Tecoma stans (yellow bells)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Biology and Ecology
- Soil Tolerances
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Vectors
- Plant Trade
- Impact Summary
- Impact
- Impact: Biodiversity
- Threatened Species
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Links to Websites
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Tecoma stans (L.) Juss. ex Humb., Bonpl. & Kunth
Preferred Common Name
- yellow bells
Other Scientific Names
- Bignonia incise Sweet
- Bignonia stans L.
- Gelseminum stans (L.) Knutze
- Stenolobium quinquejugum Loes.
- Stenolobium stans (L.) Seem.
- Tecoma incise hort. ex DC.
- Tecoma mollis Kunth
International Common Names
- English: trumpetflower; yellow elder; yellow trumpetbush
- Spanish: lluvia de oro; trompeta; trona frente; tronadora
- French: tecoma jaune
- Portuguese: amarelinho; ipê-mírím
Local Common Names
- Pacific Islands: piti
- Germany: Aufrechte Trompetenwinde
- Italy: tecoma giallo
EPPO code
- TECST (Tecoma stans)
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageTaxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Scrophulariales
- Family: Bignoniaceae
- Genus: Tecoma
- Species: Tecoma stans
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageDescription
Top of pageDistribution
Top of pageDistribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 10 Feb 2022Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Botswana | Present | Introduced | |||||
Cabo Verde | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | Original citation: Williams & Williams, 1951 | |||
Ethiopia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Kenya | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Malawi | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Mauritania | Present | Introduced | |||||
Mauritius | Present | Introduced | |||||
Nigeria | Present | Introduced | |||||
Réunion | Present | Introduced | 1856 | ||||
Rwanda | Present | Introduced | |||||
South Africa | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Tanzania | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Uganda | Present | Introduced | |||||
Zambia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Zimbabwe | Present | Introduced | 1981 | ||||
Asia |
|||||||
Bhutan | Present | Introduced | 2001 | ||||
India | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Karnataka | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Madhya Pradesh | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Tamil Nadu | Present | ||||||
-Uttar Pradesh | Present | Introduced | |||||
-West Bengal | Present | Introduced | |||||
Indonesia | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Java | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Pakistan | Present | Introduced | |||||
Philippines | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
North America |
|||||||
Antigua and Barbuda | Present | Native | |||||
Bahamas | Present | Native | |||||
Bonaire, Saint Eustatius and Saba | |||||||
-Saba | Present | ||||||
British Virgin Islands | Present | Native | |||||
Cayman Islands | Present | Native | |||||
Costa Rica | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
Cuba | Present | Native | |||||
Curaçao | Present | ||||||
Dominica | Present | Native | |||||
Dominican Republic | Present | Native | |||||
El Salvador | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
Grenada | Present | Native | |||||
Guadeloupe | Present | Native | |||||
Guatemala | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
Haiti | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
Honduras | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
Jamaica | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
Martinique | Present | Native | |||||
Mexico | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
Montserrat | Present | Native | |||||
Netherlands Antilles | Present | Native | |||||
Nicaragua | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
Panama | Present | Native | |||||
Puerto Rico | Present | Native | |||||
Saint Lucia | Present | Uncertain whether native to Saint Lucia | |||||
Trinidad and Tobago | Present | Native | |||||
U.S. Virgin Islands | Present | Native | |||||
United States | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Arizona | Present | Native | |||||
-Florida | Present, Localized | Native | |||||
-Hawaii | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-New Mexico | Present | Native | |||||
-Texas | Present | Native | |||||
Oceania |
|||||||
American Samoa | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Australia | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Queensland | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Western Australia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Christmas Island | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Cook Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Federated States of Micronesia | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Fiji | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
French Polynesia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Guam | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Kiribati | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Marshall Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
New Caledonia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Niue | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Northern Mariana Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Palau | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Samoa | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Solomon Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Tonga | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
South America |
|||||||
Argentina | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Bolivia | Present | Native | |||||
Brazil | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Distrito Federal | Present | ||||||
-Minas Gerais | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Parana | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Pernambuco | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Rio de Janeiro | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Rio Grande do Norte | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Rio Grande do Sul | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Santa Catarina | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Sao Paulo | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Colombia | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
Ecuador | Present | Native | |||||
Peru | Present | ||||||
Venezuela | Present | Native |
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageHabitat
Top of pageHabitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Hosts/Species Affected
Top of pageBiology and Ecology
Top of pageThe chromosome number is 2n=40 (Pelton, 1964). Natural hybridization with other species has not been recorded.
