Tripsacum dactyloides (eastern gamagrass)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Rainfall Regime
- Soil Tolerances
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Links to Websites
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Tripsacum dactyloides (L.) L.
Preferred Common Name
- eastern gamagrass
Other Scientific Names
- Coix angulata Mill.
- Coix dactyloides L.
- Dactylodes angulatum Kuntze
- Dactylodes dactyloides (L.) Kuntze
- Ischaemum glabrum Walter
- Tripsacum bravum J.R.Gray
- Tripsacum floridanum Porter ex Vasey
- Tripsacum monostachyon Willd.
International Common Names
- English: bullgrass; eastern mock grama; fakahatchee grass; gamagrass; northern gamagrass; sesame grass; wild corn
- Spanish: maicillo oriental; pasto Guatemala; zacate maicero
- French: herbe de gama; herbe grama; maicillo oriental
Local Common Names
- Brazil: capim gigante
- Cuba: zacate
- Dominican Republic: lagon
- Germany: Gamagras; Gama-Gras
- Haiti: herbe rasoir
- Mexico: zacate maicero
EPPO code
- TRWDA (Tripsacum dactyloides)
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageTripsacum dactyloides is cultivated as a forage crop in areas within and outside its native distribution range. The species establishes slowly and competes poorly with annual grasses and weeds during its first year of establishment, but after that, it competes effectively with most perennial and broadleaf plants. Currently, T. dactyloides is listed as invasive only in Cuba. However, this species is often reported to be growing as a 'weed' in ruderal areas, forest edges, and disturbed and open forests in areas within and outside its native distribution range.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Monocotyledonae
- Order: Cyperales
- Family: Poaceae
- Genus: Tripsacum
- Species: Tripsacum dactyloides
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pagePoaceae is one of the largest families of flowering plants comprising 707 genera and more than 11,300 species distributed worldwide (Stevens, 2012). The genus Tripsacum contains 14 species, which occur from temperate North America to Paraguay in South America (Zuloaga et al., 2003; Clayton et al., 2017; Missouri Botanical Garden, 2017). Tripsacum is closely related to Zea, the genus containing the cultigen maize and its wild relatives known as 'teosintes'. These two genera share a number of morphological features, including the highly specialized cupulate fruitcase and the spikelet arrangement. They also have the potential to cross and produce viable but typically infertile hybrids. Because of their affinity to maize, Tripsacum species have been the subjects of numerous evolutionary, taxonomic and biosystematics studies and many cultivars have been developed (Doebley, 1983; Cook et al., 2005, USDA-NRCS, 2017).
Description
Top of pageThe following description is from Cook et al. (2005): An extremely variable perennial clump grass, with short, fibrous, knotty rhizomes and deep, hollow roots. Culms 2-3 (-4 m) tall, and 3-5 cm thick at base, branching, prop-rooting from lower nodes; stems purplish, glabrous. Leaf sheath glabrous, often purplish; leaf-blade lanceolate-acuminate, up to 1.5 m long and 9-35 mm wide, mostly glabrous, sometimes hairy at the base of the upper blade surface; margin scabrous; ligule a fringe of hairs, 1-1.5 mm long, prominent midrib. Inflorescence 10-20 (-30) cm long, terminal and axillary, commonly a single raceme, or subdigitate panicle comprising 2-3 (-6) racemes of usually unisexual awnless spikelets (gynomonoecious types have been found); the female (pistillate) spikelets (green when immature), occupying the basal one-eighth to one-third of the raceme, inserted singly and alternately on opposite sides of the thick, hard articulate lower part of the rachis, sunken in hollows in the joints; oval in section, hard, separating into bead-like segments 7-10 mm long at maturity: the male (staminate) spikelets 7-11 mm long (purplish when immature) inserted in pairs at either side of oblique nodes, and on one side of the flattened rachis at the terminal end of the raceme; anthers cream to orange, stigmas white to purple, up to 2.5 cm long.
