Tecoma stans (yellow bells)

Pictures

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Picture

Title

Caption

Copyright

Flowers and pods

Yellow trumpet flowers and green pods.

Helmuth G. Zimmermann

Flowers

Close-up view of flowers.

Helmuth G. Zimmermann

Infestation

Infestation near Pretoria, South Africa.

Helmuth G. Zimmermann

Typical natural habitat

Typical natural habitat of T. stans in Morelos, Central Mexico.

Helmuth G. Zimmermann

Natural enemy|Symptoms on Tecoma stans

P. transformans rust galls affect all parts of the plant except for the roots. |Prospodium transformans rust galls which affect all parts of the plant except for the roots.

Helmuth G. Zimmermann

Natural enemy|Symptoms on pods

P. transformans affecting green pods of Tecoma stans.|Prospodium transformans affecting green pods of T. stans. This rust is considered a good biocontrol agent.

Helmuth G. Zimmermann

Natural enemy|Symptoms on pods

P. transformans affecting green pods of Tecoma stans. The rust is considered a good biocontrol agent for this weed.|Prospodium transformans affecting green pods of T. stans. The rust is considered a good biocontrol agent.

Helmuth G. Zimmermann

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Tecoma stans (L.) Juss. ex Humb., Bonpl. & Kunth

Preferred Common Name

yellow bells

Other Scientific Names

Bignonia incise Sweet
Bignonia stans L.
Gelseminum stans (L.) Knutze
Stenolobium quinquejugum Loes.
Stenolobium stans (L.) Seem.
Tecoma incise hort. ex DC.
Tecoma mollis Kunth

International Common Names

English: trumpetflower; yellow elder; yellow trumpetbush
Spanish: lluvia de oro; trompeta; trona frente; tronadora
French: tecoma jaune
Portuguese: amarelinho; ipê-mírím

Local Common Names

Pacific Islands: piti
Germany: Aufrechte Trompetenwinde
Italy: tecoma giallo

EPPO code

TECST (Tecoma stans)

Summary of Invasiveness

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T. stans is an aggressive plant invader that outcompetes natural vegetation and grassland. It can be described as a transformer species which reduces biodiversity and destroys natural resources. It has been planted as an ornamental garden and street tree but has become a problem in parts of tropical and sub-tropical Africa, Asia, South America, Pacific Islands and Australia.

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Spermatophyta
Subphylum: Angiospermae
Class: Dicotyledonae
Order: Scrophulariales
Family: Bignoniaceae
Genus: Tecoma
Species: Tecoma stans

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

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Although the genera Bignonia and Stenolobium are still sometimes used by authors, their usage is incorrect (Pelton 1964; Gentry 1992). Tecoma Juss. amended Humb., Bonpl. & Kunth, is entirely a Western Hemisphere tropical and sub-tropical genus of about 16 species of which Tecoma stans is the type species. This species is also the most widely distributed and is made up of a polymorphic complex of forms which have often been segregated into several species or subspecies (Gentry, 1992). Today three subspecies are recognized. The most common and widespread type is T. stans var. stans which was also known incorrectly as T. incisa, T. stans var. apiifolia, Stenolobium stans var. pinnatum, S. stans var. multijugum and S. quinquejugum. The second recognized variety is T. stans var. angustata Rehder which was also known as S. incisum, T. incisa and S. tronadora and has narrower and more sharply and deeply serrated lanceolate leaflets. This variety is confined to the northwestern range of T. stans. The third variety is T. stans var. velutina DC. which was known as T. mollis, T. sorbifolia, S. molle, Gelseminum molle and T. fabrisii. As the name implies, the leaflets of this variety are velutinous (velvety), mainly on the underside and tend to be more subcoriaceous (leathery) and less acuminate than typical T. stans. It is mainly confined to the high altitudes of the South American Andes in the 1500-2600 m altitudes in the Sierra Madre South of Mexico and Guatemala. Very few infestations of T. stans outside its native range have been classified to subspecific level.