Physiology and Phenology
There is no seed dormancy known and seed longevity is short (Pelton, 1964). Seedlings establish rapidly with a prominent tap root.
Reproductive Biology
This plant is autocompatible and requires external pollination (Kranz and Passini, 1997). It can flower throughout the year, or flowering can be seasonal, usually in summer and after good rains. Only a small proportion of the flowers set fruit in its native range which can be attributed to drought conditions, pollination failure and insect attack. In contrast, fruit set in countries of introduction is high, e.g. in South Africa. Vegetative reproduction from root and stem cuttings is less important for long distance dispersal but allows for rapid densification of populations after disturbances, including attempts to remove plants mechanically. The vigorous sucker shoots tend to be erect as the specific name 'stans' implies.
Environmental Requirements
The species, which includes the thee recognized subspecies, has a very wide climatic tolerance. It occurs from the south of Arizona and Texas (USA) with a prolonged dry season and sub-zero winter temperatures to the sub-tropics to almost tropical conditions of Chiapas (Mexico) and Guatamala. In Peru it is found at altitudes of up to 3000 m and 2439 m in Hidalgo, Mexico (Pelton, 1964). The climatic tolerance of an invading population will thus depend to a large extent on the origin of the plant. In South Africa, T. stans appears to fit the description of T. stans var. angustata which originated from the northern range of its distribution and explains why it is pre-adapted to prolonged dry conditions and can tolerate frost, whereas the invading populations in Brazil belong to T. stans var. stans which is the more common type found in the sub-tropics and tropics of Mexico, central America and the Caribbean islands and which appears to be less hardy. Deciduousness and a high wilting tolerance allows the species to survive prolonged drought conditions, indication of a habitat which is subject to periodic dry conditions (Pelton, 1964). Low pod production in India during certain months is attributed to pollen degeneration (microsporogenesis) at temperatures between 34 and 44°C (Kumar and Singh, 1988).
Plants are often found growing along steep gradients, road sides and eroded and overgrazed areas. In Mauritius and Jamaica plants grow only 30 m from the sea where they are subject to salt sprays and storm waves. Deforestation has certainly increased its range to areas where it did not previously occur, for example, under shaded forest canopies. High light intensity, good soil drainage and open community vegetation appear to be three important prerequisites for successful colonization, preferably in lithosols and coarse alluvium soils with medium to high pH values.
Associations
T. stans is notably a species of forest margins and of mesic soft-leaved shrub or deciduous sub-tropical vegetation. Other vegetation types mentioned in the literature include 'dry bushy slopes', 'evergreen riparian bush', 'mesquite-grassland zone', 'short tree forests', 'brush lands', 'dry scrub woodlands', etc. (Pelton, 1964). It is an early succession species which aids in fast colonization of disturbed areas, eventually being replaced by climax species within its native range. In non-native areas dense infestations are usually permanent. No particular vascular plants have been found to be consistently associated with T. stans, which is probably an indication of its pioneer status.
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
Soil reaction
- alkaline
- neutral
Soil texture
- heavy
- light
- medium
Special soil tolerances
- infertile
- shallow
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Clydonopteron pomponius | Herbivore | Fruits|pods; Plants|Seeds | ||||
Prospodium appendiculatus | Pathogen | Plants|Growing point; Plants|Inflorescence; Plants|Leaves; Plants|Stems | ||||
Prospodium transformans | Pathogen | Plants|Growing point; Plants|Leaves; Plants|Stems |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageMeans of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageDispersal is mainly by wind and water dispersed winged seeds. These are produced in large quantities almost throughout the year. Regeneration from cut roots and stumps results in dense populations after mechanical disturbances.
Vector Transmission (Biotic)
Little is known of the role of birds in the dispersal of T. stans.
