Trialeurodes ricini (castor bean whitefly)

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Trialeurodes ricini (Misra)

Preferred Common Name

castor bean whitefly

Other Scientific Names

Aleyrodes ricini Misra
Trialeurodes desmodii Corbett
Trialeurodes lubia El Khidir & Khalifa
Trialeurodes rara Singh

International Common Names

English: castor whitefly

Local Common Names

India: castor mealy wing

EPPO code

TRIADE (Trialeurodes rara)
TRIARI (Trialeurodes ricini)

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Metazoa
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: Uniramia
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Sternorrhyncha
Unknown: Aleyrodoidea
Family: Aleyrodidae
Genus: Trialeurodes
Species: Trialeurodes ricini

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

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This whitefly was first fully described from specimens on Ricinus communis (castor bean) in India (Misra, 1924), although by then it had already been known for some years. The generic and specific classification of whiteflies is usually based upon pupal morphology. However, the morphology of the pupal stage can vary according to the host, hence this is a phenotypically variable species. Molecular studies are required to assist in clarifying the systematics of the group.

The taxonomic relationship between Trialeurodes ricini and Trialeurodes lauri was recently investigated using morphological and molecular data (Malumphy et al., 2007) . Molecular evidence, based on the sequence of a fragment of the COI gene, supported the hypothesis that T. ricini and T. lauri are distinct valid species.

Description

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Egg

Whitish-green with a smooth surface; oblong; approximately 0.2 mm long and 0.08 mm wide at the widest point; tapering at one end.

Larva

Greenish-yellow with red eyes; elliptical. The first-instar larvae are approximately 0.26 mm long by 0.13 mm wide, and slightly convex with a waxy fringe. The second-instar larvae are approximately 0.33 mm to 0.41 mm long and 0.19 mm to 0.25 mm wide, with a narrow waxy band. The third-instars are 0.48 mm to 0.51 mm long and 0.30 mm to 0.38 mm wide.

Fourth-Instar/Pupa

Yellow with red eyes; white waxy filaments at the margins; elliptical, thin and flat, but becoming thicker after 3 or 4 days. The female pupae are approximately 0.67 mm to 0.75 mm long and 0.39 mm to 0.60 mm wide. The males are much smaller: between 0.57 mm and 0.66 mm long, and 0.31 mm to 0.43 mm wide. The physical characteristics of the host leaf surface induce variation in the morphology of the puparia.

Shishehbor (1994) provides illustrations of the first-, second- and third-instar larvae, as well as the pupa.

Adult

Bright-yellow to cream body, with white legs and wings. At rest the wings are held 'tent-like', at an angle over the body.

Distribution

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T. ricini is widely distributed within Africa, the Middle East and Asia. T. ricini has been intercepted by the National Plant Protection Organisation of the UK on plant material from Cameroon (EPPO, 2000).