Description

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T. stans is a shrub or a small tree which can reach a height of 8 m, rarely 10 m, and with stem diameters of up to 25 cm. Plants in dense stands are usually smaller with heights of 5-6 m. It remains evergreen in moist and warmer regions but changes to deciduous in more temperate regions with a pronounced dry season (Pelton, 1964). The pinnate leaves are bright green above, paler below and can be smooth or hairy, often around the veins, depending on the region (subspecies). The leaf size is also dependent on the variety and can be large, 100-200 mm long, pinnate with 3-17 leaflets 2.4-15 cm long, 0.8-6 cm wide, progressively larger distally (Gentry, 1992). Most leaves have 5-7 leaflets including the terminal one. Leaf margins can be sharply toothed as in T. stans var. angustata or less toothed as in the other varieties. Inflorescences are terminal or subterminal with up to 20 bright yellow showy trumpet-shaped flowers, about 50 mm long. In some varieties the corolla is slightly orange-yellow with pinkish lines in the throat. The fruit is a linear shiny capsule, 12-22 cm long and about 1 cm thick, pointed at the end. The two-valve dehiscent capsule splits open to release up to 77 (mean 42) papery-winged seeds which are primarily wind, and to a lesser extent water, dispersed.

Plant Type

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Perennial
Seed propagated
Shrub
Tree
Vegetatively propagated
Woody

Distribution

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T. stans is very widely cultivated as an ornamental garden and street tree throughout the tropical and sub-tropical world, also within its native range (Gentry, 1992). This resulted in much uncertainty about its natural or introduced status in several countries in the Americas, for example, in Bolivia, Argentina, Brazil and several islands in the West Indies (Pelton, 1964). The rapid expansion of its distribution and its invasive behaviour in Argentina and Brazil must be a strong indication of an introduced exotic responding to the absence of natural enemies although most of the literature gives Argentina as its southernmost natural distribution (Pelton, 1964). It is widespread in the Pacific region (PIER, 2005). The invasive status of T. stans is likely to increase dramatically in many countries of introduction as it changes from a 'sleeper weed' to its invasive stage.