Intentional Introduction
By far the most important mode of global dispersal is through the nursery trade and the attraction of T. stans as a garden ornamental which is assisted by its ease of propagation and rapid growth.
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Clothing, footwear and possessions | Travellers carrying seeds for home cultivation | Yes | ||
Popular garden plant. Seeds are small and travel well | Yes |
Plant Trade
Top of pagePlant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport |
---|
Bark |
Bulbs/Tubers/Corms/Rhizomes |
Flowers/Inflorescences/Cones/Calyx |
Fruits (inc. pods) |
Growing medium accompanying plants |
Leaves |
Roots |
Seedlings/Micropropagated plants |
Stems (above ground)/Shoots/Trunks/Branches |
True seeds (inc. grain) |
Wood |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Animal/plant collections | None |
Animal/plant products | None |
Biodiversity (generally) | Negative |
Crop production | None |
Environment (generally) | Negative |
Fisheries / aquaculture | None |
Forestry production | None |
Human health | Positive |
Livestock production | Negative |
Native fauna | Negative |
Native flora | Negative |
Rare/protected species | Negative |
Tourism | Positive |
Trade/international relations | None |
Transport/travel | None |
Impact
Top of pageImpact: Biodiversity
Top of pageThreatened Species
Top of pageThreatened Species | Conservation Status | Where Threatened | Mechanism | References | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Peucedanum sandwicense (makou) | NatureServe; USA ESA listing as threatened species | Hawaii | Competition - smothering | US Fish and Wildlife Service (2011) |
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Invasive in its native range
- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Highly mobile locally
- Has high reproductive potential
- Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
- Damaged ecosystem services
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Negatively impacts agriculture
- Negatively impacts tourism
- Reduced amenity values
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Competition - smothering
- Pest and disease transmission
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
- Difficult/costly to control
Uses
Top of pageSimilarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pagePrevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
IntroductionIntegrating various control methods is the most effective approach and includes the prevention of new introductions, dispersal and sales by the nursery trade as well as mechanical and chemical control.
Mechanical Control
Maintaining a vigorous ground cover, preventing overgrazing and rehabilitating disturbed areas remains one of the best methods to prevent establishment and invasion of T. stans. Frequent inspections of pastures and forest margins are necessary to locate seedlings that can be hand-pulled. Larger plants can be uprooted by using a tractor, but resprouting from cut roots can cause rapid reinfestation unless the remaining roots are burnt after drying. Rehabilitation of such disturbed areas after uprooting and burning is essential. Follow-up control to remove the regrowth is necessary for at least a year after initial control (Kranz and Passini 1996b, 1997).
Chemical Control
Conventional chemical control methods of shrubs and small trees as practised by most municipalities and counties are not effective against T. stans. Only repeated applications of foliar-applied herbicides are effective but this method is usually not economic. More effective are cut-stump application methods using oil-based or oil/water emulsions of 2,4-D and picloram mixtures. These are generously applied to the freshly cut stumps by spraying or painting. Soil applied tebuthiuron also gave excellent control 270 days after treatment (Kranz and Passini, 1997).
Biological Control
Host specificity tests on two rust fungus species, namely, the microcyclic Prospodium transformans and the macrocyclic P. appendiculatum from Mexico are in progress in South Africa. P. appendiculatum is already present in Brazil and Argentina but is not contributing much to the suppression of populations. Further surveys for additional host-specific natural enemies are planned. A raceme-feeding membracid and the pyralid pod-feeding moth Clydenopteron sp. are to be introduced into quarantine in South Africa for possible biological control.
