Tephrosia candida (white tephrosia)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Introductions
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Rainfall Regime
- Soil Tolerances
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Economic Impact
- Environmental Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Links to Websites
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pageIdentity
Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Tephrosia candida (Roxb.) DC.
Preferred Common Name
- white tephrosia
Other Scientific Names
- Cracca candida (Roxb.) Kuntze
- Kiesera candida (DC.) Reinw.
- Kiesera sericea Blume
- Robinia candida Roxb.
- Robinia sericea C.Presl
- Xiphocarpus candidus (DC.) Hassk.
- Xiphocarpus candidus Endl
- Xiphocarpus martinicensis C.Presl
International Common Names
- English: hoang pea; white hoary pea
- French: indigo blanc; indigo sauvage
- Chinese: bai hui mao dou
Local Common Names
- Bangladesh: bangara; bogamedula
- Brazil: tefrósia
- French Polynesia: requie'nie
- India: boga medalo; boga-medeloa; kulthi; lashita; masethi
- Indonesia: enceng-enceng; kapeping badah; poko tom
- Micronesia, Federated states of: uppin
- Papua New Guinea: pis pea
- Vietnam: cot khi
EPPO code
- TEPCA (Tephrosia candida)
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageTephrosia candida is a drought-tolerant, nitrogen-fixing shrub native to South and South-East Asia. It is commonly used in agroforestry systems, especially for soil improvement and erosion control. It is also used as a green manure and in extended fallows, contour hedgerows, and as a shade and nurse tree. It has been widely introduced to many tropical regions for these purposes. Although now widespread, T. candida is only reported as invasive in a few countries, including parts of China (Hong Kong and Hunan), Taiwan, Reunion and a few Pacific islands (Hawaii, Cook Islands, Samoa, Palau and Micronesia). It has the ability to form dense thickets, especially in disturbed areas, the resulting monocultures reducing the growth of native species.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Fabales
- Family: Fabaceae
- Subfamily: Faboideae
- Genus: Tephrosia
- Species: Tephrosia candida
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageTephrosia is a large genus of tropical and subtropical herbs or shrubs belonging to the legume family Fabaceae, in subfamily Faboideae (also called the Papilionoideae). Taxonomically there are issues regarding the delimitations of T. candida and its relationship to closely related species. For example, a type specimen designated as T. candida DC. in collections originating from the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) was confirmed by Stevenson et al. (2012) as T. vogelii on the basis of morphological comparison with verified herbarium specimens and DNA sequence analysis.
The generic name Tephrosia is from the Greek word tephros meaning ashen, a reference to the greyish appearance of its leaves imparted by dense trichomes. The specific name candida means pure white in Latin, likely in reference to the flower colour.
Description
Top of pageT. candida is an erect shrub or small tree up to 3.5 m tall, occasionally to 5 m, with straggling branches from the base. Stems ridged, greyish white, tomentose, trichomes about 1 mm across. Leaves are spirally arranged, imparipinnate, with stipules 5-11 mm x 0.8-1.5 mm, often caduceus. Rachis 15-25 cm long including the petiole 1-3 cm long, with a brown indumentum, containing 6-13 pairs of leaflets that are opposite, narrowly ovate, elliptical to narrowly obovate, (1.3-) 3-6 (-7.5) cm long and 0.5-1.7 cm wide, glaucous green, soft, with silvery indumentum, the base and apex being acute, long-mucronate, and venation distinct below, with 30-50 secondary veins on each side of the midvein.
Inflorescences are terminal, axillary or leaf-opposed pseudoracemes, usually 15-20 cm but up to-40 cm long. There are few basal bracts, leaf-like, upper bracts narrowly triangular, 2.2-6 mm long and 0.5-1.5 mm across, often caduceus. Flowers are in fascicles of 5-13, 13-26 mm long, white, silky, with dark brown hairs on the outside; the calyx campanulate, broadly ovate to obovate, 13-25 x 11-25 mm, apex rounded to emarginate, acuminate, claw 1-5 mm long, wings 12-20 x 5.5-13 mm, glabrous, lateral pockets sometimes bulging; stamens 10, vexillary filament free at base, other filaments alternately longer and shorter. The corolla is white, rarely yellow or pale pink, and densely sericeous. Ovaries are tomentose, with numerous ovules.