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 25 Feb 2021

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	Invasive	Reference	Notes
Africa
Botswana	Present	Introduced		Witt and Luke (2017)
Cabo Verde	Present, Widespread	Introduced	Invasive	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Williams & Williams, 1951
Ethiopia	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Witt and Luke (2017) Witt et al. (2018)
Kenya	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Witt and Luke (2017) Witt et al. (2018)
Malawi	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Witt and Luke (2017)
Mauritania	Present	Introduced		Monot (1977)
Mauritius	Present	Introduced		Sauer (1961) Pelton (1964)
Nigeria	Present	Introduced		Bianco et al. (1980)
Rwanda	Present	Introduced		Witt and Luke (2017)
South Africa	Present, Widespread	Introduced	Invasive	Henderson (2001)
Tanzania	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Witt and Luke (2017) Witt et al. (2018)
Uganda	Present	Introduced		Witt and Luke (2017)
Zambia	Present	Introduced		Witt and Luke (2017)
Zimbabwe	Present	Introduced		Witt and Luke (2017)
Asia
India	Present, Widespread	Introduced	Invasive	Seeman (1863) Sakthivel et al. (2012)
-Karnataka	Present, Widespread	Introduced	Invasive	Raju et al. (2001)
-Madhya Pradesh	Present	Introduced		Gargav and Katiyar (1971)
-Tamil Nadu	Present			Sakthivel et al. (2012)
-Uttar Pradesh	Present	Introduced		Shukla and Upadhyaya (1973)
-West Bengal	Present	Introduced		Pal and Das (2001)
Indonesia	Present			CABI (Undated a)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Java	Present, Widespread	Introduced	Invasive	Pelton (1964)
Pakistan	Present	Introduced		Ayaz and Arshad (1999) Aurang Zeb et al. (2000)
Philippines	Present, Widespread	Introduced	Invasive	Pelton (1964) CABI (Undated)
North America
Antigua and Barbuda	Present	Native		Pelton (1964)
Bahamas	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2005)
Bonaire, Saint Eustatius and Saba
-Saba	Present			CABI (Undated b)
British Virgin Islands	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2005)
Cayman Islands	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2005)
Costa Rica	Present, Widespread	Native		Gentry (1992)
Cuba	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2005)
Curaçao	Present			CABI (Undated b)
Dominica	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2005)
Dominican Republic	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2005)
El Salvador	Present, Widespread	Native		Gentry (1992)
Grenada	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2005)
Guadeloupe	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2005)
Guatemala	Present, Widespread	Native		Gentry (1992)
Haiti	Present, Widespread	Native		Gentry (1992)
Honduras	Present, Widespread	Native		Gentry (1992)
Jamaica	Present, Widespread	Native		Pelton (1964)
Martinique	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2005)
Mexico	Present, Widespread	Native		Gentry (1992)
Montserrat	Present	Native		Pelton (1964)
Netherlands Antilles	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2005)
Nicaragua	Present, Widespread	Native		Gentry (1992)
Panama	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2005)
Puerto Rico	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2005) USDA-NRCS (2005)
Saint Lucia	Present			USDA-ARS (2005) Graveson (2012) Krauss (2012)	Uncertain whether native to Saint Lucia
Trinidad and Tobago	Present	Native		Pelton (1964) CABI (Undated)
U.S. Virgin Islands	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2005) USDA-NRCS (2005)
United States	Present			CABI (Undated a)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Arizona	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2005) USDA-NRCS (2005)
-Florida	Present, Localized	Native		Gentry (1992)
-Hawaii	Present, Widespread	Introduced	Invasive	Loope (1997)
-New Mexico	Present	Native		USDA-NRCS (2005)
-Texas	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2005) USDA-NRCS (2005)
Oceania
American Samoa	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Space and Flynn (2000)
Australia	Present			CABI (Undated a)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Queensland	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Randall (2001)
-Western Australia	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Randall (2001)
Christmas Island	Present, Widespread	Introduced	Invasive	Swarbrick and Hart (2001)
Cook Islands	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Space and Flynn (2000)
Federated States of Micronesia	Present, Widespread	Introduced	Invasive	Waterhouse (1997)
Fiji	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Smith (1991)
French Polynesia	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Welsh (1998)
Guam	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Fosberg et al. (1979)
Kiribati	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Fosberg et al. (1979)
Marshall Islands	Present	Introduced	Invasive	PIER (2005)
New Caledonia	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Swarbrick (1997)
Niue	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Space and Flynn (2000a)
Northern Mariana Islands	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Fosberg et al. (1979)
Palau	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Space et al. (2003)
Samoa	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Space and Flynn (2000a)
Solomon Islands	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Swarbrick (1997)
Tonga	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Space and Flynn (2001)
South America
Argentina	Present, Widespread	Introduced	Invasive	Holm et al. (1979)
Bolivia	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2005)
Brazil	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Lorenzi (1991) Miranda et al. (2007)
-Distrito Federal	Present			Miranda et al. (2007)
-Minas Gerais	Present, Widespread	Introduced	Invasive	Lorenzi (1991)
-Parana	Present, Widespread	Introduced	Invasive	Kranz and Passini (1996) Kranz and Passini (1997)
-Pernambuco	Present, Widespread	Introduced	Invasive	Lorenzi (1991)
-Rio de Janeiro	Present, Widespread	Introduced	Invasive	Lorenzi (1991)
-Rio Grande do Norte	Present, Widespread	Introduced	Invasive	Lorenzi (1991)
-Rio Grande do Sul	Present, Widespread	Introduced	Invasive	Kranz and Passini (1997)
-Santa Catarina	Present, Widespread	Introduced	Invasive	Kranz and Passini (1997)
-Sao Paulo	Present, Widespread	Introduced	Invasive	Kranz and Passini (1997)
Colombia	Present, Widespread	Native		Gentry (1992)
Ecuador	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2005)
Peru	Present			Pelton (1964)
Venezuela	Present	Native		Pelton (1964)

Risk of Introduction

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T. stans is an attractive shrub or small tree that has small seeds that travel well and are easy to grow. Introduction through the nursery trade represents the greatest risk to new areas. In South Africa, the sale of T. stans is prohibited (Henderson, 2001). Travellers carrying seeds for home cultivation also represent a risk (Randall, 2001).

Habitat

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The very extensive distribution of T. stans and its wide genetic variability implies that it is found over many habitats from the Andes regions of central South America to Arizona, southern Texas (USA), Baja California and northern Mexico (Pelton, 1964). The extremes within this distribution, from the high altitude regions of South America and the drier habitats of North America have separate subspecies, namely, T. stans var. velutina and T. stans var. angustata, respectively. The latter subspecies is found mainly as a riparian species along dry riverbeds, often in rocky terrain, but is also a typical dry shrubland species, usually of small size. In Mexico, T. stans var. stans is the more widely distributed subspecies and occupies mainly shrub forest habitats or forest margins in higher rainfall areas. According to Pelton (1964), T. stans prefers well drained alluvial and calcarious soils with a high pH value. Because the plant is so widely cultivated as an ornamental throughout its native range and from where it often escapes, it has become difficult to recognize typical habitats. It becomes very abundant on overgrazed lands and in disturbed habitats both within and outside its native range. The most severe invasions in Brazil, northern Argentina and South Africa are found in medium to high rainfall sub-tropical climate zones, often along drainage lines.