Distribution
Top of pageTripsacum dactyloides is native to the United States, Mexico, Central and South America and the Caribbean region (Zuloaga et al., 2003; Clayton et al., 2017; USDA-ARS, 2017). It was introduced through cultivation as a forage crop and is now naturalized in tropical Asia, India, Malaysia, Philippines and Australia (Clayton et al., 2017; FAO, 2017; Randall, 2017).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 10 Feb 2022Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Congo, Republic of the | Present | Introduced | |||||
Asia |
|||||||
Indonesia | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Borneo | Present | Introduced | |||||
Brunei | Present | Introduced | |||||
India | Present | Introduced | |||||
Malaysia | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Sabah | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Sarawak | Present | Introduced | |||||
Philippines | Present | Introduced | |||||
Taiwan | Present | Introduced | 2007 | ||||
North America |
|||||||
Bahamas | Present | Native | |||||
Belize | Present | Native | |||||
Costa Rica | Present | Native | |||||
Cuba | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Dominican Republic | Present | Native | |||||
Guatemala | Present | Native | |||||
Haiti | Present | Native | |||||
Mexico | Present | Native | |||||
Nicaragua | Present | Native | |||||
Panama | Present | Native | |||||
Trinidad and Tobago | Present | Native | |||||
United States | Present | Native | |||||
-Alabama | Present | Native | |||||
-Arkansas | Present | Native | |||||
-Connecticut | Present | Native | |||||
-Delaware | Present | Native | |||||
-District of Columbia | Present | Native | |||||
-Florida | Present | Native | |||||
-Georgia | Present | Native | |||||
-Illinois | Present | Native | |||||
-Indiana | Present | Native | |||||
-Iowa | Present | Native | |||||
-Kansas | Present | Native | |||||
-Kentucky | Present | Native | |||||
-Louisiana | Present | Native | |||||
-Maryland | Present | Native | |||||
-Massachusetts | Present | Native | |||||
-Michigan | Present | Native | |||||
-Mississippi | Present | Native | |||||
-Missouri | Present | Native | |||||
-Nebraska | Present | Native | |||||
-New Jersey | Present | Native | |||||
-New York | Present | Native | |||||
-North Carolina | Present | Native | |||||
-Ohio | Present | Native | |||||
-Oklahoma | Present | Native | |||||
-Pennsylvania | Present | Native | |||||
-Rhode Island | Present | Native | |||||
-South Carolina | Present | Native | |||||
-Tennessee | Present | Native | |||||
-Texas | Present | Native | |||||
-Virginia | Present | Native | |||||
-West Virginia | Present | Native | |||||
Oceania |
|||||||
Australia | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Queensland | Present | Introduced | |||||
South America |
|||||||
Brazil | Present | Introduced | |||||
Colombia | Present | Native | |||||
Ecuador | Present | Native | |||||
French Guiana | Present | Native | |||||
Guyana | Present | Native | |||||
Paraguay | Present | Native | |||||
Suriname | Present | Native | |||||
Venezuela | Present | Native |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageTripsacum dactyloides has been introduced as a forage crop. It is also cultivated as a hay and silage crop, for soil conservation, and for erosion control. Across the United States, interest in T. dactyloides increased significantly during the late 1980s and early 1990s, mainly due to its ability to produce large quantities of high quality forage during the summer months (USDA-NRCS, 2017). In Malaysia, this species has been extensively planted on rubber estates as a soil conditioner in drained swamps, and for mulching (Gilliland, 1971; FAO, 2017).
Habitat
Top of pageTripsacum dactyloides can be found growing in prairies, coastal plains, semi-arid regions, deep sandy soils, rocky outcrops, river and stream banks, clearings in forested areas, wet grasslands, and around the edges of marshes (Cook et al., 2005; Vibrans, 2011; FAO, 2017).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Rocky areas / lava flows | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Rocky areas / lava flows | Present, no further details | Natural |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
Tripsacum dactyloides is a wild genetic relative of cultivated maize Zea mays, and it has been suggested that Zea mays may be the result of a cross between T. dactyloides and Zea diploperennis, a perennial variety of teosinte. Like other Tripsacum species, T. dactyloides can hybridize with domesticated maize and teosinte species, although offspring of direct crosses are typically sterile (Vibrans, 2011; Shavrukov and Sokolov, 2015; USDA-NRCS, 2017).