Pods are linear, 7-12 cm long and 0.5-1 cm across, straight, with a thin dry pericarp turning from green to olive brown, light brown to dark brown in colour and covered with silky hairs (tomentose with a mixture of long and short trichomes). Slightly convex around parts that contain each of the 10-15 seeds, and the apex is truncate with a straight beak 1 cm long. Seeds are broadly ovoid, campylotropous and reniform, 4-5.5 x 3-4 mm, olive-green, brown or greyish-brown with dark patches (Oliveira et al., 2000; Orwa et al., 2009).
Distribution
Top of pageThe native range of T. candida is debated. It may be native to a broad area covering the Indian subcontinent and parts of South-East Asia as well as some Indian Ocean islands (ILDIS, 2013), though some sources note a native range restricted to India (e.g. USDA-ARS, 2015) or even just to Malaysia. Introduction and naturalization have certainly confused attempts to identify the exact limits to the native range. For the purposes of this datasheet, the broad range as defined by ILDIS (2013) is used, which includes Nepal, Bhutan, India and Bangladesh, and also Peninsular Malaysia and parts of Indonesia.
T. candida has been introduced into neighbouring countries, including Sri Lanka, China, the Philippines, Papua New Guinea and some other South-East Asian countries. It has also been introduced to parts of Africa and South America, and even to the Republic of Georgia. Kairo et al. (2003) note it as widespread in the Caribbean, but do not indicate whether it has become naturalized. Introductions have also been made to various Pacific and Indian Ocean islands where, in some cases, the species has become invasive (Cook Islands, Micronesia (Pohnpei Island), Hawaii, Samoa and Reunion) (PIER, 2015).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 10 Feb 2022Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Planted | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
||||||||
Benin | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Cameroon | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Congo, Democratic Republic of the | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Côte d'Ivoire | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Ghana | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Kenya | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Liberia | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Madagascar | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Malawi | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Mauritius | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Rodrigues | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Mozambique | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Nigeria | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Réunion | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
São Tomé and Príncipe | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Seychelles | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Sierra Leone | Present | Introduced | ||||||
South Africa | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Tanzania | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Uganda | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Zimbabwe | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Asia |
||||||||
Bangladesh | Present | Native | ||||||
Bhutan | Present | Planted | ||||||
Cambodia | Present | Introduced | ||||||
China | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
-Fujian | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Guangdong | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Guangxi | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Hainan | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Hunan | Present | Introduced | 2013 | Invasive | First record in this province | |||
-Sichuan | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Yunnan | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Georgia | Present | Introduced | 1940 | |||||
Hong Kong | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
India | Present, Widespread | Native | Likely to be present in all states | |||||
-Andaman and Nicobar Islands | Present | Native | ||||||
-Andhra Pradesh | Present | Native | ||||||
-Arunachal Pradesh | Present | Native | ||||||
-Assam | Present | Native | ||||||
-Bihar | Present | Native | ||||||
-Goa | Present | Native | ||||||
-Gujarat | Present | Native | ||||||
-Karnataka | Present | Native | ||||||
-Madhya Pradesh | Present | Native | ||||||
-Maharashtra | Present | Native | ||||||
-Manipur | Present | Native | ||||||
-Meghalaya | Present | Native | ||||||
-Odisha | Present | Native | ||||||
-Rajasthan | Present | Native | ||||||
-Sikkim | Present | Native | ||||||
-Tamil Nadu | Present | Native | ||||||
-Tripura | Present | Native | ||||||
-Uttar Pradesh | Present | Native | ||||||
-Uttarakhand | Present | Native | ||||||
-West Bengal | Present | Native | ||||||
Indonesia | Present, Widespread | Native | ||||||
-Java | Present | Native | ||||||
-Lesser Sunda Islands | Present | Native | ||||||
-Maluku Islands | Present | Native | ||||||
-Sulawesi | Present | Native | ||||||
-Sumatra | Present | Native | ||||||
Japan | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Laos | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Malaysia | Present | |||||||
-Peninsular Malaysia | Present | Native | ||||||
-Sabah | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Sarawak | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Myanmar | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Nepal | Present | Native | ||||||
Philippines | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Sri Lanka | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Taiwan | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
Thailand | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Vietnam | Present | Introduced | ||||||
North America |
||||||||