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 12 May 2022

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	Invasive	Reference	Notes
Africa
Cameroon	Absent, Unconfirmed presence record(s)			EPPO (2022)
Central African Republic	Present			EPPO (2022)
Chad	Present	Native		Martin (1987) EPPO (2022)
Congo, Democratic Republic of the	Present			EPPO (2022)
Côte d'Ivoire	Present	Native		Lourens et al. (1972) Martin (1987) Martin et al. (2000) EPPO (2022)
Egypt	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Martin (1987) Idriss et al. (1997) Abd-Rabou (1999) Martin et al. (2000) EPPO (2022)
Kenya	Present	Native		Martin (1987) Martin et al. (2000) EPPO (2022)
Madagascar	Present			EPPO (2022)
Malawi	Present	Native		Martin (1987) Martin et al. (2000) EPPO (2022)
Mali	Present			EPPO (2022) Muniappan et al. (2012)
Nigeria	Present	Native		Mound and Halsey (1978) Martin (1987) Martin et al. (2000) Oyelade and Ayansola (2015) EPPO (2022)
Senegal	Present			Muniappan et al. (2012)
Sierra Leone	Present	Native		Corbett (1935) Martin et al. (2000) EPPO (2022)
Sudan	Present	Native		Mound and Halsey (1978) Martin (1987) Martin et al. (2000) EPPO (2022) CABI (Undated)
Uganda	Present	Native		Martin (1987) Martin et al. (2000) EPPO (2022)
Zimbabwe	Present			EPPO (2022)
Asia
Brunei	Present	Native		Martin et al. (2000) EPPO (2022)
Cambodia	Present			Waterhouse (1993)
China	Present			CABI (Undated a) EPPO (2022)	Present based on regional distribution.
Hong Kong	Present	Native		Martin et al. (2000) EPPO (2022)
India	Present	Native		Misra (1924) Srivastava et al. (1972) Mound and Halsey (1978) Martin et al. (2000) EPPO (2022)
-Gujarat	Present			EPPO (2022)
-Manipur	Present			Sarma et al. (2005)
-Tamil Nadu	Present			EPPO (2022)
-Uttar Pradesh	Present			EPPO (2022)
Iran	Present	Native		Farahbakhsh (1961) Mound and Halsey (1978) Shishehbor and Brennan (1995) Martin et al. (2000) EPPO (2022)
Iraq	Present	Native		Mound and Halsey (1978) Martin (1987) Martin et al. (2000) EPPO (2022)
Israel	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Mound and Halsey (1978) Martin (1987) EPPO (2022)
Malaysia	Present	Native		Mound and Halsey (1978) Martin (1987) EPPO (2022)
-Peninsular Malaysia	Present			EPPO (2022)
Myanmar	Present			Waterhouse (1993)
Pakistan	Present	Native		Martin (1987) Martin et al. (2000) Muhammad Tayyib et al. (2014) EPPO (2022)
Philippines	Present	Native		Martin (1987) Martin et al. (2000) EPPO (2022)
Saudi Arabia	Present	Native		Mound and Halsey (1978) Martin (1987) Martin et al. (2000) EPPO (2022)
Singapore	Present, Widespread			AVA (2001)
Thailand	Present	Native		Martin (1987) Waterhouse (1993) Martin et al. (2000) EPPO (2022)
Turkey	Absent, Unconfirmed presence record(s)			EPPO (2022)
Yemen	Present			Abdullah and Martin (2007)
Europe
Netherlands	Absent, Confirmed absent by survey			EPPO (2022)
Spain	Present, Localized			EPPO (2022)
-Canary Islands	Present, Localized	Introduced	Invasive	Anon (2000) Martin et al. (2000) EPPO (2022)
United Kingdom	Absent, Intercepted only			EPPO (2000)

Risk of Introduction

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T. ricini was added to the Alert List of the European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organisation (EPPO) in April 2000 as a result of its spread and establishment in the Canary Isles (Anon., 2000). This organism presents a risk mainly to tropical and sub-tropical regions. In warm countries, where this organism does not occur, the outdoor cultivation of crops such as castor bean (Ricinus communis), cotton (Gossypium spp.), pumpkin (Cucurbita spp.), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), potato (Solanum tuberosum), melon (Cucumis melo) and French beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) are primarily at risk. Although it has not been reported from protected cultivation, this organism could be a threat to crops such as cucumbers (Cucumis sativus), tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum), and aubergines (Solanum melongena) grown in heated glasshouses in cooler countries.

Habitat

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T. ricini is most commonly recorded from managed crop habitats, usually being recorded on castor (Ricinus communis).

Hosts/Species Affected

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T. ricini is highly polyphagous, and feeds on hosts in at least thirteen plant families. The complete range of hosts could be greater than that provided in this datasheet, because T. ricini may be able to adapt to feed on other hosts as it expands its geographic distribution.