References
Top of pageAyaz M, Arshad MN, 1999. Traffic noise abatement through tree and shrub vegetation. Pakistan Journal of Forestry, 48:1-11
Berg W, Gross D, Schutte HR, Herrmann M, 1977. Zur Massenspektrometrie der Tecoma-Alkalaoide. Pharmazie, 32:41-45
Bianco A, Guiso M, Marini-Bettolo R, Oguakwa JU, Passacantilli P, 1980. New iridoids from Tecoma stans (from Nigeria) and Lamium Amplexicaule (from Italy). International research congres on natural products as medicinal agents. Planta Medica, 39:268
Fosberg FR, Sachet MH, Oliver RL, 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica, 15:222
Gentry AH, 1992. Bignoniaceae Part II (Tribe Tecomeae). Flora Neotropica. New York, USA: New York Botanical Garden, 285-290
Graveson R, 2012. The Plants of Saint Lucia (in the Lesser Antilles of the Caribbean). The Plants of Saint Lucia (in the Lesser Antilles of the Caribbean). http://www.saintlucianplants.com
Henderson L, 2001. Alien Weeds and Invasive Plants. Plant Protection Research Institute Handbook No. 12. Cape Town, South Africa: Paarl Printers
Kranz WM, Passini T, 1996. Fenologia de Tecoma stans (L.) Kunth como subsidio para seu controle. In: Congresso da Sociedade Botanica de Sao Paulo, 11. Sao Carlos. Proceedings, 103-104
Kranz WM, Passini T, 1996. Tecoma stans (L.) Kunth (Bignoniaceae), planta invasora de pastagens no Estado de Parana. In: Congreso Nacional de Botanica, 42, Novo Friburgo, 1966. Proceedings, 315
Kranz WM, Passini T, 1997. Amarelinho, biologia e controle. Informed a Pesquisa. Estado do Parana, Secretaria da Agricultura e do Abastecimiento, Instituto Agronomico do Parana, No. 121:1-17
Krauss U, 2012. 161 Invasive Alien Species present in Saint Lucia and their current status. Caribbean Alien Invasive Species Network (CIASNET), 12 pp. http://www.ciasnet.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/IAS-present-in-SLU-May-2012-revision.pdf
Loope L, 1997. Hawaii and the Pacific: A Report on the Status and Trends of the Biological Resources of the United States. Washington DC, USA: Department of the Interior
Lorenzi H, 1991. Plantas Daninhas do Brasil: Terrestres, Aquaticas, Parasitas, Toxicas e Medicinais. Edition 2. Nova Odessa, Brazil: Editora Plantarum
Meckes-Lozoya M, Lozoya X, 1989. Histaminic response induced by the intravenous administration of Tecoma stans crude extracts in the dog. Herba-Hungarica, 28:117-122
Merrill ED, 1925. An enumeration of Philippine flowering plants. Manila, Philippines: Bureau of Printing
Monot T, 1977. Piercing the flower of Tecoma stans by Xylocopa aestuans at Nouakchott (Mauritania). Bulletin de l‘Institut Fondamental d’Afrique Noire, 39:169-176
Oakes AJ, 1970. Herbicidal control of Tecoma stans (L.) Juss. Ex HBK. Turrialba, 20:415-418
Perez RM, Ocegueda A, Munoz JL, Avila JG, Morrow MW, 1984. A study of the hypoglycemic effect of some Mexican plants. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 12:253-262
PIER, 2005. Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER). Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry. http://www.hear.org/pier/species/tecoma_stans.htm
Raju BM, Ganeshaiah, Shaanker RU, 2001. Paternal parents enhance dispersal ability of their progeny in a wind-dispersed species, Tecoma stans L. Current Science, 81:22-24
Randall RP, 2002. A Global Compendium of Weeds. Melbourne, Australia: RG & FJ Richardson
Sauer JD, 1961. Coastal Plant Geography of Mauritius. Baton Rouge, USA: Louisiana State University Press
Seeman B, 1863. Revision of the natural order Bignoniaceae. Journal of Botany, British & Foreign, 1:87-91
Smith AC, 1991. Flora Vitiensis nova: A new flora of Fiji. Lawai, Kauai, Hawai`i. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Volume 5, 626 pp
Space JC, Flynn T, 2000. Observations on invasive plant species in American Samoa. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu, 51
Space JC, Flynn T, 2000. Report to the Government of Niue on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu, 34
Space JC, Flynn T, 2001. Report to the Kingdom of Tonga on invasive plant species of environmental concern. Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service
Space JC, Waterhouse BM, Miles JE, Tiobech J, Rengulbai K, 2003. Report to the Republic of Palau on invasive plant species of environmental concern. Honolulu, USA: USDA Forest Service
USDA-ARS, 2005. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx
USDA-NRCS, 2005. The PLANTS Database. Baton Rouge, USA: National Plant Data Center. http://plants.usda.gov
Vitorino MD, Pedrosa-Macedo JH, Menezes A, 2003. Agent selection from Tecoma stans (L.) Juss ex. Kunth (Bignoniaceae) in South Brazil. In: Cullen JM, Briese DT, Kritikos DJ, Lonsdale WM, Morin L, Scott JK, eds. Proceedings of the XI International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds. Canberra, Australia: CSIRO
Welsh SL, 1998. Flora Societensis: A summary revision of the flowering plants of the Society Islands. Orem, Utah, USA: E.P.S. Inc
Zeb A, Ishtiaq M, Ahmad N, 2000. Response of Tecoma seedlings to different soil media. Sarhad Journal of Agriculture, 16:497-502
Distribution References
Ayaz M, Arshad MN, 1999. Traffic noise abatement through tree and shrub vegetation. In: Pakistan Journal of Forestry, 48 1-11.