Antigua and Barbuda | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Bahamas | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Barbados | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Cuba | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Dominica | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Dominican Republic | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Grenada | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Guadeloupe | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Haiti | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Honduras | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Jamaica | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Martinique | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Netherlands Antilles | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Puerto Rico | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Saint Kitts and Nevis | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Saint Lucia | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Trinidad and Tobago | Present | Introduced | ||||||
U.S. Virgin Islands | Present | Introduced | ||||||
United States | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | ||||||
-Hawaii | Present | Planted | ||||||
Oceania |
||||||||
Australia | Present | Introduced | 1959 | |||||
-Queensland | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Cook Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
Federated States of Micronesia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Invasive on island of Pohnpei | ||||
French Polynesia | Present | Introduced | ||||||
New Caledonia | Present | Introduced | ||||||
New Zealand | Present | |||||||
Niue | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Palau | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Papua New Guinea | Present | Planted | ||||||
Samoa | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
Solomon Islands | Present | Planted | disagreement among authorities as to whether introduced or native | |||||
South America |
||||||||
Argentina | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Bolivia | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Brazil | Present, Few occurrences | Introduced | ||||||
-Para | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Sao Paulo | Present | Introduced | 1930 | |||||
Chile | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Colombia | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Ecuador | Present | Introduced | ||||||
French Guiana | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Guyana | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Paraguay | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Peru | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Suriname | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Uruguay | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Venezuela | Present | Introduced |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageLittle information is forthcoming regarding exact dates of introduction of T. candida outside its native range. It was, however, reported to have been introduced from Asia to São Paulo, Brazil, in 1930 (Inforzato, 1947). Using seed apparently of African origin, T. candida and five other Tephrosia species were introduced in 1940 as potential medicinal crops for the production of rotenone to southwestern Transcaucasia, a region that is now in the Republic of Georgia; T. candida, T. vogelii, T. rigida and T. grandiflora grew and developed well in the region with its humid subtropical climate (Razdorskaja, 1941).
Introductions
Top of pageIntroduced to | Introduced from | Year | Reason | Introduced by | Established in wild through | References | Notes | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Natural reproduction | Continuous restocking | |||||||
Georgia (Republic of) | Africa | 1940 | Medicinal use (pathway cause) | Razdorskaja (1941) | ||||
Sao Paulo | Asia | 1930 | Crop production (pathway cause) | Inforzato (1947) |
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageBased on its multiple uses and value in agroforestry systems for improving soils and reducing erosion, and as a shade and nurse tree, it could be expected that further intentional introduction of T. candida is likely. However, PIER (2015) reports two risk assessments undertaken on T. candida that show it poses a ‘high risk’ (score 8) of becoming a serious pest in the Pacific region, and in Australia, with a ‘reject’ score of 11, it also poses a high risk and is rejected for import.
Habitat
Top of pageThe natural habitat of T. candida is mainly primary and secondary forest in seasonally dry tropical climates, along riverbanks and now also disturbed land, cultivated fields, roadsides, on sandy soils in coastal areas and also on steep slopes and very poor, eroded uplands (Orwa et al., 2009). Where introduced and cultivated, it has escaped in some areas, and in Hong Kong and Taiwan has invaded grasslands, open places and sloping land (PIER, 2015).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | ||||
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Principal habitat | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Principal habitat | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Principal habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Natural |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Natural |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
The chromosome number is 2n = 22 (Bairiganjan and Patnaik, 1989).
Reproductive Biology
T. candida reproduces by seed. The interval between flowering and seed maturation is normally 5-10 weeks. When the seeds are ripe, the pods dehisce and lose their seeds. There are between 300 and 500 seeds per kg. The embryo in the seed is invaginated, of the papilionaceous type, with a curved, falciform and pleurorized embryonic axis, a rudimentary and yellowish plumule, fleshy ellipsoidal cotyledons with an exposed radicle (Oliveira et al., 2000). Seeds of all Tephrosia species exhibit innate dormancy at varying levels (Babayemi et al., 2003). Seed storage trials showed that T. candida seeds could survive at least 3 years under open storage conditions without loss of viability (Orwa et al., 2009).
