc.pdf

Cuautle M; Rico-Gray V, 2003. The effect of wasps and ants on the reproductive success of the extrafloral nectaried plant Turnera ulmifolia (Turneraceae). Functional Ecology, 17(3):417-423.

Florence J; Chevillotte H; Ollier C; Meyer J-Y, 2013. Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP) (Botanical database of the Nadeaud Herbarium of French Polynesia). http://www.herbier-tahiti.pf

Fosberg FR, 1983. Natural history of Cousin Island. In: Floristics and ecology of Western Indian Ocean islands. Atoll Research Bulletin, 273:253 pp.

Gilman EF, 2011. Turnera ulmifolia. Yellow Alder, Yellow Elder. Document FPS-593., USA: Environmental Horticulture, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu

Gracioso Jde S; Vilegas W; Hiruma-Lima CA; Brito ARMS, 2002. Effects of tea from Turnera ulmifolia L. on mouse gastric mucosa support the turneraceae as a new source of antiulcerogenic drugs. Biological & Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 25(4):487-491.

Graveson R, 2012. The Plants of Saint Lucia (in the Lesser Antilles of the Caribbean). The Plants of Saint Lucia (in the Lesser Antilles of the Caribbean). http://www.saintlucianplants.com

Grosse A, 1996. Flora and Fauna Catalog of Introduced Paraguay species. I3N - IABIN Invasive Information Network.

Herrera K; Lorence DH; Flynn T; Balick MJ, 2010. Checklist of the vascular plants of Pohnpei with local names and uses. Lawai, Hawaii, USA: National Tropical Botanical Garden, 146 pp.

India Biodiversity, 2014. Online Portal of India Biodiversity. http://indiabiodiversity.org/species/list

Liogier AH, 1997. Descriptive flora of Puerto Rico and adjacent islands. San Juan, Puerto Rico: University of Puerto Rico.

López A; Panseri AF; Poggio L; Fernández A, 2011. Nuclear DNA content in the polyploid complex Turnera ulmifolia (Turnera L., Passifloraceae). Plant Systematics and Evolution, 296(3/4):225-230. http://www.springerlink.com/content/8v670768g24m1250/

Lorenzi H, 2008. Plantas ornamentais no Brasil: arbustivas, herbáceas e trepadeiras ([English title not available]). Nova Odessa, Brazil: Instituto Plantarum.

MacKee HS, 1994. Catalogue of introduced and cultivated plants in New Caledonia. (Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie.) Paris, France: Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, unpaginated.

Madagascar Catalogue, 2014. Catalogue of the Vascular Plants of Madagascar. St. Louis, Missouri, USA and Antananarivo, Madagascar: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/project/mada

Meyer JY, 2000. Preliminary review of the invasive plants in the Pacific Islands (SPREP member countries). In: Invasive species in the Pacific: A technical review and draft regional strategy [ed. by Sherley G]. Samoa: South Pacific Regional Environment Programme, 190 pp.

Meyer JY, 2007. Rapport de mission sur l'Ile d'Uvea (Wallis & Futuna) du 6 au 17 Novembre 2007: Inventaire preliminaire de la flore vasculaire secondaire ([English title not available]). Papeete, Tahiti: Ministère de l'Education, l'Enseignement Supérieur et la Recherche, 39 pp. http://www.li-an.fr/jyves/Meyer_2007_Rapport_Plantes_Introduites_Wallis.pdf

Meyer JY, 2008. Report of the expert mission to Rapa Nui, 2-11 June 2008. Strategic action plan to control invasive alien plants on Rapa Nui (Easter Island) (Rapport de mission d'expertise a Rapa Nui du 02 au 11 Juin 2008: Plan d'action strategique pour lutter contre les plantes introduites envahissantes sur Rapa Nui (Île de pâques)). Papeete, Tahiti: Délégation à la Recherche, Ministère de l'Education, l'Enseignement supérieur et la Recherche, 62 pp. http://www.li-an.fr/jyves/Meyer_2008_Rapport_Expertise_Rapa_Nui.pdf

Missouri Botanical Garden, 2014. Tropicos database. St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/

Montano HG; Contaldo N; Pimentel JP; Cunha JJO; Paltrinieri S; Bertaccini A; Maini S, 2011. Turnera ulmifolia, a new phytoplasmas host species. Bulletin of Insectology, 64:S99-S100.

Orchard AE, 1993. Flora of Australia. Vol. 50, Oceanic islands 2. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service.

PIER, 2014. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html

PROTA, 2014. PROTA4U web database. Grubben GJH, Denton OA, eds. Wageningen, Netherlands: Plant Resources of Tropical Africa. http://www.prota4u.org/search.asp

Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 2011. Special edition of Environmental Weeds of Australia for Biosecurity Queensland., Australia: The University of Queensland and Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries. http://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/03030800-0b07-490a-8d04-0605030c0f01/media/Html/Index.htm

Reddy CS, 2008. Catalogue of invasive alien flora of India. Life Science Journal, 5:84-89.