For T. dactyloides, the chromosome number reported varies greatly from diploid (2n = 2x = 36), to triploid (2n = 3x = 54), tetraploid (2n = 4x = 72), pentaploid (2n = 5x = 90), and hexaploid (2n = 6x = 108). Diploid plants reproduce sexually, whereas the polyploids are facultative apomicts. Crossing between the sexual diploids and the polyploids can occur (Vibrans, 2011; USDA-NRCS, 2017).
Reproductive Biology
Tripsacum dactyloides has separate male and female flowers (monoecious), but each spike contains both male and female flowers. Male flowers occupy the top portion of the spike and female flowers the bottom portion. Only the diploid plants are sexual and cross-pollinated. The tetraploids and the rest of the polyploids are apomictic and produce seeds asexually (Shavrukov and Sokolov, 2015; USDA-NRCS, 2017; USDA-ARS, 2017).
Physiology and Phenology
Tripsacum dactyloides is a C4 grass (Cook et al., 2005). Flowering and fruiting of T. dactyloides extends from April to November in the northern hemisphere (Vibrans, 2011; FAO, 2017; USDA-NRCS, 2017).
Longevity
Tripsacum dactyloides is a perennial, long-lived species that may live up to 50 years (USDA-NRCS, 2017).
Environmental Requirements
Tripsacum dactyloides grows best in areas with mean annual temperatures from 12°C to about 24°C and mean annual rainfall ranging from 900 to 1500 mm, at elevations from sea level to 2750 m. It can tolerate an annual rainfall of 600 mm (Cook et al., 2005). The species prefers moist, moderately well-drained, fertile soils, with textures ranging from sand to clay and pH from 5.5-7.5. It is also adapted to poorly drained soils, but has low salt tolerance. Stands are reduced but not killed by 3 weeks of flooding. The species has a dense root system extending to 4.5 m depth, facilitating moderate drought tolerance. Plants may survive temperatures as low as -30°C, but require at least 140 frost-free daysper year for long-term persistence (Cook et al., 2005; USDA-ARS, 2017; USDA-NRCS, 2017).
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Preferred | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Preferred | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | |
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Preferred | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
42 | 24 |
Air Temperature
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit |
---|---|---|
Absolute minimum temperature (ºC) | -30 | |
Mean annual temperature (ºC) | 12 | 24 |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Mean annual rainfall | 600 mm | 1500 mm | mm; lower/upper limits |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
- seasonally waterlogged
Soil reaction
- acid
- neutral
Soil texture
- light
- medium
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Maize dwarf mosaic virus | Pathogen | Adults | not specific |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageSeed and forage yield can be reduced by the insects Sphenophorus maidis (maize billbug), Diatraea crambidoides (southern cornstalk borer), and Diatraea grandiosella (southwestern corn borer). Seeds are frequently consumed by birds (Cook et al., 2005; USDA-NRCS, 2017). T. dactyloides is also a host plant for skipper butterflies (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae) such as the bunchgrass skipper (Problema byssus), clouded skipper (Lerema accius) and three-spotted skipper (Cymaenes tripunctatus) (Cook et al., 2005). Two viruses transmitted by aphids, sugarcane mosaic virus and maize dwarf mosaic virus, can infect T. dactyloides plants (USDA-NRCS, 2017).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageNatural Dispersal
Tripsacum dactyloides spreads by seeds. The species may yield 12,000-15,000 seeds/kg (Cook et al., 2005).
Intentional Introduction
Tripsacum dactyloides has been intentionally introduced as a forage, hay and silage crop. It is cultivated in areas within and outside its native distribution range (USDA-NRCS, 2017).
