Typha domingensis (southern cattail)

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Dense stand

Typha domingensis; foreground with sparse Schoenoplectus americanus. Most Typha ramets are vegetative, although some flowering ramets are visible. June 2006, Michoacán, México.

Steven J. Hall

Flowering stand

Dense Typha domingensis. Some flowering ramets with pistillate spikes are visible. June 2006, Michoacán, México.

Steven J. Hall

Flowering ramets

Typha domingensis in flower, as leaves begin to senesce. February 2008, Chiapas, México.

Steven J. Hall

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Typha domingensis Pers., 1807

Preferred Common Name

southern cattail

Other Scientific Names

Typha angustata Bory & Chaubard
Typha angustifolia var. dominguensis (Pers.) Hemsl., 1885
Typha australis Schmach. & Thonn.
Typha tenuifolia Kunth, 1815
Typha truxillensis Kunth

International Common Names

English: cumbungi; narrowleaf cumbungi
Spanish: chuspata; espadaña; espanda; tul; tule
French: massette; quenouilles
Arabic: bardî; bût; dâdî; tîfâ
Portuguese: tabua-estreita

Local Common Names

Brazil: capim-de espeira; espadana; landim; paineira-do-brejo; painha-de-flexa; partarana; taboa
Germany: Suedlicher Rohrkolben

EPPO code

TYHDO (Typha domingensis)

Summary of Invasiveness

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T. domingensis can spread prolifically by rhizomes after seedlings establish in disturbed vegetation, often forming monotypes that reduce wetland plant and animal diversity. The species thrives under eutrophic conditions and artificially stabilized hydroperiods, but in undisturbed, low-nutrient wetlands, T. domingensis often grows sparsely and does not appear to reduce diversity. T. domingensis is economically important in many regions as a weaving material, but when invasive, the species can replace other valuable plant commodities. Short-term Typha control is provided by cutting, burning, or grazing, each followed by flooding, or herbicide, but re-growth from rhizomes and a vast soil seed-bank complicate eradication.

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Spermatophyta
Subphylum: Angiospermae
Class: Monocotyledonae
Order: Typhales
Family: Typhaceae
Genus: Typha
Species: Typha domingensis

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

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Typha is a cosmopolitan genus of emergent wetland macrophytes, containing anywhere from 8-13 species, and requiring taxonomic revision (Smith, 1987). Typha spp. often hybridize, perpetuating taxonomic confusion. Smith (1987) suggests that the pan-tropical species Typhadomingensis Pers. should be treated in a broad sense, and should include the synonyms T. angustata Bory & Chaubard, T. australis K. Schum. & Thonner, T. brownii Kunth, T. javanica Schnizl., and T. grossheimii Pobed. In North America and Australia, T. domingensis has commonly been mis-identified as T. angustifolia (Finlayson et al., 1983; Smith, 1987). See Institute for Systematic Botany (2008) for a comprehensive list of synonyms. Common names often refer to multiple species within the genus. See Burkhill (2000) for an extensive list of West-African common names.

Description

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T. domingensis is a rhizomatous perennial emergent wetland macrophyte. Ramets (culms) range from 1-6 m tall (Denny, 1985b) and consist of numerous slender, linear, distichous leaves with a sheathing base that emerge vertically from a central meristem. Ramets often produce a single, erect, monoecious flowering stem consisting of a staminate spike above a pistillate spike. At maturity, ramets can collapse from wind, or under their own weight (S Hall, University of Wisconsin, USA, personal communication, 2008). Rhizomes often measure several centimeters in diameter and produce abundant adventitious roots. Smith (1967, 2000) distinguished T. domingensis from similar species primarily on the basis of pistillate spike characters. T. domingensis is characterized by: pistillate bracteoles pale to light brown, slightly exceeding pistil hairs in mature spikes; pistil hair apices colorless to orange; stigmas linear to lanceolate, slightly exceeding bracteoles in mature spikes; pistillate spikes at anthesis cinnamon to light-brown, darkening slightly at maturity; monad pollen; staminate bracteoles (scales) straw to orange-brown colored; mucilage glands present on the adaxial surface of leaf sheathes and adjacent blades. Leaves are 6-18 mm wide, mature pistillate spikes are 13-26 mm wide, and the pistillate and staminate spikes are separated by a gap of 0-8 cm. Some quantitative macroscopic characters including spike width, gap length between pistillate and staminate spikes, and leaf width are useful, but are too variable for conclusive identification, which depends on the above microscopic floral characteristics. Finlayson et al. (1985) combined measurements of the gap between male and female inflorescences with the length and diameter of the female inflorescences to distinguish T. domingensis from T. orientalis in Australia.

Plant Type

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Grass / sedge
Herbaceous
Perennial
Seed propagated
Vegetatively propagated

Distribution

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Because T. domingensis is sometimes confused with other species of Typha, especially T. angustifolia, and because numerous synonyms exist, adequately assessing its distribution is difficult. T. domingensis sensu lato inhabits wetlands in tropical, sub-tropical, and Mediterranean climates in the Americas, Eurasia, the Middle East, and Africa. The species is probably present in most of tropical and sub-tropical Africa (Thompson, 1985; CJBVG and CANBI, 2008), as well as most of the Caribbean, the Middle East, and some Pacific islands, but some countries lack accessible and comprehensive plant distribution data; the distribution table is a conservative and under-representative estimate. Chakraborty (1996) reports T. angustata (presumably T. domingensis) from northern India. In North America, T. domingensis inhabits both coasts and much of the southern United States, including arid zones of the Great Plains and Great Basin (Smith, 1967).