Habitat List

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Category	Sub-Category	Habitat	Presence	Status
Terrestrial	Managed	Managed forests, plantations and orchards	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Disturbed areas	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Urban / peri-urban areas	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Natural grasslands	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Riverbanks	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)

Hosts/Species Affected

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T. stans is not a crop weed but an aggressive plant invader that outcompetes natural vegetation and grassland.

Biology and Ecology

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Genetics

The chromosome number is 2n=40 (Pelton, 1964). Natural hybridization with other species has not been recorded.

Physiology and Phenology

There is no seed dormancy known and seed longevity is short (Pelton, 1964). Seedlings establish rapidly with a prominent tap root.

Reproductive Biology

This plant is autocompatible and requires external pollination (Kranz and Passini, 1997). It can flower throughout the year, or flowering can be seasonal, usually in summer and after good rains. Only a small proportion of the flowers set fruit in its native range which can be attributed to drought conditions, pollination failure and insect attack. In contrast, fruit set in countries of introduction is high, e.g. in South Africa. Vegetative reproduction from root and stem cuttings is less important for long distance dispersal but allows for rapid densification of populations after disturbances, including attempts to remove plants mechanically. The vigorous sucker shoots tend to be erect as the specific name 'stans' implies.

Environmental Requirements

The species, which includes the thee recognized subspecies, has a very wide climatic tolerance. It occurs from the south of Arizona and Texas (USA) with a prolonged dry season and sub-zero winter temperatures to the sub-tropics to almost tropical conditions of Chiapas (Mexico) and Guatamala. In Peru it is found at altitudes of up to 3000 m and 2439 m in Hidalgo, Mexico (Pelton, 1964). The climatic tolerance of an invading population will thus depend to a large extent on the origin of the plant. In South Africa, T. stans appears to fit the description of T. stans var. angustata which originated from the northern range of its distribution and explains why it is pre-adapted to prolonged dry conditions and can tolerate frost, whereas the invading populations in Brazil belong to T. stans var. stans which is the more common type found in the sub-tropics and tropics of Mexico, central America and the Caribbean islands and which appears to be less hardy. Deciduousness and a high wilting tolerance allows the species to survive prolonged drought conditions, indication of a habitat which is subject to periodic dry conditions (Pelton, 1964). Low pod production in India during certain months is attributed to pollen degeneration (microsporogenesis) at temperatures between 34 and 44°C (Kumar and Singh, 1988).

Plants are often found growing along steep gradients, road sides and eroded and overgrazed areas. In Mauritius and Jamaica plants grow only 30 m from the sea where they are subject to salt sprays and storm waves. Deforestation has certainly increased its range to areas where it did not previously occur, for example, under shaded forest canopies. High light intensity, good soil drainage and open community vegetation appear to be three important prerequisites for successful colonization, preferably in lithosols and coarse alluvium soils with medium to high pH values.

Associations

T. stans is notably a species of forest margins and of mesic soft-leaved shrub or deciduous sub-tropical vegetation. Other vegetation types mentioned in the literature include 'dry bushy slopes', 'evergreen riparian bush', 'mesquite-grassland zone', 'short tree forests', 'brush lands', 'dry scrub woodlands', etc. (Pelton, 1964). It is an early succession species which aids in fast colonization of disturbed areas, eventually being replaced by climax species within its native range. In non-native areas dense infestations are usually permanent. No particular vascular plants have been found to be consistently associated with T. stans, which is probably an indication of its pioneer status.

