Monochoria hastata (hastate-leaved pondweed)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Introductions
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Rainfall Regime
- Soil Tolerances
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Economic Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
- References
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Monochoria hastata (L.) Solms-Laub.
Preferred Common Name
- hastate-leaved pondweed
Other Scientific Names
- Carigola hastata (L.) Raf.
- Monochoria chinensis Gand.
- Monochoria dilatata (Buch.-Ham.) Kunth
- Monochoria hastifolia C.Presl
- Monochoria sagittata Kunth
- Pontederia dilatata Buch.-Ham.
- Pontederia hastata L.
International Common Names
- English: arrow pond weed; leaf pondweed; monochorea
- Portuguese: monocória
Local Common Names
- Cambodia: chrach
- China: jian ye yu jiu hua; laomie; paging
- India: bhat-meteka; bih-meteka; gachli; garoposki; jonaki phul; junaki-phul; launkia; nukha; pani-meteka
- Indonesia: bia-bia; eceng gede; wewehan
- Japan: nan'yo-mizu-aoi
- Laos: ‘Ii hin; phak thop
- Malaysia: chacha layar; kangkong air
- Papua New Guinea: maoa
- Philippines: calaboa; gabi-gabihan; kasal-kasal; payaw-payaw
- Sri Lanka: diya-habarela; jabara
- Thailand: phakpon; phaktop; phaktop-thai; pok tope
- USA: arrowleaf false pickerelweed; arrow-leaf monochoria
- Vietnam: dau mac
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageMonochoria hastata is a tropical aquatic herb, almost entirely restricted to its native distribution of South-East Asia and Oceania (Boonkerd et al., 1993). It is a weed of rice fields in South-East Asia, with a prolific seed production and a high capacity to reproduce vegetatively (Ali et al., 2018). It is only listed as invasive in rice fields in Singapore, without further details (PIER, 2019). M. hastata is not reported as invasive in natural habitats; nor is there information about its effects on biodiversity.
Outside its native range, M. hastata is reported as expected to spread and invade rice fields in Pakistan, facilitated by flooding events associated to monsoon rains (Ali et al., 2018). Although is not found in the New World, M. hastata is declared as a Federal Noxious Weed in the USA, because of the detrimental effects it could cause to agriculture (Coile, 1996).
In Oceania, M. hastata is reported only as cultivated in Fiji, without further details (PIER, 2019). In the Northern Territory of Australia, M. hastata is classified as vulnerable because of the deterioration of aquatic habitats and the invasion of exotic weeds (India Biodiversity Portal, 2019).
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Monocotyledonae
- Order: Pontederiales
- Family: Pontederiaceae
- Genus: Monochoria
- Species: Monochoria hastata
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageThe Pontederiaceae is a small family of six genera and about 40 species, mostly in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide (Eckenwalder and Barrett, 1986; Ali et al., 2018). The genus Monochoria includes eight species from the Old World; M. hastata being native to Asia and Oceania (Boonkerd et al., 1993). Of the synonyms reported for the species, Calcarunia hastata and Pontederia sagitifolia are invalid names; and Pontederia sagittata and P. vaginalis are illegitimate names (World Flora Online, 2019).
Description
Top of pageThe following description is from Flora of China (2019):
Herb perennial, aquatic. Vegetative stems often long and robust. Radical leaves with sheath broadened at base; petiole 30-90 cm; leaf blade triangular or triangular-ovate, 5-15(-25) × 3-15 cm, base sagittate to hastate, apex acute to acuminate. Flowering stems erect or obliquely so, 50-90 cm; leaf petiole 7-10 cm. Inflorescences erect or suberect, remaining so after anthesis, subumbellate to shortly racemose, 10-40-flowered; peduncle distinctly shorter than associated leaf petiole. Pedicels 1-3 cm. Perianth segments bluish with green median vein and reddish blotch, ovate, 1-1.6 cm. Larger stamen: anther 5.3-6.5 mm. Smaller stamens: filaments filiform; anthers 3-4 mm. Style densely and shortly spreading, hairy at apex. Capsule oblong, ca. 1 cm. Seeds brown, oblong; wings ca. 10.