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 10 Feb 2022

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	First Reported	Invasive	Reference	Notes
Africa
Algeria	Present	Native			Conservatoire et Jardin botaniques de la Ville de Genève and South African National Biodiversity Institute (2008)
Benin	Present	Native			Burkill (2000)
Cameroon	Present	Native			Denny (1985)	Lake Chad
Chad	Present	Native			Denny (1985)	Lake Chad
Egypt	Present	Native			Khedr and El-Demerdash (1997)	Nile River Delta
Eritrea	Present, Widespread	Native			Lye (1997)
Ethiopia	Present, Widespread	Native			Lye (1997)	Tigray, Gondar, Welo, Shewa, Gamu Gofa, Hararge
Ghana	Present	Native		Invasive	Burkill (2000) Anning and Yeboah-Gyan (2007)	Ashanti Region, Barakese dam
Guinea-Bissau	Present	Native			Burkill (2000)
Kenya	Present	Native			Kansiime et al. (2007)	Lake Victoria
Libya	Present	Native			Conservatoire et Jardin botaniques de la Ville de Genève and South African National Biodiversity Institute (2008)
Malawi	Present	Native			Howard-Williams and Walker (1974)
Mali	Present	Native			Burkill (2000)
Mauritania	Present, Widespread	Native			Baker (1877)
Morocco	Present	Native			Conservatoire et Jardin botaniques de la Ville de Genève and South African National Biodiversity Institute (2008)
Namibia	Present, Widespread	Native			White (1983)	(T. australis)
Niger	Present	Native			Denny (1985)	Lake Chad
Nigeria	Present	Native			Burkill (2000)
Senegal	Present	Native			Burkill (2000)
Seychelles	Present, Widespread	Native			Baker (1877)
Somalia	Present, Widespread	Native			Thulin (1995)
South Africa	Present	Native			Conservatoire et Jardin botaniques de la Ville de Genève and South African National Biodiversity Institute (2008)
Sudan	Present	Native			Petersen et al. (2007)
Tanzania	Present	Native			Kansiime et al. (2007) Missouri Botanical Garden (2008)	Lake Victoria, Rukwa, Singida
-Zanzibar Island	Present	Native			Napper (1971)
Tunisia	Present	Native			Conservatoire et Jardin botaniques de la Ville de Genève and South African National Biodiversity Institute (2008)
Uganda	Present	Native			Napper (1971) Kansiime et al. (2007)	Lake Victoria
Western Sahara	Present	Native			Conservatoire et Jardin botaniques de la Ville de Genève and South African National Biodiversity Institute (2008)
Zambia	Present	Native			Missouri Botanical Garden (2008)
Asia
India	Present, Widespread	Native			Chakraborty (1996) Nayak and Satapathy (2015)	(T. angustata)
-Haryana	Present, Widespread	Native		Invasive	Singh et al. (1976)	(T. angustata)
-Jammu and Kashmir	Present, Widespread	Native			Chakraborty (1996)	(T. angustata)
-Manipur	Present, Widespread	Native			Chakraborty (1996)	(T. angustata)
-Odisha	Present				Nayak and Satapathy (2015)
-West Bengal	Present, Widespread	Native			Chakraborty (1996)	(T. angustata)
Indonesia	Present				Holm et al. (1979)
Iran	Present	Native			Karami et al. (2001)
Iraq	Present	Native			Al-Rawi (1968)	(T. angustata)
Israel	Present	Native			Shy et al. (1998)
Jordan	Present	Native			Arabian Plant Specialist Group (1998)
Lebanon	Present	Native			Post (1933)	(T. angustata)
Pakistan	Present	Native			Omer and Rizwan (1987)
Philippines	Present	Native			Briggs and Johnson (1968)
Saudi Arabia	Present	Native			Missouri Botanical Garden (2008)
Syria	Present	Native			Post (1933)	(T. angustata)
Turkey	Present	Native			Cook (1980)
Yemen
-Socotra	Present	Introduced	1993		Seebens et al. (2017)
Europe
Albania	Present	Native			Cook (1980)
Bulgaria	Present	Native			Cook (1980)
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia	Present	Native			Cook (1980)
France	Present	Native			Cook (1980)
-Corsica	Present	Native			Cook (1980)
Greece	Present	Native			Cook (1980)
Italy	Present	Native			Cook (1980)
Portugal	Present	Native			Cook (1980)
-Azores	Present	Introduced	1974		Seebens et al. (2017)
Russia	Present	Native			Cook (1980)
-Southern Russia	Present	Native			Cook (1980)
Spain	Present	Native			Cook (1980)
-Balearic Islands	Present	Native			Cook (1980)
North America
Bahamas	Present	Native			Missouri Botanical Garden (2008)
Belize	Present, Widespread	Native		Invasive	Rejmankova et al. (1996)
Bermuda	Present	Native			Missouri Botanical Garden (2008)
Cayman Islands	Present	Native			Missouri Botanical Garden (2008)
Costa Rica	Present, Widespread	Native		Invasive	McCoy et al. (1994)	Palo Verde National Park, Guanacaste, Limon, Puntarenas