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated b. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Gentry AH, 1992. Bignoniaceae Part II (Tribe Tecomeae). In: Flora Neotropica, New York, USA: New York Botanical Garden. 285-290.
Graveson R, 2012. The Plants of Saint Lucia (in the Lesser Antilles of the Caribbean). In: The Plants of Saint Lucia (in the Lesser Antilles of the Caribbean), http://www.saintlucianplants.com
Henderson L, 2001. Alien Weeds and Invasive Plants. In: Plant Protection Research Institute Handbook No. 12, Cape Town, South Africa: Paarl Printers.
Kranz WM, Passini T, 1996. (Fenologia de Tecoma stans (L.) Kunth como subsidio para seu controle). [Congresso da Sociedade Botanica de Sao Paulo, 11. Sao Carlos. Proceedings], 103-104.
Kranz WM, Passini T, 1997. (Amarelinho, biologia e controle). In: Informed a Pesquisa, 121 Estado do Parana, Secretaria da Agricultura e do Abastecimiento, Instituto Agronomico do Parana. 1-17.
Krauss U, 2012. 161 Invasive Alien Species present in Saint Lucia and their current status. In: Caribbean Alien Invasive Species Network (CIASNET), 12 pp. http://www.ciasnet.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/IAS-present-in-SLU-May-2012-revision.pdf
Loope L, 1997. Hawaii and the Pacific: A Report on the Status and Trends of the Biological Resources of the United States., Washington DC, USA: Department of the Interior.
Lorenzi H, 1991. (Plantas Daninhas do Brasil: Terrestres, Aquaticas, Parasitas, Toxicas e Medicinais)., Nova Odessa, Brazil: Editora Plantarum.
Monot T, 1977. Piercing the flower of Tecoma stans by Xylocopa aestuans at Nouakchott (Mauritania). In: Bulletin de l'Institut Fondamental d'Afrique Noire, 39 169-176.
PIER, 2005. Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER). In: Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, http://www.hear.org/pier/species/tecoma_stans.htm
Sauer JD, 1961. Coastal Plant Geography of Mauritius., Baton Rouge, USA: Louisiana State University Press.
Space JC, Flynn T, 2000. Observations on invasive plant species in American Samoa., Honolulu, USDA Forest Service. 51.
Space JC, Flynn T, 2000a. Report to the Government of Niue on invasive plant species of environmental concern., Honolulu, USDA Forest Service. 34.
Space JC, Flynn T, 2001. Report to the Kingdom of Tonga on invasive plant species of environmental concern., Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, USDA Forest Service.
Space JC, Waterhouse BM, Miles JE, Tiobech J, Rengulbai K, 2003. Report to the Republic of Palau on invasive plant species of environmental concern., Honolulu, USA: USDA Forest Service.
USDA-ARS, 2005. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx
USDA-NRCS, 2005. The PLANTS Database. Greensboro, North Carolina, USA: National Plant Data Team. https://plants.sc.egov.usda.gov
Welsh SL, 1998. Flora Societensis: A summary revision of the flowering plants of the Society Islands., Orem, Utah, USA: E.P.S. Inc.
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
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