Distribution
Top of pageM. hastata is a tropical perennial herb native to South-East Asia and Oceania (Steenis, 1947; Boonkerd et al., 1993). Outside of its native range, the species has been reported from Pakistan (Ali et al., 2018) and Fiji (Greenwood, 1949; PIER, 2019). It is regarded as possibly not native to Singapore because it is found only in artificial water bodies (The DNA of Singapore, 2019). Although it is reported in Brazil (India Biodiversity Portal, 2019), according to Flora do Brasil (2019) it is not present in that country. For details, see the Distribution Table (Ali et al., 2018; Flora of China, 2019; India Biodiversity Portal, 2019; PIER, 2019; The DNA of Singapore, 2019).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 12 May 2022Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Asia |
|||||||
Bangladesh | Present, Localized | ||||||
Bhutan | Present | Native | |||||
Indonesia | Present, Localized | ||||||
-Borneo | Present | Native | |||||
-Java | Present | Native | |||||
-Sulawesi | Present | Native | |||||
-Sumatra | Present | Native | |||||
Cambodia | Present, Localized | ||||||
China | Present, Localized | ||||||
-Guangdong | Present | Native | |||||
-Guangxi | Present | Native | |||||
-Guizhou | Present | Native | |||||
-Hainan | Present | Native | |||||
-Yunnan | Present | Native | |||||
Hong Kong | Present | Native | |||||
India | Present | Native | |||||
-Andaman and Nicobar Islands | Present | Native | |||||
-Assam | Present | Native | |||||
-Bihar | Present | Native | |||||
-Gujarat | Present | Native | |||||
-Madhya Pradesh | Present | Native | |||||
-Maharashtra | Present | Native | |||||
-Odisha | Present | Native | |||||
-Punjab | Present | Native | |||||
-West Bengal | Present | Native | |||||
Laos | Present | Native | |||||
Malaysia | Present, Localized | ||||||
-Peninsular Malaysia | Present | ||||||
Myanmar | Present | ||||||
Nepal | Present | Native | |||||
Pakistan | Present | Introduced | |||||
Philippines | Present | Native | |||||
Singapore | Present | Native | Invasive | As native, but with note of 'uncertain if introduced' | |||
Sri Lanka | Present | Native | |||||
Thailand | Present | Native | |||||
Vietnam | Present | Native | |||||
Oceania |
|||||||
Australia | Present | Native | |||||
-Northern Territory | Present, Few occurrences | Native | As vulnerable | ||||
Fiji | Present, Localized | ||||||
Papua New Guinea | Present | Native | |||||
South America |
|||||||
Brazil | Absent, Unconfirmed presence record(s) |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageM. hastata is a tropical aquatic herb only reported as introduced in Pakistan and Fiji (Greenwood, 1949; Ali et al., 2018; PIER, 2019). It is reported from the early 2000s as present in Pakistan; possibly arriving through the Nala Baien River tributary from India or via flooding events (Ali et al., 2018). It is reported as cultivated in Fiji without further details (PIER, 2019).
Introductions
Top of pageIntroduced to | Introduced from | Year | Reason | Introduced by | Established in wild through | References | Notes | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Natural reproduction | Continuous restocking | |||||||
Pakistan | India | 2016 | Interconnected waterways (pathway cause) | Yes | No | Ali et al. (2018) | Possibly entering Pakistan through a river tributary from India |
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageM. hastata is an aquatic herb with a medium to high risk of introduction into tropical areas worldwide. It is apparently confined to tropical areas, and it is not spreading into subtropical or temperate regions. Boonkerd et al. (1993) reports it as being unable to survive winter temperatures in subtropical areas.
M. hastata could be introduced to suitable areas through its use as an ornamental, flooding events and interconnected waterways (Ali et al., 2018; Useful Tropical Plants, 2019). Because of its presence as a weed of rice and the possible detrimental effects on agriculture, M. hastata is listed as a noxious weed in the USA (USDA-NRCS, 2019). Although it has not been reported as a contaminant of rice products, its spread through cultivation practices needs more research.
Habitat
Top of pageM. hastata is a tropical aquatic herb reported from freshwater pools, mudflats in rivers, ditches, rice fields, canal banks, sluggish streams, silted-up meanders, swamps, open drains and very wet soils (Reiner and Robbins, 1964; Boonkerd et al., 1993; Kosaka et al., 2013; India Biodiversity Portal, 2019; PIER, 2019; The DNA of Singapore, 2019; Useful Tropical Plants, 2019). It grows from sea level to 700 m altitude (PIER, 2019).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Wetlands | Present, no further details | Natural |
Freshwater | Irrigation channels | Present, no further details | Natural | |
Freshwater | Reservoirs | Present, no further details | Natural | |
Freshwater | Rivers / streams | Present, no further details | Natural | |
Freshwater | Ponds | Present, no further details | Natural |
Hosts/Species Affected
Top of pageM. hastata is reported as a weed of rice fields, but with very little information available (PIER, 2019). Boonkerd et al. (1993) report that at high population densities, M. hastata is competitive and can reduce rice yields considerably.
Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
Top of pagePlant name | Family | Context | References |
---|---|---|---|
Oryza sativa (rice) | Poaceae | Main |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
The chromosome numbers reported for M. hastata are n=17, 40, 42 (Eckenwalder and Barrett, 1986). There are no germplasm collections or breeding programmes reported for the species (Boonkerd et al., 1993).
Patwary et al. (1989) collected four distinct morphological types of M. hastata and M. vaginalis; two from each species. According to the authors, M. vaginalis type II is an allotetraploid derived from the M. hastata type I × M. vaginalis type I and that M. hastata type II is an autoallohexaploid hybrid of M. vaginalis type II × M. hastata type I.
Reproductive Biology
M. hastata reproduction is by seeds and vegetatively by rhizome fragmentation (Boonkerd et al., 1993; Useful Tropical Plants, 2019). Anthesis takes place during the morning and the flowers are self-compatible (Boonkerd et al., 1993; Huelsenbeck et al., 2003). In India the flowers are foraged for pollen by Apis mellifera (Pal and Karmakar, 2013). The seeds are produced in abundance and the germination is underwater (Ali et al., 2018). For cultivation, the seeds should be sown as soon as they are mature (Useful Tropical Plants, 2019).
Physiology and Phenology
M. hastata is a fast-growing perennial aquatic herb that can grow either rooted in wet soil or floating in water (Boonkerd et al., 1993; Ali et al., 2018). The Inflorescences and leaf blades are always borne above the water level. It is reported as flowering from March to August in India (India Biodiversity Portal, 2019).
Longevity
M. hastata is a perennial aquatic herb (Boonkerd et al., 1993). It is also reported as an annual by Hakim et al. (2013), but this probably refers to the plants dying if fields dry out (Boonkerd et al., 1993).
Population Size and Structure
Plants of M. hastata usually grow in clumps (India Biodiversity Portal, 2019).
Associations
Vibrio cholera-O1 has been found in the roots of M. hastata in Bangladesh (Islam et al., 1994). Endophytic fungi of the genera Curvularia, Trichoderma, Penicillium and Fusarium are reported from the leaves of M. hastata by Chowdhury et al. (2016).
Environmental Requirements
M. hastata is a tropical aquatic herb growing best in sunny areas with temperatures of 25- 35°C, tolerating 16-38°C. It prefers an annual rainfall of 1500-2000 mm, tolerating 1000-4000 mm. It can grow in very wet soils and in water, becoming a floating plant in deeper water. It prefers fertile, medium to heavy soils with a pH range of 5 to 6.5, tolerating pH 4 to 7 (Useful Tropical Plants, 2019).
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
Af - Tropical rainforest climate | Preferred | > 60mm precipitation per month | |
Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Preferred | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
28 | 18 |
Air Temperature
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit |
---|---|---|
Absolute minimum temperature (ºC) | 16 | |
Mean annual temperature (ºC) | 16 | 38 |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Mean annual rainfall | 1000 | 4000 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- impeded
- seasonally waterlogged
Soil reaction
- acid
- neutral
Soil texture
- heavy
- medium
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hippotion echeclus | Herbivore | Plants|Leaves; Plants|Stems | not specific | |||
Rhopalosiphum nymphaeae | Herbivore | Plants|Leaves | not specific |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageThe insects Hippotion echeclus and Rhopalosiphum nymphaeae have been reported as herbivores of M. hastata (Encyclopedia of Life, 2019).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageM. hastata is water dispersed, with the seeds and plants spreading by flooding and interconnected waterways (Ali et al., 2018).