Cuba	Present, Widespread	Native			CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Fraga and Kvet (1993)
Dominican Republic	Present	Native			Missouri Botanical Garden (2008)
El Salvador	Present	Native			Missouri Botanical Garden (2008)	Ahuachapan, La Libertad
Guatemala	Present	Native			Standley and Steyermark (1958)
Haiti	Present	Native			Missouri Botanical Garden (2008)
Honduras	Present	Native			Molina (1975)
Jamaica	Present	Native		Invasive	Azan and Webber (2007)
Mexico	Present, Widespread	Native		Invasive	Breedlove (1986) Lot and Novelo (1988) McVaugh and Koch (1993) Rejmankova et al. (1996)	Altiplano lakes of Central Mexico, coastal wetlands of the Yucatán Peninsula and Gulf of Mexico, Chiapas
Nicaragua	Present	Native			Haynes and Holm-Nielsen (2001)
Panama	Present	Native			D'Arcy (1987)
Puerto Rico	Present	Native			USA, USDA-NRCS (2008)
Trinidad and Tobago	Present	Native			Missouri Botanical Garden (2008)
U.S. Virgin Islands	Present	Native			USA, USDA-NRCS (2008)
United States	Present				CABI (Undated a)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Alabama	Present	Native			USA, USDA-NRCS (2008)
-Arizona	Present	Native			USA, USDA-NRCS (2008)
-Arkansas	Present	Native			USA, USDA-NRCS (2008)
-California	Present	Native			USA, USDA-NRCS (2008)
-Colorado	Present	Native			USA, USDA-NRCS (2008)
-Delaware	Present, Localized	Native			Smith (2000)	Coastal regions, does not flower.
-Florida	Present	Native		Invasive	USA, USDA-NRCS (2008)
-Georgia	Present	Native			USA, USDA-NRCS (2008)
-Hawaii	Present	Introduced			USA, USDA-NRCS (2008) Seebens et al. (2017)	Purportedly introduced
-Illinois	Present, Localized	Native			Smith (2000)	Power plant cooling pond
-Kansas	Present	Native			USA, USDA-NRCS (2008)
-Kentucky	Present	Native			USA, USDA-NRCS (2008)
-Louisiana	Present	Native			USA, USDA-NRCS (2008)
-Maryland	Present	Native			USA, USDA-NRCS (2008)
-Mississippi	Present	Native			USA, USDA-NRCS (2008)
-Missouri	Present	Native			USA, USDA-NRCS (2008)
-Nebraska	Present	Native			USA, USDA-NRCS (2008)
-Nevada	Present	Native			USA, USDA-NRCS (2008)
-New Mexico	Present	Native			USA, USDA-NRCS (2008)
-North Carolina	Present	Native			USA, USDA-NRCS (2008)
-Oklahoma	Present	Native			USA, USDA-NRCS (2008)
-Oregon	Present	Native			USA, USDA-NRCS (2008)
-South Carolina	Present	Native			USA, USDA-NRCS (2008)
-Texas	Present	Native			USA, USDA-NRCS (2008)
-Virginia	Present	Native			USA, USDA-NRCS (2008)
-Wyoming	Present, Localized	Native			Smith (2000)	In a hot spring
Oceania
Australia	Present				CABI Data Mining (Undated)
-New South Wales	Present, Widespread	Native		Invasive	Parsons and Cuthbertson (1992)
-Northern Territory	Present, Widespread	Native			Parsons and Cuthbertson (1992)
-Queensland	Present, Widespread	Native			Parsons and Cuthbertson (1992)
-South Australia	Present, Widespread	Native			Parsons and Cuthbertson (1992)
-Tasmania	Present, Widespread	Native		Invasive	Parsons and Cuthbertson (1992)
-Victoria	Present, Widespread	Native			Parsons and Cuthbertson (1992)
-Western Australia	Present, Widespread	Native			Parsons and Cuthbertson (1992)
New Caledonia	Present	Introduced	1911		Seebens et al. (2017) Herbier de Nouvelle Caledonie (2008)
Papua New Guinea	Present	Native			Briggs and Johnson (1968)
South America
Argentina	Present	Native			Crespo and Pérez-Moreau (1967)
Bolivia	Present	Native			Foster (1958)
Brazil	Present	Native			Missouri Botanical Garden (2008)
-Bahia	Present	Native			Missouri Botanical Garden (2008)
-Minas Gerais	Present	Native			Missouri Botanical Garden (2008)
-Para	Present	Native			Missouri Botanical Garden (2008)
-Parana	Present	Native			Missouri Botanical Garden (2008)
-Rio de Janeiro	Present	Native			Palma-Silva et al. (2005)
-Sao Paulo	Present	Native			Missouri Botanical Garden (2008)
Chile	Present	Native			Missouri Botanical Garden (2008) Seebens et al. (2017)
Colombia	Present	Native			Missouri Botanical Garden (2008)	Antioquia, Bolivar, Huila
Ecuador	Present	Native			Jørgensen and León-Yánez (1999)
Guyana	Present	Native			Missouri Botanical Garden (2008)
Paraguay	Present	Native			Missouri Botanical Garden (2008)	Central, Chaco, Cordillera
Peru	Present	Native			Brako and Zarucchi (1993)	Amazonas, Ancash, Cajamarca, Lima
Suriname	Present	Native			Missouri Botanical Garden (2008)
Uruguay	Present	Native			Holm et al. (1979)
Venezuela	Present	Native			Missouri Botanical Garden (2008)	Bolivar, Delta Amacuro, Portuguesa