Soil Tolerances

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Soil drainage

free

Soil reaction

alkaline
neutral

Soil texture

heavy
light
medium

Special soil tolerances

infertile
shallow

Natural enemies

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Natural enemy	Type	Life stages
Clydonopteron pomponius	Herbivore	Fruits/pods/Seeds
Prospodium appendiculatus	Pathogen	Growing point/Inflorescence/Leaves/Stems
Prospodium transformans	Pathogen	Growing point/Leaves/Stems

Notes on Natural Enemies

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South Africa and Brazil have started to investigate the possibilities of biological control and some preliminary surveys for potential host-specific natural enemies have commenced. The most significant and impacting natural enemies are the rusts, namely Prospodium appendiculatum and P. transformans. The former is already present in Brazil where it causes some damage to infestations (Vitorino et al., 2003). Other diseases recorded include Puccinia tecomae, Triblidiella rubula and Septobasidium alni (Pelton, 1964). Several membracid and cercopid species in Mexico are affecting the young racemes which reduce flowering and promote early pod abortion. No endophagous seed-feeding insects have yet been found but a pyralid pod-feeding moth in the genus Clydenopteron causes some significant damage to the seeds in Mexico and may be considered for biological control. Surveys of insects associated with T. stans in Brazil have revealed at least 40 species in 12 insect orders but most are general feeders and transfer species which have limited impact on the expanding infestations (Dutra and Machado, 2001). It is also a host to several common insect pests in Brazil and India including Typhlodromus dominiquae, Amblyseius ovaloides, Spilosoma obliqua, Mylabris pustulata, Diacrisia oblique and the fungus Alternaria tenuis [A. alternata] (Shukla and Upadhyaya, 1973; Kranz and Passini, 1997; Pal and Das, 2001). The fungus Pseudocercospora gymnematis was found on T. stans in West Bengal, India (Sarbajna and Chattopadhyay, 1991).

Means of Movement and Dispersal

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Natural Dispersal (Non-Biotic)

Dispersal is mainly by wind and water dispersed winged seeds. These are produced in large quantities almost throughout the year. Regeneration from cut roots and stumps results in dense populations after mechanical disturbances.

Vector Transmission (Biotic)

Little is known of the role of birds in the dispersal of T. stans.

Intentional Introduction

By far the most important mode of global dispersal is through the nursery trade and the attraction of T. stans as a garden ornamental which is assisted by its ease of propagation and rapid growth.

Pathway Vectors

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Vector	Notes	Long Distance	Local	References
Clothing, footwear and possessions	Travellers carrying seeds for home cultivation	Yes
Mail	Popular garden plant. Seeds are small and travel well	Yes

Plant Trade

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Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport
Bark
Bulbs/Tubers/Corms/Rhizomes
Flowers/Inflorescences/Cones/Calyx
Fruits (inc. pods)
Growing medium accompanying plants
Leaves
Roots
Seedlings/Micropropagated plants
Stems (above ground)/Shoots/Trunks/Branches
True seeds (inc. grain)
Wood

Impact Summary

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Category	Impact
Animal/plant collections	None
Animal/plant products	None
Biodiversity (generally)	Negative
Crop production	None
Environment (generally)	Negative
Fisheries / aquaculture	None
Forestry production	None
Human health	Positive
Livestock production	Negative
Native fauna	Negative
Native flora	Negative
Rare/protected species	Negative
Tourism	Positive
Trade/international relations	None
Transport/travel	None

Impact

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T. stans is unpalatable and drastically impedes the grazing capacity of the invaded land.

Impact: Biodiversity

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Monocultures of T. stans outcompete native vegetation. This is particularly relevant in the State of Parana in Brazil where large infestations occur. Allelopathic activities are not known but plants contain various monoterpene alkaloids, tecostanine, tecomanine and boschniakine which may well contribute to the exclusion of competitors (Berg et al., 1977; Kranz and Passini, 1996a).

Threatened Species

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Threatened Species	Conservation Status	Where Threatened	Mechanism	References	Notes
Peucedanum sandwicense (makou)	NatureServe; USA ESA listing as threatened species	Hawaii	Competition - smothering	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2011)

Risk and Impact Factors

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Invasiveness

Invasive in its native range
Proved invasive outside its native range
Highly adaptable to different environments
Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
Highly mobile locally
Has high reproductive potential
Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year

Impact outcomes

Damaged ecosystem services
Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
Negatively impacts agriculture
Negatively impacts tourism
Reduced amenity values
Reduced native biodiversity

Impact mechanisms

Competition - monopolizing resources
Competition - smothering
Pest and disease transmission

Likelihood of entry/control

Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Difficult/costly to control

Uses

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The bright-green foliage, beautiful bell-shaped cluster of bright-yellow flowers and the plant's hardiness makes it a very sought after garden ornamental. Large stands of flowering yellow-bells make an impressive sight that attracts tourists. Other uses include its reputed medicinal properties: antidiabetic (hypoglycaemic) and lowering of blood pressure, induced by histamine-releasing substances (Perez et al., 1984; Meckes-Lozoya and Lozoya, 1989; Kranz and Passini, 1997). Leaves are not grazed.