Rojas-Sandoval J; Acevedo-Rodríguez P, 2014. Naturalization and invasion of alien plants in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Biological Invasions. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10530-014-0712-3

Shore JS; Arbo MM; Fernández A, 2006. Breeding system variation, genetics and evolution in the Turneraceae. New Phytologist, 171(3):539-551. http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2006.01807.x

Smith AC, 1981. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji (spermatophytes only). Volume 2. 1981, 818 pp.; many pl. (8 col.).

Space JC; Imada CT, 2004. Report to the Republic of Kiribati on invasive plant species on the islands of Tarawa, Abemama, Butaritari and Maiana. Cont. no. 2003-006 to the Pac. Biol. Surv. USDA Forest Service and Bishop Museum, Honolulu.

Space JC; Lorence DH; LaRosa AM, 2009. Report to the Republic of Palau: 2008 update on Invasive Plant Species. Hilo, Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service, 227. http://www.sprep.org/att/irc/ecopies/countries/palau/48.pdf

Staples GW; Herbst D; Imada CT, 2000. Survey of invasive or potentially invasive cultivated plants in Hawaii. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers, 65:35 pp.

Steenis CGJJvan, 1948-1954. Flora Malesiana, Series I. Noordhoff-Kolff, Djakarta. 1948-1954, 14 volumes., Indonesia: Ministry of Agriculture. http://www.archive.org/search.php?query=Flora%20Malesiana

Stevens PF, 2012. Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/

Swarbrick JT, 1997. Environmental weeds and exotic plants on Christmas Island, Indian Ocean. Report to Parks Australia. J.T. Swarbrick, Weed Science Consultancy, 131 pp.

Torres-Hernández L; Rico-Gray V; Castillo-Guevara C; Vergara JA, 2000. Effect of nectar-foraging ants and wasps on the reproductive fitness of Turnera ulmifolia (Turneraceae) in a coastal sand dune in Mexico. Acta Zoologica Mexicana, No.81:13-21.

USDA-ARS, 2014. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx

USDA-NRCS, 2014. The PLANTS Database. Baton Rouge, USA: National Plant Data Center. http://plants.usda.gov/

Vander Velde N; Vander Velde B, 2010. Survey of Invasive Plant Species and Other Plants of Mili Atoll, Marshall Islands. Unpublished report. USDA Forest Resource Management Grant Program, 6 pp + 23 pp.

Wagner WL; Herbst DR; Sohmer SH, 1999. Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawaii, Revised ed. Honolulu, USA: University of Hawaii Press.

Whistler WA, 1996. Botanical survey of Diego Garcia, Chagos Archipelago, British Indian Ocean Territory. Isle Botanica (online), 49 pp. http://www.zianet.com/tedmorris/dg/2005NRMP-Appendixe-botanicalsurvey.pdf

Wunderlin RP; Hansen BF, 2008. Atlas of Florida Vascular Plants. Tampa, Florida, USA: University of South Florida. http://www.plantatlas.usf.edu/

Distribution References

Acevedo-Rodríguez P, Strong M T, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Washington, DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. 1192 pp. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm

Broome R, Sabir K, Carrington S, 2007. Plants of the Eastern Caribbean., Barbados: University of the West Indies. http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/index.html

CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI

CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI

CABI, Undated b. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI

Charles Darwin Foundation, 2008. Database inventory of introduced plant species in the rural and urban zones of Galapagos. In: Database inventory of introduced plant species in the rural and urban zones of Galapagos, Galapagos, Ecuador: Charles Darwin Foundation. unpaginated.

Chong K Y, Tan H T W, Corlett R T, 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species. Singapore: Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore. 273 pp. https://lkcnhm.nus.edu.sg/app/uploads/2017/04/flora_of_singapore_tc.pdf

Florence J, Chevillotte H, Ollier C, Meyer J-Y, 2013. Nadeaud botanical database of the Herbarium of French Polynesia. (Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP))., https://nadeaud.ilm.pf/

Fosberg FR, 1983. Natural history of Cousin Island. In: Floristics and ecology of Western Indian Ocean islands. Atoll Research Bulletin, 273 253 pp.

Gracioso J de S, Vilegas W, Hiruma-Lima C A, Brito A R M S, 2002. Effects of tea from Turnera ulmifolia L. on mouse gastric mucosa support the turneraceae as a new source of antiulcerogenic drugs. Biological & Pharmaceutical Bulletin. 25 (4), 487-491. DOI:10.1248/bpb.25.487

Graveson R, 2012. The Plants of Saint Lucia (in the Lesser Antilles of the Caribbean)., http://www.saintlucianplants.com

Grosse A, 1996. Flora and Fauna Catalog of Introduced Paraguay species. In: I3N - IABIN Invasive Information Network,

Herrera K, Lorence DH, Flynn T, Balick MJ, 2010. Checklist of the vascular plants of Pohnpei with local names and uses., Lawai, Hawaii, USA: National Tropical Botanical Garden. 146 pp.