History of Introduction and Spread

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Few instances of long-distance introduction have been reported, but these could be obscured by taxonomic confusion. T. domingensis may be introduced in Hawaii (USDA, 2008). In many cases, Typha appears to have expanded locally within regions where it was already present as a result of anthropogenic habitat modification and/or cultural change (e.g. Finlayson et al., 1983; Beare and Zedler, 1987; Urban et al., 1993; Hall, 2008).

Risk of Introduction

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T. domingensis appears to occupy much of its potential habitat range worldwide, but as anthropogenic modification of tropical wetlands continues, it will continue to invade at the local and regional scale in habitats where stabilized, nutrient-rich, low-salinity water is present. Other aggressive Typha species (e.g. T. x glauca) are likely to be more problematic as invaders in temperate climates.

Habitat

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T. domingensis is present in many wetland community types, including marshes, groundwater-fed fens, shrub- carr, lakeshores, and estuaries, as well as anthropogenic habitats where soil is periodically flooded (roadside ditches, irrigation canals, fields, storm-water retention basins). Freshwater inflows allow T. domingensis to invade salt marshes (Beare and Zedler, 1987). T. domingensis is most dominant in wetlands with artificially prolonged hydroperiods and nutrient-rich water (Findlayson et. al, 1983; Beare and Zedler, 1987; Urban et al., 1993; Nicol and Ganf, 2000). T. domingensis grows on fine organic mud and silt, peat, and also sand and gravel (Finlayson et al., 1983), as well as on alkaline soil (Denny, 1985a).

Habitat List

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Category	Sub-Category	Habitat	Presence	Status
Brackish		Inland saline areas	Secondary/tolerated habitat	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Brackish		Inland saline areas	Secondary/tolerated habitat	Natural
Terrestrial	Managed	Cultivated / agricultural land	Secondary/tolerated habitat	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Managed grasslands (grazing systems)	Secondary/tolerated habitat	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Managed grasslands (grazing systems)	Secondary/tolerated habitat	Natural
Terrestrial	Managed	Disturbed areas	Principal habitat	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Disturbed areas	Principal habitat	Natural
Terrestrial	Managed	Rail / roadsides	Principal habitat	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Rail / roadsides	Principal habitat	Natural
Terrestrial	Managed	Urban / peri-urban areas	Principal habitat	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Urban / peri-urban areas	Principal habitat	Natural
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Wetlands	Principal habitat	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Wetlands	Principal habitat	Natural
Littoral		Coastal areas	Principal habitat	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Littoral		Coastal areas	Principal habitat	Natural
Littoral		Mud flats	Principal habitat	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Littoral		Mud flats	Principal habitat	Natural
Littoral		Intertidal zone	Secondary/tolerated habitat	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Littoral		Salt marshes	Secondary/tolerated habitat	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Freshwater		Irrigation channels	Principal habitat	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Freshwater		Lakes	Principal habitat	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Freshwater		Lakes	Principal habitat	Natural
Freshwater		Reservoirs	Principal habitat	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Freshwater		Rivers / streams	Principal habitat	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Freshwater		Rivers / streams	Principal habitat	Natural
Freshwater		Ponds	Principal habitat	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Freshwater		Ponds	Principal habitat	Natural
Brackish		Estuaries	Principal habitat	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Brackish		Estuaries	Principal habitat	Natural
Brackish		Lagoons	Secondary/tolerated habitat	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Brackish		Lagoons	Secondary/tolerated habitat	Natural
Marine		Inshore marine	Secondary/tolerated habitat	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Marine		Inshore marine	Secondary/tolerated habitat	Natural

Hosts/Species Affected

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T. domingensis can invade the margins of rice fields and lacustrine cornfields (Sykes 1981, cited in Finlayson et al., 1983; Hall, 2008).

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

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Plant name	Family	Context	References
Oryza sativa		Main
Zea mays subsp. mays (sweetcorn)	Poaceae	Main

Biology and Ecology

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Genetics

T. domingensis readily hybridizes with other sympatric species of Typha. T. domingensis x latifolia has mostly abortive pollen and low seed set, while T. angustifolia x domingensis (reported in France and California) is highly fertile and can form hybrid swarms (Geze, 1912, cited in Smith, 1987; Smith, 1967). T. domingensis, T. latifolia, and T. angustifolia share n=15 chromosomes (Smith, 1967). T. domingensis shows ecotypic variation for a number of traits, including salt tolerance, germination temperature, time of flowering, height, rhizome proliferation, and rhizome number (McNaughton, 1966). Because of the worldwide distribution of T. domingensis, quantitative data presented here will likely vary widely among regional ecotypes.

Reproductive Biology

T. domingensis is protogynous, self-compatible, and does not show apomixis (Smith, 1967). Pollen requires strong winds for dispersal, and T. latifolia pollen can travel distances of at least one km (Krattinger, 1975). Despite copious pollen production, self-pollination appears to exceed outcrossing even in dense stands of T. latifolia . Some populations of T. domingensis remain in anthesis for more than a month (McNaughton, 1966). Each inflorescence can produce > 600,000 fruits, or 6-17 million seeds per m² depending on flowering ramet density, and plants established from seed can flower by the second year (Prunster, 1940, cited in Finlayson et al., 1983; Howard-Williams, 1975). Germination can occur year-round in many climates, given adequate moisture, although germination declines below 20°C (Finlayson et al., 1983). In the United States, southern populations germinated at a lower temperature (13°C) than their northern counterparts (McNaughton, 1966). Seeds germinate under moist or submerged conditions; in an extreme case, T. domingensis germinated under 80 cm of water and survived for 8 weeks (Nicol and Ganf, 2000). Salinity reduces germination, although limited germination can occur even at 20% salinity (Beare and Zedler, 1987). High salinity prevented T. domingensis from recruiting after a lake drawdown in Malawi (Howard-Williams, 1975). Exposure to light and hypoxia increase germination (Sifton, 1959), which is low under established vegetation (Finlayson et al., 1983). In natural areas not disturbed by humans, disturbance and herbivory by animals could facilitate seedling establishment of Typha seedlings (Svengsouk and Mitsch, 2001).