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

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Plant name	Family	Context	References
Annona glabra (pond apple)	Annonaceae	Wild host
Arbutus	Ericaceae	Other
Aristolochia bracteata (wormkiller)		Other
Bauhinia (camel's foot)	Fabaceae	Other
Begonia	Begoniaceae	Other
Boscia senegalensis	Capparaceae	Other
Breynia	Euphorbiaceae	Other
Breynia rhamnoides		Other
Calopogonium	Fabaceae	Other
Canavalia rosea		Wild host
Carica papaya (pawpaw)	Caricaceae	Unknown	Stansly and McKenzie (2008)
Cichorium endivia (endives)	Asteraceae	Wild host
Cissampelos owariensis	Menispermaceae	Wild host
Corchorus (jutes)	Tiliaceae	Other
Cosmos bipinnatus (garden cosmos)	Asteraceae	Wild host
Cucumis sativus (cucumber)	Cucurbitaceae	Other
Cucurbita maxima (giant pumpkin)	Cucurbitaceae	Unknown	Shishehbor and Brennan (1995)
Cucurbita pepo (marrow)	Cucurbitaceae	Other
Dalbergia sissoo	Fabaceae	Other
Desmodium leiocarpum	Fabaceae	Wild host
Euphorbia (spurges)	Euphorbiaceae	Other
Euphorbia heterophylla (wild poinsettia)	Euphorbiaceae	Other
Euphorbia hirta (garden spurge)	Euphorbiaceae	Other
Gardenia erubescens		Other
Gardenia jovis-tonantis		Other
Gardenia ternifolia	Rubiaceae	Other
Gossypium hirsutum (Bourbon cotton)	Malvaceae	Unknown	Shishehbor and Brennan (1995)
Ipomoea batatas (sweet potato)	Convolvulaceae	Other	Stansly and McKenzie (2008)
Lablab purpureus (hyacinth bean)	Fabaceae	Other
Manihot esculenta (cassava)	Euphorbiaceae	Other
Manilkara zapota (sapodilla)	Sapotaceae	Other
Morelia senegalensis	Rubiaceae	Wild host
Moringa oleifera (horse radish tree)	Moringaceae	Other
Murraya koenigii (curry leaf tree)	Rutaceae	Other
Peltophorum pterocarpum (copperpod)	Fabaceae	Wild host
Phaseolus vulgaris (common bean)	Fabaceae	Other
Phyllanthus	Euphorbiaceae	Other
Phyllanthus acidus (star gooseberry)	Euphorbiaceae	Other
Phyllanthus amarus (jamaicaweed)		Other
Piper umbellatum	Piperaceae	Wild host
Psidium (guava)	Lithomyrtus	Other
Psidium guajava (guava)	Lithomyrtus	Other
Ricinus communis (castor bean)	Euphorbiaceae	Main	Stansly and McKenzie (2008); Abdullah and Martin (2007); Malumphy et al. (2009); Shishehbor and Brennan (1995)
Rosa (roses)	Rosaceae	Other
Sesamum (Sesame)	Pedaliaceae	Other
Solanum lycopersicum (tomato)	Solanaceae	Other
Solanum melongena (aubergine)	Solanaceae	Other
Solanum tuberosum (potato)	Solanaceae	Other
Sonchus oleraceus (common sowthistle)	Asteraceae	Wild host
Telfairia	Cucurbitaceae	Unknown	Malumphy et al. (2009)
Ziziphus mauritiana (jujube)	Rhamnaceae	Other

Growth Stages

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Flowering stage, Fruiting stage, Vegetative growing stage

Symptoms

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Infested hosts may show symptoms such as honeydew deposits, leading to the development of sooty mould, and leaf browning and withering.