Physiology and Phenology
T. candida is slow to establish but grows steadily thereafter. Flowering times range from all year round in Malaysia to only 2 months of the year in Vietnam (Orwa et al., 2009).
Although Orwa et al. (2009) note that the species is deep rooting, a study by Inforzato (1947) showed that more than 99% of the root mass was in the top 50 cm of the red soil in which it was found growing, although a very small proportion of the roots went lower, to a maximum of 3.85 m deep. The total root weight of 16 measured plants was 8.8 kg, rich in nodule bacteria after 5 years.
Associations
As a legume, T. candida forms root nodules with Bradyrhizobium and fixes large amounts of atmospheric nitrogen; Turk and Keyser (1992) found it to be promiscuous with over 30 bradyrhizobial strains for both nodulation and nitrogen fixation effectiveness. Chen et al. (1997) found strains of Rhizobium hainanense present in T. candida root nodules.
Environmental Requirements
T. candida grows in the seasonally dry tropics up to 1600 m altitude, with mean annual temperatures of 18-28ºC and mean annual rainfall of 700-2500 mm. It does not tolerate any frost or waterlogging. It prefers acid soils, tolerating a soil pH of as low as 3.5; the more acidic soils often appear more suitable (Orwa et al., 2009). It also grows on coastal sands, eroded upland soils and mine spoils where few other plants grow.
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
Af - Tropical rainforest climate | Tolerated | > 60mm precipitation per month | |
Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Tolerated | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Tolerated | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | |
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Tolerated | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
30 | 40 | 0 | 1200 |
Air Temperature
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit |
---|---|---|
Absolute minimum temperature (ºC) | 2 | |
Mean annual temperature (ºC) | 18 | 30 |
Mean maximum temperature of hottest month (ºC) | 25 | 38 |
Mean minimum temperature of coldest month (ºC) | 4 | 20 |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Dry season duration | 0 | 5 | number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall |
Mean annual rainfall | 700 | 3000 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
Soil reaction
- acid
- neutral
- very acid
Soil texture
- light
- medium
Special soil tolerances
- infertile
- shallow
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Aphis gossypii | Herbivore | Plants|Stems | not specific | |||
Araecerus fasciculatus | Herbivore | Plants|Seeds | not specific | |||
Coptosoma siamicum | Herbivore | Plants|Whole plant | not specific | |||
Diplodia | Pathogen | Plants|Growing point; Plants|Stems | not specific | |||
Ganoderma | Pathogen | Plants|Roots | not specific | |||
Glomerella cingulata | Pathogen | Plants|Leaves | not specific | |||
Icerya seychellarum | Pathogen | Plants|Leaves; Plants|Stems | not specific | |||
Maruca vitrata | Herbivore | Fruits|pods; Plants|Inflorescence | not specific | |||
Megalurothrips sjostedti | Herbivore | Plants|Inflorescence | not specific | |||
Meloidogyne ethiopica | Parasite | Plants|Roots | not specific | |||
Mocis undata | Herbivore | Plants|Leaves | not specific | |||
Nectria | Pathogen | Plants|Stems | not specific | |||
Ophiomyia centrosematis | Herbivore | Plants|Stems | not specific | |||
Phanerochaete salmonicolor | Pathogen | Plants|Leaves; Plants|Stems | not specific | |||
Rastrococcus iceryoides | Herbivore | Plants|Leaves; Plants|Stems | not specific | |||
Rosellinia bunodes | Pathogen | Plants|Roots | not specific | |||
Sinoxylon conigerum | Herbivore | Plants|Stems | not specific | |||
Subanguina radicicola | Parasite | Plants|Roots | not specific |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageRecords of pest and disease attacks date from as long ago as 1930-31, when T. candida was already being used as an important plant associate in commercial plantation crops. In Indonesian rubber plantations, Steinmann (1931) noted infections on T. candida of Corticium salmonicolor [Phanerochaete salmonicolor], Fomes lamaoensis [Fomitopsis lamaoensis] and Nectria in West Java, of Diplodia sp. in eastern Sumatra, and of Rosellinia bunodes in southern Sumatra.T. candida was noted as a new host for Colletotrichum gloeosporioides in Assam, India, in 1991 (Ali and Saikia, 1991). Orwa et al. (2009) also note that T. candida is susceptible to species of Fomes, Ganoderma and Rosellinia root rot fungi, as well as the nematode Heterodera radicola [Subanguina radicicola].