Lateral rhizomes can facilitate rapid vegetative expansion after seedling establishment. Individual T. latifolia clones can span >60 m (Krattinger, 1983), and T. domingensis can spread laterally at 3-10 m/year (Parsons and Cutherbertson, 1992; Fraga and Kvet, 1993). Rhizome production is stimulated by short days and cold temperatures (McNaughton, 1966).

Physiology and Phenology

In frost-free climates, T. domingensis can produce ramets (culms) year-round, although most emerge in summer and autumn, and do not survive longer than 10 months (Finlayson et al., 1983; Parsons and Cuthbertson, 1992). In a spring-fed wetland in central Mexico, T. domingensis growing in dense stands did not produce new ramets between May and October unless disturbed by leaf harvest (Hall et al., in press). Flowering ramets differentiate by spring, and become fertile by early summer. Grace and Harrison (1986) contend that high rhizome carbohydrate supplies promote Typha ramets to flower rather than to remain vegetative. Repetitive harvesting decreased rhizome starch reserves and flowering ramet density of T. domingensis, but drought stress could promote flowering (Hall, 2008). Carbohydrate dynamics have been studied for T. latifolia. Leaf biomass is at a maximum while rhizome biomass is minimized in late summer. By autumn, leaf carbohydrates have been translocated to rhizomes, biomass increases, and rhizome starch concentrations are maximized (Linde et al., 1976). For T. domingensis in Belize, leaf turnover averages 110 days (Rejmankova et al., 1996). Fraga and Kvet (1993) report that T. domingensis in Cuba had a net primary productivity of 1500 g/m²/year. Litterbag experiments showed only 50% decomposition after one year, and organic matter accumulated rapidly.

In flooded conditions, oxygen is conducted to Typha’s underwater tissues via leaf aerenchyma cells (Sale and Wetzel, 1983), allowing T. domingensis to tolerate water 2 m deep (Finlayson et al., 1983). Flooded seedlings only produced additional ramets, however, when they reached the water surface (Nicol and Ganf 2000). T. domingensis is moderately salt-tolerant, and salinities of up to 5% should not impede vegetative growth or flowering. Salinity >5% prevents growth, and salinity >25% causes leaf mortality, although rhizomes re-sprout if salinity declines (Beare and Zedler, 1987). Freshwater inflows lasting 2 months allowed T. domingensis to invade California salt marshes. T. domingensis thrives in hot climates, and grows well in water at 30°C (Finlayson et al., 1983). Parsons and Cuthbertson (1992) reported maximum growth at 32°C, declining to 50% at 18°C. Typha spp. show a high tolerance for soil and water contaminated by heavy metals (McNaughton et al., 1974).

Nutrition

T. domingensis thrives under high nutrient loads and stable, prolonged, hydroperiods. In the Florida Everglades, T. domingensis invasion correlated with increased phosphorus and water levels, and muck-burning fires (Urban et al., 1993; Newman et al., 1998). Typha’s limitation by phosphorus is supported by a comparison of soil and plant tissue samples from eutrophic and un-impacted areas of the Everglades (Koch and Reddy, 1992). T. domingensis also appeared limited by phosphorus in wetlands of Mexico’s Yucatan Peninsula and Belize (Rejmankova et al., 1996). In mesocosms, elevated nutrient levels and prolonged hydroperiods increased T. domingensis biomass and tissue phosphorus concentration relative to the co-occurring Cladium jamaicense (Newman et al., 1996). Substantial peat, nitrogen, and phosphorus accumulated where T. domingensis dominated nutrient-rich areas of the Everglades (Craft and Richardson, 1993). Seedlings produced more biomass, had a greater root/shoot ratio, and contained more phosphorous when grown in burned soil than in unburned or surface-burned soil in the Everglades, suggesting that soil-burning fires promote T. domingensis by releasing phosphorus (Smith and Newman, 2001). In low-nutrient areas of the Everglades, Typha is present but does not dominate (Davis, 1994).

Nitrogen and phosphorus appeared to co-limit the congener T. latifolia when it was grown in mesocosms, whereas in the field, T. latifolia increased along a gradient of increasing phosphorus (Svengsouk and Mitsch, 2001). T. x glauca required both nitrogen and phosphorus for growth in a greenhouse experiment, but adding a higher proportion of phosphorus stimulated growth regardless of nutrient concentration (Woo and Zedler, 2002).

Associations

In disturbed and eutrophic wetlands, T. domingensis tends to form monotypes. However, T. x glauca’s invasive growth may be dependent on anthropogenic modifications (e.g. from dams, wastewater discharge, or irrigation canals). In little-disturbed wetlands where hydroperiods fluctuate seasonally, many genera co-occur with T. domingensis. In Australian wetlands, Baumea, Eleocharis, Gahnia, Melaleuca, Muehlenbeckia, and T. orientalis co-dominate with T. domingensis where water levels fluctuate (Finlayson et al., 1983; Nicol and Ganf, 2000). In Cuba, Bidens, Cyperus, Eleocharis, Hyparrenia, Panicum, and Sagittaria can co-occur with T. domingensis in shallow water, although T. domingensis often forms temporary monotypes in deeper water (Fraga and Kvet 1993). In this system, shrubs can replace Typha because of rapid organic matter accumulation; frequent fire might reduce litter and retard succession. In Africa’s Lake Victoria, T. domingensis is less abundant than the dominant Cyperus or Miscanthidium (Kansiime et al., 2007); in Lake Chad, Vossia, Cyperus, and Phragmites dominate, while T. domingensis is rare (Denny, 1985a). Thompson (1985) ranked T. domingensis as the third most-dominant African wetland plants, behind Phragmites australis and P. mauritianus. In Belize, T. domingensis normally dominates on clay soils with low salinity, while growing sparsely with dominant Eleocharis and Cladium on marl and sandy soil with higher salinity (Rejmankova et al., 1996). T. domingensis monotypes in this region may be relics of phosphorus-rich agricultural run-off. In Iran, T. domingensis and Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani co-dominate diverse wetlands (Karami et al., 2001). In a groundwater-fed wetland in central Mexico, harvesting T. domingensis increased species richness and the recruitment of uncommon species (Hall, 2008). Here, more than 40 species co-occurred with Typha and the co-dominant Schoenoplectus americanus.