Uses List

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General

Ornamental

Medicinal, pharmaceutical

Traditional/folklore

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

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Several species in the Bignoniaceae have similar yellow tubular flowers and compound leaves which resemble T. stans. Most striking similarities are found in several species in the genus Tabebuia, also from the Americas. Tecoma castanifolia and T. alata [T. guarume] are also recorded as naturalized and invasive (Randall, 2002).

Prevention and Control

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Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Introduction

Integrating various control methods is the most effective approach and includes the prevention of new introductions, dispersal and sales by the nursery trade as well as mechanical and chemical control.

Mechanical Control

Maintaining a vigorous ground cover, preventing overgrazing and rehabilitating disturbed areas remains one of the best methods to prevent establishment and invasion of T. stans. Frequent inspections of pastures and forest margins are necessary to locate seedlings that can be hand-pulled. Larger plants can be uprooted by using a tractor, but resprouting from cut roots can cause rapid reinfestation unless the remaining roots are burnt after drying. Rehabilitation of such disturbed areas after uprooting and burning is essential. Follow-up control to remove the regrowth is necessary for at least a year after initial control (Kranz and Passini 1996b, 1997).

Chemical Control

Conventional chemical control methods of shrubs and small trees as practised by most municipalities and counties are not effective against T. stans. Only repeated applications of foliar-applied herbicides are effective but this method is usually not economic. More effective are cut-stump application methods using oil-based or oil/water emulsions of 2,4-D and picloram mixtures. These are generously applied to the freshly cut stumps by spraying or painting. Soil applied tebuthiuron also gave excellent control 270 days after treatment (Kranz and Passini, 1997).

Biological Control

Host specificity tests on two rust fungus species, namely, the microcyclic Prospodium transformans and the macrocyclic P. appendiculatum from Mexico are in progress in South Africa. P. appendiculatum is already present in Brazil and Argentina but is not contributing much to the suppression of populations. Further surveys for additional host-specific natural enemies are planned. A raceme-feeding membracid and the pyralid pod-feeding moth Clydenopteron sp. are to be introduced into quarantine in South Africa for possible biological control.

References

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Ayaz M, Arshad MN, 1999. Traffic noise abatement through tree and shrub vegetation. Pakistan Journal of Forestry, 48:1-11

Berg W, Gross D, Schutte HR, Herrmann M, 1977. Zur Massenspektrometrie der Tecoma-Alkalaoide. Pharmazie, 32:41-45

Bianco A, Guiso M, Marini-Bettolo R, Oguakwa JU, Passacantilli P, 1980. New iridoids from Tecoma stans (from Nigeria) and Lamium Amplexicaule (from Italy). International research congres on natural products as medicinal agents. Planta Medica, 39:268

Dutra JCS, Machado VLL, 2001. Flowering entomofauna in Stenolobium stans (Juss.) Seem (Bignoniaceae). Neotropical Entomology, 30(1):43-53; 34 ref

Fosberg FR, Sachet MH, Oliver RL, 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica, 15:222

Gargav VP, Katiyar OP, 1971. Some new hosts of Diacrisia at Raipur, M.P. Indian Journal of Horticulture, 28(4):316

Gentry AH, 1992. Bignoniaceae Part II (Tribe Tecomeae). Flora Neotropica. New York, USA: New York Botanical Garden, 285-290

Graveson R, 2012. The Plants of Saint Lucia (in the Lesser Antilles of the Caribbean). The Plants of Saint Lucia (in the Lesser Antilles of the Caribbean). http://www.saintlucianplants.com

Henderson L, 2001. Alien Weeds and Invasive Plants. Plant Protection Research Institute Handbook No. 12. Cape Town, South Africa: Paarl Printers

Holm LG, Pancho JV, Herberger JP, Plucknett DL, 1979. A geographical atlas of world weeds. New York, USA: John Wiley and Sons, 391 pp