List of Symptoms/Signs

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Sign	Life Stages	Type
Leaves / honeydew or sooty mould
Leaves / wilting
Leaves / yellowed or dead
Whole plant / external feeding

Biology and Ecology

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As with other whitefly species, the eggs are laid on the under surface of leaves (Nair, 1986) and form small clusters. In India, the eggs can be found from the beginning of February (Misra, 1924). This is a pest with a high threshold temperature for development and the climate in India has an important influence on population development (David et al., 1973). The eggs require a minimum of 17°C for development. The optimum temperature for development is 30°C (Shishehbor and Brennan, 1995). After hatching, a first-instar larva, which is the only mobile juvenile stage, will walk a short distance to find a suitable feeding location on the underside of the leaf on which it hatched. The stylet mouthparts pierce plant tissue and the larva feeds by sucking phloem sap. The larva has four instars (Nair, 1986). The second-, third- and fourth-instars are sessile. The adults emerge from the final larval stage called the puparium. The adults are active during the day and become torpid during cold evenings (Nair, 1986). In northern India, this pest can be seen on leaves between February and November. From July to September, the life cycle in India is completed in 19 to 21 days (Nair, 1986). There are overlapping generations.

Shishehbor and Brennan (1996a) conducted laboratory studies and measured development time from egg to adult on five hosts at fluctuating temperatures (day 25°C, night 17°C). Development on aubergine (Solanum melongena) took 18 days from egg to adult with 72% survival; on cotton (Gossypium spp.) development took 18 days (68% survival); on French beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), 21 days (58% survival); on potato (Solanum tuberosum), 20 days (41% survival); and on pumpkin (Cucurbita spp.), 30 days (59% survival). During September, under field conditions in northern India, the life cycle is completed in 19 to 21 days (Nair, 1986). In the field, El Khidir and Khalifa (1962) noted that adults lay an average of 100 eggs. However, in laboratory trials at 20°C, the females laid an average of 183 eggs, at 25°C an average of 224 eggs were laid, at 30°C an average of 294 eggs were laid and at 35°C an average of 132 eggs were laid (Shishehbor and Brennan, 1996b). Such data suggest that population development is optimal at temperatures between 25 and 30°C.

Natural enemies

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Natural enemy	Type	Life stages
Aphytis proclia	Parasite	Arthropods\|Larvae
Campylomma diversicornis	Predator	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Chrysopa	Predator	Adults; Arthropods\|Larvae
Clitostethus arcuatus	Predator	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Encarsia formosa	Parasite	Arthropods\|Larvae
Encarsia inaron	Parasite	Arthropods\|Larvae
Encarsia lahorensis	Parasite	Arthropods\|Larvae
Encarsia meritoria	Parasite	Arthropods\|Larvae
Encarsia sophia	Parasite	Arthropods\|Larvae
Eretmocerus	Parasite	Arthropods\|Larvae
Eretmocerus mundus	Parasite	Arthropods\|Larvae
Eretmocerus trialeurodis	Parasite	Arthropods\|Larvae
Jauravia soror	Predator	Adults; Arthropods\|Larvae

Notes on Natural Enemies

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Encarsia formosa is a parasite of T. ricini, and may be used as a biological control agent (Shishehbor and Brennan, 1996c, d).

Means of Movement and Dispersal

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Natural Dispersal (Non-Biotic)

The adults are weak flyers and can disperse naturally.

Vector Transmission

T. ricini was not known to be a virus vector until Idriss et al. (1997) reported it as a vector of tomato yellow leaf curl virus (TYLCV) in Egypt. Idriss et al. (1997) reports that there are a number of biotypes, each of which is viruliferous. In a review of whitefly-transmitted viruses, Jones (2003) includes T. ricini as a vector of TYLCV, but points out that transmission studies in the UK have not confirmed that T. ricini is indeed a vector. Nelson et al. (2004) used a T. ricini population from the Canary Isles and conducted virus transmission experiments on beans, tomatoes and other hosts. Working with TYLCV and other viruses, they were not able to demonstrate virus transmission. There may be genetic differences between populations of T. ricini in Egypt and the Canary Isles causing differences in the ability to transmit viruses.

Agricultural Practices

The movement of infested plants or fruits can lead to long-distance spread.