In the Seychelles, the coccinellids Rodolia chermesina, Scymnus (Nephus) oblongosignatus and Scymnus constrictus var. inter-cisus were found on T. candida attacked by Icerya seychellarum (Dupont, 1931). Among green manure plants and cover crops growing in Sri Lanka, Aphis gossypii and Coptosoma siamicum were recorded on T. candida, along with various termites and generalist pests (Hutson, 1931). In Indonesia, the tephrosia beetle (Araecerus fasciculatus) attacks young pods; it used to be a serious pest making seed difficult to obtain, but is now easily controlled with insecticides if required (Orwa et al., 2009). Other pests recorded as attacking T. candida include Megalurothrips sjostedti (bean flower thrips), Meloidogyne ethiopica (root-knot nematode), Mocis undata, Ophiomyia centrosematis (stemfly), Rastrococcus iceryoides (mango mealy bug) and Sinoxylon conigerum (conifer auger beetle). The flowers and fruits are susceptible to damage from Maruca vitrata (Chan, 1982).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageNatural Dispersal
Planted for erosion control on steep slopes, it may be expected that seed would be transported down slopes by gravity and could be washed along water courses after rainfall events. The large seeds and the fact that pods are dry and dehiscent suggest that seed dispersal may be more likely via physical events rather than with the aid of biotic vectors.
Intentional Introduction
Most long distance movement of T. candida is likely to be via intentional introduction for its noted value as an agroforestry species, for soil improvement, erosion control and other environmental services provided.
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Crop production | Yes | Yes | ||
Escape from confinement or garden escape | Yes | |||
Forage | Yes | Yes | ||
Forestry | Yes | Yes | ||
Habitat restoration and improvement | Yes | Yes | ||
Hedges and windbreaks | Yes | Yes | ||
Medicinal use | Yes | Yes | ||
Ornamental purposes | Yes | Yes |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Cultural/amenity | Positive |
Economic/livelihood | Positive |
Environment (generally) | Positive and negative |
Economic Impact
Top of pageT. candida is widely cultivated for various reasons, including as a cover crop and green manure. However, in some places, especially parts of China, Taiwan, Reunion and a few Pacific islands (Cook Islands, Hawaii, Palau, Samoa and Micronesia), it has escaped from cultivation and become a noxious weed requiring eradication.
Environmental Impact
Top of pageImpact on Biodiversity
T. candida is able to form dense thickets, especially in disturbed areas (Space and Imada, 2004), and the resulting monocultures can suppress the growth of native species.
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Tolerant of shade
- Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
- Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Competition - shading
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
- Difficult/costly to control
Uses
Top of pageEconomic Value
The leaves of T. candida are high in protein and are used as a fodder for livestock, the wood is used for fuel and there are many other uses of the plant’s parts. It is cultivated as a mulch, green manure, nurse crop and windbreak (Orwa et al., 2009). It is planted as a shade tree in agroforestry systems (Nguyen and Thai, 1993) and as a nurse tree for commercial timber species, such as Shorea robusta in India (Krishnaswany, 1956).
When grown for fodder, T. candida was reported to produce almost 11 t DM per hectare at the first 7-month harvest, whereas the common fodder species Leucaena leucocephala had not even reached 100 cm in height (Odedire and Babayemi, 2007).
T. candida, as well as T. vogelii and Mucuna pruriens, were identified as potential species for enhancing crop yields in the coastal areas of Kenya through their contribution to soil nitrogen balance, and production could be further increased with rhizobial inoculation and addition of phosphorus (Kiraithe et al., 2009).
In newly planted perennial crops such as citrus, coconut, coffee, clove, teak, rubber and tea, T. candida is grown as a temporary shade crop. It is also widely grown in intercropping situations, for example with pineapple, maize and other annual crops, and is reported to improve the quality of tobacco (Orwa et al., 2009). It has been intercropped with cassava on degraded acid soils in Vietnam (Huynh, 1993).