Kranz WM, Passini T, 1996. Fenologia de Tecoma stans (L.) Kunth como subsidio para seu controle. In: Congresso da Sociedade Botanica de Sao Paulo, 11. Sao Carlos. Proceedings, 103-104

Kranz WM, Passini T, 1996. Tecoma stans (L.) Kunth (Bignoniaceae), planta invasora de pastagens no Estado de Parana. In: Congreso Nacional de Botanica, 42, Novo Friburgo, 1966. Proceedings, 315

Kranz WM, Passini T, 1997. Amarelinho, biologia e controle. Informed a Pesquisa. Estado do Parana, Secretaria da Agricultura e do Abastecimiento, Instituto Agronomico do Parana, No. 121:1-17

Krauss U, 2012. 161 Invasive Alien Species present in Saint Lucia and their current status. Caribbean Alien Invasive Species Network (CIASNET), 12 pp. http://www.ciasnet.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/IAS-present-in-SLU-May-2012-revision.pdf

Kumar R, Singh G, 1988. Investigations into the cause of sterility. Tecoma stans L. Bulletin de la Societe Botanique de France, Lettres Botaniques, 135(2):131-135; 23 ref

Loope L, 1997. Hawaii and the Pacific: A Report on the Status and Trends of the Biological Resources of the United States. Washington DC, USA: Department of the Interior

Lorenzi H, 1991. Plantas Daninhas do Brasil: Terrestres, Aquaticas, Parasitas, Toxicas e Medicinais. Edition 2. Nova Odessa, Brazil: Editora Plantarum

Meckes-Lozoya M, Lozoya X, 1989. Histaminic response induced by the intravenous administration of Tecoma stans crude extracts in the dog. Herba-Hungarica, 28:117-122

Merrill ED, 1925. An enumeration of Philippine flowering plants. Manila, Philippines: Bureau of Printing

Monot T, 1977. Piercing the flower of Tecoma stans by Xylocopa aestuans at Nouakchott (Mauritania). Bulletin de l‘Institut Fondamental d’Afrique Noire, 39:169-176

Oakes AJ, 1970. Herbicidal control of Tecoma stans (L.) Juss. Ex HBK. Turrialba, 20:415-418

Pal RK, Das KK, 2001. Record of new host plants of Bihar hairy caterpillar Spilosoma obliqua Wlk. at Murshidabad district of West Bengal. Environment and Ecology, 19(2):489-490; 5 ref

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Raju BM, Ganeshaiah, Shaanker RU, 2001. Paternal parents enhance dispersal ability of their progeny in a wind-dispersed species, Tecoma stans L. Current Science, 81:22-24

Randall R, 2001. Garden thugs, a national list of invasive and potentially invasive garden plants. Plant Protection Quarterly, 16(4):138-171

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Seeman B, 1863. Revision of the natural order Bignoniaceae. Journal of Botany, British & Foreign, 1:87-91

Shukla GS, Upadhyaya VK, 1973. Tecoma stans (L.) H. B. & K. as a new host record for Mylabris pustulata (Thunb.) (Coleoptera: Meloidae). Indian Journal of Entomology, 35(1):71

Smith AC, 1991. Flora Vitiensis nova: A new flora of Fiji. Lawai, Kauai, Hawai`i. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Volume 5, 626 pp

Space JC, Flynn T, 2000. Observations on invasive plant species in American Samoa. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu, 51

Space JC, Flynn T, 2000. Report to the Government of Niue on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu, 34

Space JC, Flynn T, 2001. Report to the Kingdom of Tonga on invasive plant species of environmental concern. Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service

Space JC, Waterhouse BM, Miles JE, Tiobech J, Rengulbai K, 2003. Report to the Republic of Palau on invasive plant species of environmental concern. Honolulu, USA: USDA Forest Service

Swarbrick JT, 1997. Weeds of the Pacific Islands. Technical Paper - South Pacific Commission, No. 209: 124 pp

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Distribution References

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Krauss U, 2012. 161 Invasive Alien Species present in Saint Lucia and their current status. In: Caribbean Alien Invasive Species Network (CIASNET), 12 pp. http://www.ciasnet.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/IAS-present-in-SLU-May-2012-revision.pdf

Loope L, 1997. Hawaii and the Pacific: A Report on the Status and Trends of the Biological Resources of the United States., Washington DC, USA: Department of the Interior.