Movement in Trade

The UK has found this pest during phytosanitary inspections of vegetables from Africa (Anon., 2003) indicating that this whitefly can spread in trade. Spread can occur via infected plants for planting, vegetables and fruits from countries where T. ricini is present. T. ricini has been found in the Canary Isles (Anon., 2000). Since there are strong transport and trading links between the Canary Isles and Spain and the rest of Europe, there is a good chance of further spread.

Plant Trade

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Plant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transport	Pest stages	Borne internally	Borne externally	Visibility of pest or symptoms
Leaves	arthropods/adults; arthropods/eggs; arthropods/larvae; arthropods/pupae		Yes	Pest or symptoms usually visible to the naked eye

Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport
Bark
Bulbs/Tubers/Corms/Rhizomes
Flowers/Inflorescences/Cones/Calyx
Fruits (inc. pods)
Growing medium accompanying plants
Roots
Seedlings/Micropropagated plants
Stems (above ground)/Shoots/Trunks/Branches
True seeds (inc. grain)
Wood

Wood Packaging

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Wood Packaging not known to carry the pest in trade/transport
Loose wood packing material
Non-wood
Processed or treated wood
Solid wood packing material with bark
Solid wood packing material without bark

Impact

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T. ricini is a serious pest of castor (Ricinus communis) in tropical regions of Africa and Asia (Mound and Halsey, 1978; Bink-Moenen, 1983; Vora et al., 1984; Abd-Rabou et al., 2000). It has been regarded as a minor pest in southern provinces of Iran (Farahbakhsh, 1961) and is a minor pest of hyacinth bean (Lablab purpureus) and sapodilla (Manilkara zapota) in India (Hill, 1983). The larvae and adults suck sap from lower leaf surfaces and the resulting honeydew deposits lead to the development of sooty moulds. Heavy infestations can produce a large amount of honeydew and sooty moulds can cause a significant reduction in photosynthesis, which reduces plant growth. Seed yield may be reduced in castor due to sooty moulds (Patel et al., 1986). An excessive loss of sap, due to heavy infestations, reduces host vigour.

Many field vegetable crops can also be attacked. In Egypt, T. ricini occurs in all governates on many different crops in huge numbers during the summer (Idriss et al., 1997) and, with other whitefly species, can cause heavy losses.

Detection and Inspection

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Hosts showing symptoms such as growth of sooty mould or leaf browning or withering should be inspected. The adults can be seen when they flutter from the underside of leaves when a plant is disturbed. The underside of leaves should be closely visually examined for immature life stages.

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

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It is difficult to identify this organism; it may be confused with the glasshouse whitefly, Trialeurodes vaporariorum. T. ricini may be the senior synonym of Trialeurodes lauri, a native Mediterranean species, present in France, Greece, Italy, Turkey and the former Yugoslavia (Martin et al., 2000).

Prevention and Control

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Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Given suitable conditions, populations can rapidly grow. In India, dimethoate and quinalphos, both at 0.05%, are recommended for controlling T. ricini on castor bean (Ricinus communis) (Patel et al., 1986). Spays should be applied carefully because individuals inhabit the underside of leaves, which can provide some protection from chemical spray treatments.

References

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Abd-Rabou S, 1999. New records on whiteflies in Egypt. Egyptian Journal of Agricultural Research, 77(3):1143-1146; 6 ref.

Abd-Rabou S; Hussein N; Sewify GH; Elnagar S, 2000. Seasonal abundance of the whitefly Trialeurodes ricini (Misra) (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) on some weeds and on castor plants in Qalyubia, Egypt. Bulletin of Faculty of Agriculture, University of Cairo, 51(4):501-510; 6 ref.

Abdullah NMM; Martin J, 2007. New record for four additional whiteflies species from Yemen. Arab Journal of Plant Protection, 25(1):33-34. http://www.asplantprotection.org/ASPP_Journal_Table.htm

Anon, 2000. Canary Islands results. European Whitefly Studies Network Newsletter, No. 3.