India Biodiversity, 2014. Online Portal of India Biodiversity., http://indiabiodiversity.org/species/list

MacKee H S, 1994. Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Paris, France: Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle. unpaginated.

Madagascar Catalogue, 2014. Catalogue of the Vascular Plants of Madagascar., St. Louis, Missouri and Antananarivo, USA, Madagascar: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/project/mada

Meyer J Y, 2000. Preliminary review of the invasive plants in the Pacific Islands (SPREP member countries). In: Invasive species in the Pacific: A technical review and draft regional strategy. [ed. by Sherley G]. Samoa: South Pacific Regional Environment Programme. 190 pp.

Meyer JY, 2007. (Rapport de mission sur l'Ile d'Uvea (Wallis & Futuna) du 6 au 17 Novembre 2007: Inventaire preliminaire de la flore vasculaire secondaire ([English title not available]))., Papeete, Tahiti, French Polynesia: Ministère de l'Education, l'Enseignement Supérieur et la Recherche. 39 pp. http://www.li-an.fr/jyves/Meyer_2007_Rapport_Plantes_Introduites_Wallis.pdf

Meyer JY, 2008. Report of the expert mission to Rapa Nui, 2-11 June 2008. Strategic action plan to control invasive alien plants on Rapa Nui (Easter Island). ((Rapport de mission d'expertise a Rapa Nui du 02 au 11 Juin 2008: Plan d'action strategique pour lutter contre les plantes introduites envahissantes sur Rapa Nui (Île de pâques)))., Papeete, Tahiti, Délégation à la Recherche, Ministère de l'Education, l'Enseignement supérieur et la Recherche. 62 pp. http://www.li-an.fr/jyves/Meyer_2008_Rapport_Expertise_Rapa_Nui.pdf

Missouri Botanical Garden, 2014. Tropicos database., St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/

Orchard AE, 1993. Flora of Australia. In: Oceanic islands 2, 50 Canberra, Australian Government Publishing Service.

PIER, 2014. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk., Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html

PROTA, 2014. PROTA4U web database., [ed. by Grubben GJH, Denton OA]. Wageningen, Netherlands: Plant Resources of Tropical Africa. http://www.prota4u.org/search.asp

Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 2011. Special edition of Environmental Weeds of Australia for Biosecurity Queensland., Australia: The University of Queensland and Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries. http://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/03030800-0b07-490a-8d04-0605030c0f01/media/Html/Index.htm

Reddy CS, 2008. Catalogue of invasive alien flora of India. In: Life Science Journal, 5 84-89.

Rojas-Sandoval J, Acevedo-Rodríguez P, 2014. Naturalization and invasion of alien plants in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. In: Biological Invasions, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10530-014-0712-3

Smith A C, 1981. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji (spermatophytes only). Volume 2. In: Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji (spermatophytes only). Volume 2. Kauai, Hawaii, USA: Pacific Tropical Botanical Garden. 818 pp.

Space JC, Imada CT, 2004. Report to the Republic of Kiribati on invasive plant species on the islands of Tarawa, Abemama, Butaritari and Maiana. In: Cont. no. 2003-006 to the Pac. Biol. Surv, Honolulu, USDA Forest Service and Bishop Museum.

Space JC, Lorence DH, LaRosa AM, 2009. Report to the Republic of Palau: 2008 update on Invasive Plant Species., Hilo, Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service. 227. http://www.sprep.org/att/irc/ecopies/countries/palau/48.pdf

Swarbrick JT, 1997. Environmental weeds and exotic plants on Christmas Island, Indian Ocean. Report to Parks Australia. In: Weed Science Consultancy, [ed. by Swarbrick JT]. 131 pp.

USDA-ARS, 2014. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx

USDA-NRCS, 2014. The PLANTS Database. Greensboro, North Carolina, USA: National Plant Data Team. https://plants.sc.egov.usda.gov

Vander Velde N, Vander Velde B, 2010. Survey of Invasive Plant Species and Other Plants of Mili Atoll, Marshall Islands., USDA Forest Resource Management Grant Program. 6 pp. + 23 pp.

Wagner WL, Herbst DR, Sohmer SH, 1999. Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawaii, Revised ed., Honolulu, USA: University of Hawaii Press.

Whistler WA, 1996. Botanical survey of Diego Garcia, Chagos Archipelago, British Indian Ocean Territory., Isle Botanica. 49 pp. http://www.zianet.com/tedmorris/dg/2005NRMP-Appendixe-botanicalsurvey.pdf

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Links to Websites

Contributors

05/02/15 Original text by:

Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA

Pedro Acevedo-Rodríguez, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA

Distribution Maps