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Forage | Widely cultivated as forage crop | Yes | Yes | USDA-NRCS (2017) |
Habitat restoration and improvement | Planted for erosion control, soil conservation and revegetation | Yes | USDA-ARS (2017) | |
Ornamental purposes | Sometimes cultivated as an ornamental | Yes | Cook et al. (2005) |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Machinery and equipment | Seeds | Yes | Cook et al. (2005) | |
Seeds sold online | Yes | |||
Livestock | Seeds | Yes | Cook et al. (2005) | |
Land vehicles | Seeda | Yes | Cook et al. (2005) |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Economic/livelihood | Positive |
Environment (generally) | Positive and negative |
Impact
Top of pageTripsacum dactyloides forms extensive and persistent stands which have the potential to outcompete and displace native species (USDA-ARS, 2017; USDA-NRCS, 2017). The species is only listed as invasive in Cuba (Oviedo-Prieto and Gonzalez-Oliva, 2015), but there is a lack of information about its competition strategies and the negative impacts associated with the occurrence of this invasive species in Cuba.
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Abundant in its native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Is a habitat generalist
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
- Long lived
- Gregarious
- Reproduces asexually
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Monoculture formation
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Competition - smothering
- Hybridization
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
- Difficult/costly to control
Uses
Top of pageEconomic Value
Tripsacum dactyloides is cultivated for forage, fodder, hay and silage, for soil conservation, and as an ornamental. The species is often used as a forage crop because its growing season starts earlier than other warm-season grasses and later than cool-season grasses and legumes. It is also palatable and easily digestible by cattle (Cook et al., 2005; USDA-ARS, 2017).
Environmental Services
Tripsacum dactyloides assists the infiltration of water and improves soil physical and hydraulic properties. Consequently, this species is recommended for filter strips along the edges of agricultural fields, to enhance infiltration and reduce surface runoff. It is also used as a vegetative barrier for soil erosion control and revegetation (Cook et al., 2005; Missouri Botanical Garden, 2017; USDA-NRCS, 2017; USDA-ARS, 2017).
Uses List
Top of pageAnimal feed, fodder, forage
- Fodder/animal feed
- Forage
Environmental
- Erosion control or dune stabilization
- Revegetation
- Soil conservation
- Wildlife habitat
Ornamental
- garden plant
- Propagation material
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Chemical Control
Tripsacum dactyloides is tolerant of many of the herbicides used to control weeds in maize production such as atrazine, metolachlor, cyanazine, nicosulfuron, rimsulfuron, 2,4-D and dicamba. It is reported to be susceptible to imazapic (Cook et al., 2005).
References
Top of pageClayton, WD, Govaerts, R, Harman, KT, Williamson, H, Vorontsova, M, 2017. World Checklist of Poaceae. Richmond, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/
Doebley, J. F., 1983. The taxonomy and evolution of Tripsacum and teosinte, the closest relatives of maize. [International Maize Virus Disease Colloquium and Workshop, Wooster, Ohio (USA), 2-6 Aug 1982], Ohio, USA: Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center.
FAO, 2017. Grassland Species Profiles. FAO.http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/gbase/Default.htm
Shavrukov, Y., Sokolov, V., 2015. Maize-gamagrass interspecific hybrid, Zea mays × Tripsacum dactyloides shows better salinity tolerance and higher Na+ exclusion than maize and sorghum. International Journal of Latest Research in Science and Technology, 4, 128-33.
Stevens, P. F., 2012. Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/
Vibrans, H., 2011. Malezas de Mexico. Mexico City, Mexico: CONABIO.http://www.conabio.gob.mx/malezasdemexico/2inicio/home-malezas-mexico.htm
Distribution References
Clayton WD, Govaerts R, Harman KT, Williamson H, Vorontsova M, 2017. World Checklist of Poaceae., Richmond, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Contributors
Top of page23/11/17 Original text by:
Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA.
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