Anon, 2003. Plant Health Interception and Outbreak Chart 6 December 2003. Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. http://www.defra.gov.uk/planth/interc/6dec03.pdf.

AVA, 2001. Diagnostic records of the Plant Health Diagnostic Services, Plant Health Centre, Agri-food & Veterinary Authority, Singapore.

Bink-Moenen RM, 1983. Revision of the African whiteflies (Aleyrodidae), mainly based on a collection from Tchad. Revision of the African whiteflies (Aleyrodidae), mainly based on a collection from Tchad. Nederlandse Entomologische Vereniging Amsterdam Netherlands, 210 pp.

Corbett GH, 1935. On new Aleyrodidae (Hem.). Annals of the Magazine of Natural History, 10(16):240-252.

David BV; Radha NV; Seshu KA, 1973. Influence of weather factors on the population of the castor Aleyrodid Trialeurodes rara Singh. Madras Agricultural Journal, 60(7):496-499

El Khidir E; Khalifa A, 1962. A new aleyrodid from the Sudan. Proceedings of the Royal Entomological Society of London, Series B, 31:47-51.

EPPO, 2000. Additions to the EPPO Alert List, Trialeurodes ricini (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) - Castor whitefly, EPPO Reporting Service, 2000, No. 4.

EPPO, 2014. PQR database. Paris, France: European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization. http://www.eppo.int/DATABASES/pqr/pqr.htm

Farahbakhsh G, 1961. A Checklist of Economically Important Insects and other Enemies of Plants and Agricultural Products in Iran. Tehran, Iran: Department of Plant Protection, Ministry of Agriculture.

Hill DS, 1983. Agricultural Insect Pests of the Tropics and their Control. 2nd edition. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Idriss M; Abdallah N; Aref N; Haridy G; Madkour M, 1997. Biotypes of the castor bean whitefly Trialeurodes ricini (Misra) (Hom., Aleyrodidae) in Egypt: biochemical characterization and efficiency of geminivirus transmission. Journal of Applied Entomology, 121(9/10):501-509; 43 ref.

Jones DR, 2003. Plant viruses transmitted by whiteflies. European Journal of Plant Pathology, 109(3):195-219; 253 ref.

Lourens JH; Brader L; van der Laan PA, 1972. Contribution à l’étude d’une ‘mosaïque’ du cotonnier au Tchad; distribution dans un champ; Aleurodidae communs; essais de transmission de cotonnier à cotonnier par les Aleurodidae. Coton et Fibres Tropicales, 27(2):225-230.

Malumphy C; Suarez MB; Glover R; Boonham N; Collins DW, 2007. Morphological and molecular evidence supporting the validity of Trialeurodes lauri and T. ricini (Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha: Aleyrodidae). European Journal of Entomology, 104(2):295-301. http://www.eje.cz/scripts/content.php

Malumphy, C., Walsh, K., Suarez, M. B., Collins, D. W., Boonham, N., 2009. Morphological and molecular identification of all developmental stages of four whitefly species (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) commonly intercepted in quarantine. Zootaxa, 1-29. doi: 10.5281/zenodo.188030 ; 10.15468/oqy9m1

Martin JH, 1987. An identification guide to common whitefly pest species of the world (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae). Tropical Pest Management, 33:298-322.

Martin JH; Mifsud D; Rapisarda C, 2000. The whiteflies (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) of Europe and the Mediterranean Basin. Bulletin of Entomological Research, 90(5):407-448; Many ref.

Misra CS, 1924. The citrus whitefly, Dialeurodes citri in India and its parasite, together with the life history of Aleurodes ricini, n. sp. Report of Proceedings of an Entomological Meeting, Pusa 1923:129-135.

Mound LA; Halsey SH, 1978. Whitefly of the world. A systematic catalogue of the Aleyrodidae (Homoptera) with host plant and natural enemy data. Chichester, UK: John Wiley and Sons.