Environmental Requirements

T. domingensis tolerates a broad climatic spectrum, growing between 40° latitude north and south under a variety of rainfall regimes (Smith, 2000). Although T. domingensis tolerates widely variable hydroperiods, it can decline during extended drawdowns, and grows best under flooded conditions (Rejmankova et al., 1996; Palma-Silva et al., 2005). Rainfall does not appear to limit wide-scale geographic distribution, because even in seasonally dry climates (e.g. central Mexico), T. domingensis can persist in isolated springs or on lakeshores. Seedlings can tolerate anaerobic conditions, but mature plants are intolerant of anaerobic conditions created when leaves are severed below water (Sale and Wetzel, 1983).

Climate

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Climate	Status	Description
Af - Tropical rainforest climate	Preferred	> 60mm precipitation per month
Am - Tropical monsoon climate	Preferred	Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25]))
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer	Preferred	< 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25])
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate	Preferred	< 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25])
BS - Steppe climate	Preferred	> 430mm and < 860mm annual precipitation
BW - Desert climate	Preferred	< 430mm annual precipitation
C - Temperate/Mesothermal climate	Preferred	Average temp. of coldest month > 0°C and < 18°C, mean warmest month > 10°C
Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year	Preferred	Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer	Preferred	Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter	Preferred	Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters)

Latitude/Altitude Ranges

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Latitude North (°N)	Latitude South (°S)	Altitude Lower (m)	Altitude Upper (m)
40	40	0	0

Soil Tolerances

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Soil drainage

impeded
seasonally waterlogged

Soil reaction

acid
alkaline
neutral

Soil texture

heavy
light
medium

Special soil tolerances

infertile
other
saline
shallow
sodic

Notes on Natural Enemies

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Herbivory is common but variable. In Australia, kangaroos, rodents, and water birds lightly graze T. domingensis, while water buffalo can cause heavy damage (Finlayson et al., 1983). In Africa, large herbivores do not extensively feed on T. domingensis, despite its abundance (Howard-Williams and Gaudet 1985). In Costa Rica and elsewhere throughout Latin America, cattle heavily graze T. domingensis (McCoy et al., 1994). Muskrats (Ondatra zibethicus) can eliminate entire stands of Typha spp. through herbivory, at least in temperate climates (Kadlec et al., 2007). Barreto et al. (2000) mention a variety of fungal pathogens, although none have been extensively studied in the field. A variety of insects feed on T. latifolia and T. angustifolia. Lepidopteran larvae often inhabit inflorescences, while noctuid caterpillars and coleoptera attack leaves, stalks, and sometimes rhizomes (Grace and Harrison, 1986).

Means of Movement and Dispersal

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Natural Dispersal (Non-Biotic)

Typha’s tiny seeds (1 - 2 mm long) are contained in achenes attached to pistil hairs, and are often dispersed by the wind. Spikes do not shed fruits until they have dried (Krattinger, 1975), often delaying dispersal until many months after seed maturation. The entire female spike sometimes collapses in place, providing a floating platform for germination (Hall, 2008). Masses of achenes and hairs, and rhizomes, can disperse by floating on currents of water (Grace and Harrison 1986; Parsons and Cutherbertson, 1992).

Vector Transmission (Biotic)

When achenes are moistened, seeds are released, which have a pointed end that can become embedded in fish scales (Krattinger, 1975). Also, pistil hairs (with attached acenes) adhere to the clothing of fieldworkers, and could attach to animals as well (S Hall, University of Wisconsin, USA, personal communication, 2008). Mud with embedded seeds readily sticks to humans, livestock, birds, and agricultural implements (Parsons and Cuthbertson, 1992).

Intentional Introduction

Indigenous people in the Northwestern United States propagated T. latifolia using rhizome fragments (Turner and Peacock, 2005). Similar propagation of T. domingensis has not been documented.

Pathway Causes

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Cause	Notes	Long Distance	Local	References
Crop production	Seeds attach to mud on agricultural implements.		Yes	Parsons and Cuthbertson (1992)
Disturbance	Seedlings establish in disturbed vegetation.		Yes	Finlayson et al. (1983)
Hitchhiker	Achenes with hairs attach to humans and animals.	Yes	Yes	Parsons and Cuthbertson (1992)
Interbasin transfers	Achenes and rhizomes disperse with water currents.		Yes	Grace and Harrison (1986); Parsons and Cuthbertson (1992)
Interconnected waterways	Achenes and rhizomes disperse with water currents.		Yes	Grace and Harrison (1986); Parsons and Cuthbertson (1992)
Self-propelled	Achenes with hairs are wind-dispersed.		Yes	Krattinger (1975)