Extracts from T. candida are used for their insecticidal properties (Stoll, 1996). Leaf extracts have been shown to deter the feeding of the root weevil Diaprepes abbreviatus (Lapointe et al., 2003). In addition to insecticidal properties, extracts contain various flavonoids that possess piscicidal and many therapeutic properties (ILDIS, 2013). Rotenoids with potential insecticidal and piscicidal activities have been isolated from roots of T. candida (Andrei et al., 1997).
T. candida has also been used in controlling Imperata cylindrica especially after fire, as T. candida can grow quickly and shade out the shade-intolerant I. cylindrica (Conservator of Forests, Ceylon, 1954).
Social Benefit
In western Kenya, farmers typically plant fallows at high plants densities (more than 100,000 plants/ha), and it was found that 0.25 ha of T. candida and some other high producing species more than met the fuelwood needs of an average family (Jama et al., 2008); T. candida produced the most fuelwood of all the species tested, with almost 9 t/ha after 6 months.
T. candida is also planted as a boundary, barrier, support or windbreak, and is well adapted for being grown in contour hedges and in hedgerows around fields and home gardens (Wu et al., 2009).
T. candida is also sometimes grown as an ornamental tree (Orwa et al., 2009).
Environmental Services
T. candida is particularly valuable for the environmental services the plant provides, such as erosion control, soil conservation and soil improvement (Orwa et al., 2009). When T. candida was grown as a green manure in Kenya (Kiraithe et al., 2009), it produced large amounts of nitrogen for recycling after fallow periods. The species forms root nodules with Bradyrhizobium and fixes large amounts of atmospheric nitrogen. T. candida is reported to not only provide nitrogen but also raise soil phosphorus and potassium levels in proportion to increased levels of organic matter (Orwa et al., 2009), improving soil structure, water-holding capacity and permeability.
T. candida grows well on acid and impoverished soils, and its soil improving characteristics have led to its use as a pioneer plant, sown to provide ground cover between perennial crops for erosion control, rehabilitating degraded land, and in contour hedgerows to prevent soil erosion on steep slopes (Gichuru, 1994; Ha, 1994).
Uses List
Top of pageAnimal feed, fodder, forage
- Fodder/animal feed
- Forage
Environmental
- Agroforestry
- Boundary, barrier or support
- Erosion control or dune stabilization
- Land reclamation
- Revegetation
- Soil conservation
- Soil improvement
- Windbreak
Fuels
- Fuelwood
Human food and beverage
- Honey/honey flora
Materials
- Chemicals
- Green manure
- Mulches
- Pesticide
- Wood/timber
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
Ornamental
- garden plant
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageLike T. candida, T. vogelii is a shrub up to 3 m tall. It has a similar leaf type and white flowers. The two species can be distinguished, however, by calyx morphology: in T. candida the calyx is 5-8 mm long, and the teeth are shorter than the tube, while in T. vogelii the calyx is 10-15 mm long, and the teeth are longer than the tube. T. vogelii also produces longer pods (10-14 cm) (Hacker, 1990).
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Physical/Mechanical Control
Hand pulling can be carried out with small plants and can be effective in small patches.
References
Top of pageAli MS; Saikia UN, 1991. New host records. Indian Phytopathology, 44(4):558-559
AVH, 2015. Australia's Virtual Herbarium. Canberra, ACT, Australia: Council of Heads of Australasian Herbaria. http://avh.chah.org.au/
Bairiganjan GC; Patnaik SN, 1989. Chromosomal evolution in Fabaceae. Cytologia, 54(1):51-64.
Chan Dang Dinh, 1982. Growing techniques of some green manure plants on steep slopes. Hanoi, Vietnam: Agriculture Publishing House.
Conservator of Forests Ceylon, 1954. Eradication of illuk (Imperata cylindrica) in teak plantations. In: Administration Report of the Conservator of Forests, Ceylon, 1953. Part 2. 26-27.
Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2015. Flora of China. St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2
GBIF, 2015. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. http://www.gbif.org/species
Hacker JB, 1990. A guide to herbaceous and shrub legumes of Queensland. St. Lucia, QLD, Australia: University of Queensland Press, 351 pp. http://www.tropicalgrasslands.au/Legumes%20of%20Qld/Contents%20index.htm
ILDIS, 2013. International Legume Database & Information Service. Reading, UK: School of Plant Sciences, Unversity of Reading. http://www.ildis.org/
Ke La Kha, 1973. The common plants of Vietnam. Volume 3. Hanoi, Vietnam: Science and Technical Publishing House.
Khoi Nguyen Dang, 1968. Green manure plants belonging to the Leguminosae family in the north of Vietnam. Research on soil and manure. Volume 1. Hanoi, Vietnam: Science and Technical Publishing House.
Lan Do Dinh, 1961. Green manure plants. Hanoi, Vietnam: Rural Publishing House.
Missouri Botanical Garden, 2015. Tropicos database. St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/
Orwa C; Mutua A; Kindt R; Jamnadass R; Simons A, 2009. Tephrosia candida. Agroforestree Database: a tree reference and selection guide. Version 4. Nairobi, Kenya: World Agroforestry Centre. http://www.worldagroforestry.org/treedb/AFTPDFS/Tephrosia_candida.pdf
Oyen LPA, 1997. Tephrosia candida (Roxb.) DC. In: Plant resources of South-East Asia 11: Auxillary plants [ed. by Faridah Hanum, I. \Maesen, L. J. G. van der]. Leiden, Netherlands: Backhuys, 244-246.
PIER, 2015. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Space JC; Flynn T, 2002b. Report to the Government of the Cook Islands on invasive plant species of environmental concern. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service Pacific Southwest Research Station, Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, 148 pp. http://www.hear.org/pier/pdf/cook_islands_report.pdf
Space JC; Imada CT, 2004. Report to the Republic of Kiribati on invasive plant species on the islands of Tarawa, Abemama, Butaritari and Maiana. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service and Bishop Museum, 103 pp.
The Plant List, 2013. The Plant List: a working list of all plant species. Version 1.1. London, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://www.theplantlist.org
USDA-ARS, 2015. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx
USDA-NRCS, 2015. The PLANTS Database. Baton Rouge, USA: National Plant Data Center. http://plants.usda.gov/
Wu Y; Tang Y; Xu ZH; Fu L, 2009. Study on the sustainable development models of ecological agriculture under contour hedgerow in small watersheds. Pratacultural Science, 26(4):59-63.
Distribution References
Ali M S, Saikia U N, 1991. New host records. Indian Phytopathology. 44 (4), 558-559.
AVH, 2015. Australia's Virtual Herbarium., Canberra, ACT, Australia: Council of Heads of Australasian Herbaria. http://avh.chah.org.au/
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated b. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Dupont P R, 1931. Ann. Rept. Seychelles Dept. of Agric. for the year 1930. 11-13 pp.
Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2015. Flora of China., St. Louis, Missouri; Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2
GBIF, 2015. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. http://www.gbif.org/species
ILDIS, 2013. International Legume Database & Information Service., Reading, UK: School of Plant Sciences, Unversity of Reading. http://www.ildis.org/
Ke La Kha, 1973. The common plants of Vietnam., 3 Hanoi, Vietnam: Science and Technical Publishing House.
Missouri Botanical Garden, 2015. Tropicos database., St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/
Orwa C, Mutua A, Kindt R, Jamnadass R, Simons A, 2009. Tephrosia candida. Agroforestree Database: a tree reference and selection guide., Nairobi, Kenya: World Agroforestry Centre. http://www.worldagroforestry.org/treedb/AFTPDFS/Tephrosia_candida.pdf
PIER, 2015. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk., Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Space JC, Imada, 2004. Report to the Republic of Kiribati on invasive plant species on the islands of Tarawa, Abemama, Butaritari and Maiana., Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service and Bishop Museum. 103 pp.
USDA-ARS, 2015. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx
USDA-NRCS, 2015. The PLANTS Database. Greensboro, North Carolina, USA: National Plant Data Team. https://plants.sc.egov.usda.gov
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Contributors
Top of page06/02/2014 Invasive Species Compendium sections added by:
Nick Pasiecznik, Consultant, France
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