Muniappan R; Watson GW; Vaughan L; Gilbertson R; Noussourou M, 2012. New records of mealybugs, scale insects, and whiteflies (Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha) from Mali and Senegal. Journal of Agricultural and Urban Entomology, 28(1):1-7. http://scentsoc.org/Volumes/JAUE/28/28001.pdf

Nair MRGK, 1986. Insects and mites of crops in India. New Delhi, India; Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Ed. 2:v + 408pp.

Nelson D; Hatt G; Nelson C; Bedford ID, 2004. Trialeurodes ricini (Misra): A begomovirus vector? In: Proceedings of the 2nd European Whitefly Studies Network Symposium, Cavtat, Croatia, 5-9 October, 2004.

Parviz Shishehbor; Brennan PA, 1995. Environmental effects on pre-imaginal development and survival of the castor whitefly, Trialeurodes ricini Misra. Insect Science and its Application, 16(3/4):325-331; 24 ref.

Patel MM; Naik MM; Vyas HN; Patel AT, 1986. Evaluation of certain insecticides against whitefly (Trialeurodes ricini Misra) and jassid (Empoasca kerri Pruthi) infesting castor. Indian Journal of Plant Protection, 14(1):81-82

Sarma AK; Singh MP; Singh KI, 2005. Studies on insect-pests of castor in the agro-ecosystem of Manipur. Journal of Applied Zoological Researches, 16(2):164-165.

Shishehbor P, 1994. Investigations on the morphology, biology and ecology of the castor whitefly, Trialeurodes ricini Misra (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae). PhD Thesis. Ireland: University of Dublin.

Shishehbor P; Brennan PA, 1996. Adult longevity, fecundity, and population growth rates for Trialeurodes ricini Misra (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) at different constant temperatures. Canadian Entomologist, 128(5):859-863; 19 ref.

Shishehbor P; Brennan PA, 1996. Functional response of Encarsia formosa (Gahan) parasitizing castor whitefly, Trialeurodes ricini Misra (Hom., Aleyrodidae). Journal of Applied Entomology, 120(5):297-299; 14 ref.

Shishehbor P; Brennan PA, 1996. Life history traits of castor whitefly, Trialeurodes ricini Misra (Hom., Aleyrodidae), on eight host plant species. Journal of Applied Entomology, 120(9):519-522; 21 ref.

Shishehbor P; Brennan PA, 1996. Parasitism of the castor whitefly, Trialeurodes ricini (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) by Encarsia formosa (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae): bionomics in relation to temperature. Bulletin of Entomological Research, 86(1):67-72; 34 ref.

Shishehbor, P., Brennan, P. A., 1995. Parasitism of Trialeurodes ricini by Encarsia formosa: level of parasitism, development time and mortality on different host plants. Entomophaga, 40(3/4), 299-305. doi: 10.1007/BF02373716

Srivastava AS; Srivastava JL; Tripathi RA, 1972. Incidence of pests on castor. Labdev Journal of Science and Technology, 10-B(1):47-48

Stansly, P. A., McKenzie, C. L., 2008. Fourth International Bemisia Workshop. International Whitefly Genomics Workshop, Duck Key, Florida, USA, 3-8 December 2006. Journal of Insect Science (Tucson), 8, 4. doi: 10.1673/031.008.0401

Vora VJ; Bharodia RK; Kapadia MN, 1984. Pests of oilseed crops and their control castor. Pesticides, 18(11):3-5

Waterhouse DF, 1993. The Major Arthropod Pests and Weeds of Agriculture in Southeast Asia. ACIAR Monograph No. 21. Canberra, Australia: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, 141 pp.

Distribution References

Abd-Rabou S, 1999. New records on whiteflies in Egypt. Egyptian Journal of Agricultural Research. 77 (3), 1143-1146.

Abdullah N M M, Martin J, 2007. New record for four additional whiteflies species from Yemen. Arab Journal of Plant Protection. 25 (1), 33-34. http://www.asplantprotection.org/ASPP_Journal_Table.htm

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