Pathway Vectors

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Vector	Notes	Long Distance	Local	References
Clothing, footwear and possessions	Achenes with hairs.		Yes	Parsons and Cuthbertson (1992)
Host and vector organisms	Achenes adhere to fish scales.		Yes	Krattinger (1975)
Water	Achenes with hairs, rhizomes.		Yes	Grace and Harrison (1986); Parsons and Cuthbertson (1992)
Wind	Achenes with hairs.	Yes	Yes	Krattinger (1975)

Impact Summary

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Category	Impact
Economic/livelihood	Positive and negative
Environment (generally)	Positive and negative

Economic Impact

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T. domingensis can interfere with agriculture in wet areas. With the adoption of year-round rice cropping in Australia, T. domingensis invaded fields and decreased yields by 5% (Sykes 1981, cited in Finlayson et al., 1983). In central Mexico’s Lake Pátzcuaro, T. domingensis can invade low-lying cornfields. This species also tends to replace the bulrush Schoenoplectus californicus, a valuable species traditionally used to weave mats (Hall, 2008). In southern Mexico, T. domingensis invades wetlands used for horse pasture, and replaces valuable fodder (S Hall, University of Wisconsin, USA, personal communication, 2009). In lacustrine wetlands, T. domingensis can interfere with fishing and water transportation (Mitchell, 1985).

Environmental Impact

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Impact on Habitats

In arid climates, Typha spp. can deplete water supplies through excessive evapotranspiration (Morton, 1975). T. domingensis increased evapotranspiration by 65% relative to open water (Brezny et al., 1973). Alternatively, dense T. domingensis monotypes can retard water flow through drainage canals, causing flooding and siltation (Findlayson et al., 1983; Parson and Cuthbertson, 1992). The congener T. x glauca appears to alter soil microbial community structure relative to the plants it replaces, leading to increased nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations and lower water quality (Angeloni et al., 2006). In the Florida Everglades, T. domingensis doubled gaseous mercury production relative to Cladium jamaicense (Lindberg et al., 2002).

Impact on Biodiversity

Dense T. domingensis monotypes can decrease the abundance of many waterfowl species by decreasing open water habitat (McCoy et al., 1994; Smith and Breininger, 1995), although some bird species breed in Typha monotypes (Shy et al., 1998). Quantitative effects of T. domingensis on species richness are less documented but richness declined precipitously when cover of the congener T. x glauca cover increased in wetlands of the Midwestern United States (Frieswyk and Zedler, 2006; Boers et al., 2007).

Threatened Species

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Threatened Species	Conservation Status	Where Threatened	Mechanism	References	Notes
Eudyptes pachyrhynchus (Fiordland crested penguin)	VU (IUCN red list: Vulnerable); USA ESA listing as threatened species	Puerto Rico	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2013)

Social Impact

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Typha invasion can reduce opportunities for waterfowl hunting and viewing, and decrease the aesthetic value of natural areas by lowering biodiversity, for example, in Costa Rica’s Palo Verde National Park (McCoy et al., 1994).

Risk and Impact Factors

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Invasiveness

Invasive in its native range
Has a broad native range
Abundant in its native range
Highly adaptable to different environments
Is a habitat generalist
Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
Pioneering in disturbed areas
Highly mobile locally
Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
Long lived
Fast growing
Has high reproductive potential
Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
Reproduces asexually
Has high genetic variability

Impact outcomes

Altered trophic level
Damaged ecosystem services
Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
Infrastructure damage
Modification of hydrology
Modification of natural benthic communities
Modification of nutrient regime
Modification of successional patterns
Monoculture formation
Negatively impacts agriculture
Negatively impacts cultural/traditional practices
Negatively impacts livelihoods
Negatively impacts aquaculture/fisheries
Reduced amenity values
Reduced native biodiversity
Soil accretion
Threat to/ loss of native species
Transportation disruption

Impact mechanisms

Competition - monopolizing resources
Competition - shading
Hybridization
Rapid growth

Likelihood of entry/control

Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
Difficult to identify/detect in the field
Difficult/costly to control

Uses

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Economic Value

T. domingensis leaves are used for weaving in many cultures (Morton, 1975). In central Mexico, an armful of leaves sold for US $1-3 in July 2007 (Hall, 2008). T. domingensis produces a toxic oil, so its starch-filled rhizomes are inedible, but protein-rich pollen is a valuable food in some regions (Morton, 1975).

Social Benefit

T. domingensis could provide valuable raw materials, protein, wastewater treatment, fertilizer (when burned), and industrial-site remediation.

Environmental Services

When growing sparsely, T. domingensis provides cover for wildlife and reduces channel erosion (Parsons and Cuthbertson, 1992). In Israel, T. domingensis monotypes provided nesting sites for egrets and herons (Shy et al., 1998). Typha might be most appropriate for remediating industrial sites, because of a generally high tolerance for heavy metals (McNaughton et al., 1974). Natural and artificial wetlands dominated by T. domingensis reduced sulfates and heavy metals in outflow water from mine tailings (Noller et al., 1994). T. domingensis has been used in wastewater treatment wetlands, but its functional superiority to other wetland species is unclear. T. domingensis reduced chemical oxygen demand of pulp mill wastewater in Kenya (Abira et al., 2003). Treatment wetlands, however, are easily overloaded (Finlayson et al., 1987), and concentrated effluent from feedlots can be toxic to T. domingensis (Bowmer, 1985).

Uses List

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Animal feed, fodder, forage

Fodder/animal feed
Forage

Environmental

Boundary, barrier or support
Erosion control or dune stabilization
Wildlife habitat

General

Ritual uses
Sociocultural value
Souvenirs

Human food and beverage

Food additive

Materials

Baskets
Fertilizer
Fibre
Green manure

Medicinal, pharmaceutical

Traditional/folklore

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

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T. domingensis often grows with T. latifolia, T. angustifolia, T. orientalis. Floral characters of these species, summarized from Smith (1967, 2000), are described below. See Smith (2000) for descriptions of hybrids.