Lorenzi H, 1991. (Plantas Daninhas do Brasil: Terrestres, Aquaticas, Parasitas, Toxicas e Medicinais)., Nova Odessa, Brazil: Editora Plantarum.

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Monot T, 1977. Piercing the flower of Tecoma stans by Xylocopa aestuans at Nouakchott (Mauritania). In: Bulletin de l'Institut Fondamental d'Afrique Noire, 39 169-176.

Pal R K, Das K K, 2001. Record of new host plants of Bihar hairy caterpillar Spilosoma obliqua Wlk. at Murshidabad district of West Bengal. Environment and Ecology. 19 (2), 489-490.

Pelton J, 1964. A survey of the ecology of Tecoma stans. Butler University Botanical Studies. 14 (2), 53-88.

PIER, 2005. Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER). In: Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, http://www.hear.org/pier/species/tecoma_stans.htm

Raju B M, Ganeshaiah K N, Shaanker R U, 2001. Paternal parents enhance dispersal ability of their progeny in a wind-dispersed species, Tecoma stans L. Current Science. 81 (1), 22-24.

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Sakthivel P, Karuppuchamy P, Kalyanasundaram M, Srinivasan T, 2012. Host plants of invasive papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus (Williams and Granara de Willink) in Tamil Nadu. Madras Agricultural Journal. 99 (7/9), 615-619. https://doc-00-7g-docsviewer.googleusercontent.com/viewer/securedownload/dsn1aovipa7l846lsfcf94nedj8q2p4u/qo3phtufamvk9q39umu888pbj4t4kkc6/1348647300000/c2l0ZXM=/AGZ5hq8BgbJY1gwaOYx83cPOdNw6/WkdWbVlYVnNkR1J2YldGcGJud3hNWFJvWlcxaFpISmhjMkZuY21samRXeDBkWEpoYkdwdmRYSnVZV3g4WjNnNk56WmpPREk1WXpBd01XWTNZelZrWkE=?a=gp&filename=99-7-9-615-619.pdf&chan=EQAAAOqeu1nfMdjbyOfMSElqQCfRbAOx1kCMBqnRUfeLUnjy&docid=0508176bd4abbdc3e7017b1a89751bc3%7C9c9df36583445f1fe402a841b5e1963b&sec=AHSqidZmGWqJKVKwfKsaqtFstCH

Sauer JD, 1961. Coastal Plant Geography of Mauritius., Baton Rouge, USA: Louisiana State University Press.

Seeman B, 1863. Revision of the natural order Bignoniaceae. Journal of Botany, British & Foreign. 87-91.

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Space JC, Flynn T, 2001. Report to the Kingdom of Tonga on invasive plant species of environmental concern., Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, USDA Forest Service.

Space JC, Waterhouse BM, Miles JE, Tiobech J, Rengulbai K, 2003. Report to the Republic of Palau on invasive plant species of environmental concern., Honolulu, USA: USDA Forest Service.

Swarbrick J T, 1997. Weeds of the Pacific Islands. In: Technical Paper - South Pacific Commission, Nouméa, New Caledonia: South Pacific Commission (Commission du Pacifique Sud). viii + 124 pp.

Swarbrick J T, Hart R, 2001. Environmental weeds of Christmas Island (Indian Ocean) and their management. Plant Protection Quarterly. 16 (2), 54-57.

USDA-ARS, 2005. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx

USDA-NRCS, 2005. The PLANTS Database. Greensboro, North Carolina, USA: National Plant Data Team. https://plants.sc.egov.usda.gov

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Welsh SL, 1998. Flora Societensis: A summary revision of the flowering plants of the Society Islands., Orem, Utah, USA: E.P.S. Inc.

Witt A, Beale T, Wilgen B W van, 2018. An assessment of the distribution and potential ecological impacts of invasive alien plant species in eastern Africa. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa. 73 (3), 217-236. DOI:10.1080/0035919X.2018.1529003

Witt A, Luke Q, 2017. Guide to the naturalized and invasive plants of Eastern Africa. [ed. by Witt A, Luke Q]. Wallingford, UK: CABI. vi + 601 pp. http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158959 DOI:10.1079/9781786392145.0000

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Website	URL	Comment
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway	https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6	Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list.

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Tecoma stans (yellow bells)

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