T. latifolia is characterized by: absence of pistillate bracteoles; broad stigmas (ovate to lanceolate); compound pedicels long, soft, and slender (1.5-3.5 mm), visible after flowers are removed from the spike axis; pistillate spikes green at anthesis, black at maturity; pistil hairs linear, colorless; staminate bracteoles colorless; tetrad pollen. Pistillate and staminate spikes are normally contiguous, and mature pistillate spikes (24-36 mm) and leaves (10-29 mm) are wider than in other species.

T. angustifolia shares many characters with T. domingensis (compound pedicels short and stiff, stigmas linear, pistillate bracteoles present, monad pollen), but is distinguished by: pistillate bracteoles dark to medium brown; pistil hairs brown, with enlarged apices, equaling or exceeding bracteoles; pistillate spikes dark brown; staminate bracteoles brown, sometimes bifid; absence of mucilage glands from adaxial leaf sheath surfaces. Pistillate and staminate spikes are normally separated by a gap of 1-12 cm, mature pistillate spikes are 10-22 mm wide, and leaves are 4-14 mm wide.

T. x glauca has characters intermediate to its parents, T. angustifolia and T. latifolia: pistillate bracteoles slender, brown-colorless, difficult to distinguish from pistil hairs; pistil hair apices colorless, sometimes with an apical brown cell; narrow, apparently linear stigmas; monad, diad, triad, or tetrad pollen. Compound pedicles (0.7-1.3 mm long) leaves (5-19- mm wide), mature pistillate spikes (14-27 mm wide) and the spike gap (4-33 mm long) are all intermediate in measurement to the parental species.

T. orientalis is found in Australia, and is characterized by: few, narrowly-spathulate pistillate bracteoles; narrow to obovate stigmas. Compared to T. domingensis, females spikes are generally wider (10-30 mm), have a shorter length to width ratio (5-10 times long as wide), have a shorter spike gap (0-20 mm), and leaves often have a darker blue colour (Finlayson et al., 1983, 1985).

Prevention and Control

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Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Prevention

Prevention is difficult given Typha’s prolific seed production and rhizome expansion. Reducing anthropogenic disturbance of soil and vegetation could reduce establishment, but disturbance by animals can still create germination sites, even in protected wetlands. Maintaining natural hydrology, salinity, and nutrient levels could reduce the density and spread of Typha after it establishes. Maintaining consistently high water levels (> 1.2 m) in managed wetlands could prevent establishment from seed (Ivens, 1967).

Eradication

Seed banks of the congener T. x glauca often contain hundreds of viable seeds/m²(van der Valk and Davis, 1978). Eradication of T. domingensis would require yearly surveillance to kill new clones as they establish.

Control

Physical/mechanical control

Burning, cutting, and grazing often reduce Typha spp. when followed by flooding. These methods remove leaf tissue that Typha requires to transport oxygen to underwater rhizomes. Deprived of oxygen, Typha respires anaerobically and accumulates ethanol as a toxic byproduct, causing mortality (Sale and Wetzel, 1983). High water levels are necessary to maintain Typha in an anaerobic environment after it re-sprouts. Water depths sufficient for complete mortality of Typha spp. after cutting have ranged from 26-80 cm, and experiments where water levels varied spatially showed increased re-growth in shallow water relative to deeper water (Shekhov, 1974; Beule and Hine, 1979; Murkin and Ward, 1980; Mallik and Wein, 1985; Ball, 1990). Cutting Typha while ramets are flowering and rhizome carbohydrate reserves are low reduces re-growth (Linde et al., 1976; Singh et al., 1976). Fires in flooded wetlands do not normally reduce Typha, probably because underwater leaf tissue is not damaged (Mallik and Wein, 1985; Grieco et al., 2005; Lee et al., 2005). In drained wetlands, fire can sometimes reduce Typha by damaging rhizomes directly (Mallik and Wein, 1985). Soil-burning fires can benefit Typha by increasing nutrient availability (Newman et al., 1998; Smith and Newman, 2001), but post-fire nutrient pulses might only increase growth temporarily (Ponzio et al., 2004). Successive water-level drawdowns could favor sedges (e.g. Eleocharis spp.) over Typha (Palma-Silva et al., 2005). Draining and bulldozing provides destructive but effective control (Parsons and Cuthbertson, 1992). Sheep grazing decreased T. domingensis density in the soil seed bank (Nicol et al., 2007).

Biological control

Muskrats can decimate Typha spp. in temperate areas (Kadlec et al., 2007), and in Utah, herbivory by waterfowl and muskrats on Typha spp. appeared to increase following fire (Smith and Kadlec, 1985).

Chemical control

Herbicides can reduce Typha in the short-term, including glyphosate, amitrole-T, amino-triazole, TCA, 2,2-DPA, or MCPA (Finlayson et al., 1983; Annen, 2007). These are effectively applied during flowering or when leaves begin to senesce.

Control by utilization

Harvesting Typha leaves can reduce re-growth, if followed by flooding.

Monitoring and Surveillance

Dense T. domingensis monotypes are visible on aerial photos and their expansion can be tracked over time (Urban et al., 1993).

Ecosystem Restoration

Restoring natural hydrology, preventing prolonged flooding, and reducing nutrient loads should minimize Typha’s spread and ameliorate effects on diversity. A multi-billion dollar engineering effort aims to restore natural hydroperiods to the Florida Everglades (Sklar et al., 2005).