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Crop production | Weed of rice fields. No information available, but possible from rice cultivation practices | Yes | Yes | Boonkerd et al. (1993) |
Flooding and other natural disasters | As a possible way of getting into Pakistan | Yes | Yes | Ali et al. (2018) |
Forage | Foraged locally for food | Yes | Useful Tropical Plants (2019) | |
Garden waste disposal | No information available, but possible as it is used occasionally as an ornamental | Yes | Useful Tropical Plants (2019) | |
Hitchhiker | No information available, but possible from rice cultivation practices | Yes | ||
Horticulture | No information available, but possible as it is used occasionally as an ornamental | Yes | Yes | Useful Tropical Plants (2019) |
Interconnected waterways | As a possible way for entering Pakistan | Yes | Yes | Ali et al. (2018) |
Live food or feed trade | Sold at local markets | Yes | Boonkerd et al. (1993) | |
Medicinal use | Used in traditional medicine | Yes | Useful Tropical Plants (2019) | |
Ornamental purposes | Occasionally used as an ornamental | Yes | Useful Tropical Plants (2019) | |
People foraging | It is foraged locally for food | Yes | Useful Tropical Plants (2019) |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Clothing, footwear and possessions | No information available, but possible from rice cultivation practices | Yes | ||
Debris and waste associated with human activities | No information available, but possible from rice cultivation and its use for food | Yes | ||
Floating vegetation and debris | Dispersed by interconnected waterways and flooding | Yes | Yes | Ali et al. (2018) |
Water | Dispersed by interconnected waterways and flooding | Yes | Yes | Ali et al. (2018) |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Cultural/amenity | Positive |
Economic/livelihood | Positive and negative |
Environment (generally) | Positive and negative |
Human health | Positive |
Economic Impact
Top of pageM. hastata is a weed of rice fields although there is limited information on its impact on rice crops. Boonkerd et al. (1993) reports that at high population densities, M. hastata is competitive and can reduce rice yields considerably.
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Invasive in its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Long lived
- Fast growing
- Has high reproductive potential
- Gregarious
- Reproduces asexually
- Negatively impacts agriculture
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Hybridization
- Rapid growth
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Uses
Top of pageEconomic Value
M. hastata is sold in local markets in Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand, mainly for medicinal purposes (Boonkerd et al., 1993). It is also sold in some countries as a vegetable (Kays and Silva Dias, 1995; You-kai et al., 2004). Various Monochoria species are used as ornamentals (Boonkerd et al., 1993).
Social Benefit
M. hastata is used as a vegetable in its native range (Patwary et al., 1989; Maikhuri and Gangwar, 1993; Ogle et al., 2003; Ali et al., 2018; Useful Tropical Plants, 2019). The plants are usually foraged from natural populations (Boonkerd et al., 1993). It is also used as fodder for cattle (Patwary et al., 1989) and occasionally as an ornamental (Useful Tropical Plants, 2019).
The medicinal uses reported for M. hastata include treatment of nausea, toothache, itching, asthma, coughs, cold, fever, stomach and liver problems, general debility, haemorrhage, hepatitis, anaemia, scurvy and diabetes (Bhowmik et al., 2012; Chowdhury et al., 2016; The DNA of Singapore, 2019). It is used in Ayurveda traditional medicine to treat wounds, general oedema, papules, as a diuretic, blood purifier and to reduce pitta dosha (Institute of Ayurveda, 2019).
Environmental Services
M. hastata can be used for the phytoremediation of water bodies contaminated with heavy metals (Hazra et al., 2015; Ali et al., 2018).
Uses List
Top of pageAnimal feed, fodder, forage
- Fodder/animal feed
Environmental
- Amenity
General
- Sociocultural value
Human food and beverage
- Vegetable
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Traditional/folklore
Ornamental
- garden plant
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageMonochoria hastata is similar to M. vaginalis (Ali et al., 2018; PIER, 2019). The rhizome in M. vaginalis is short while in M. hastata it is longer and branched. The leaves of M. hastata usually have a sagittate or hastate base whereas in M. vaginalis they are obtuse, rounded or truncate-cordate. M. hastata usually has more flowers per raceme than M. vaginalis. The flowers of M. hastata do not open simultaneously and the pedicels are unequal in length, being longer at the base of the raceme.
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Warning Systems
M. hastata is included in the USA Federal Noxious Weed List, with the importation of plant parts, seeds or products being prohibited (Coile, 1996; USDA-NRCS, 2019).
Chemical Control
Although no specific information is available, the use of herbicides in rice fields reduces the incidence of weeds in general (Boonkerd et al., 1993).
Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
Top of pageResearch is required on the impact of M. hastata on rice fields, and also on natural habitats and biodiversity.
References
Top of pageBoonkerd T, Na Songkhla B, Thephuttee W, 1993. Monochoria K.B. Presl. In: Plant Resources of South-East Asia. No. 8: Vegetables, [ed. by Siemonsma JS, Piluek K]. Bogor, Indonesia: PROSEA Foundation. www.prota4u.org/prosea
Encyclopedia of Life, 2019. Encyclopedia of Life. In: Encyclopedia of Life . http://www.eol.org
Huelsenbeck JP, Nielsen R, Bollback JP, 2003. Stochastic mapping of morphological characters. Systematic Biology, 52(2), 131-158.
Institute of Ayurveda, 2019. Monochoria hastata. In: Ayurvedic Medicinal Plants of Sri Lanka , Sri Lanka: http://www.instituteofayurveda.org/plants/plants_detail.php?i=1080&s=Family_name
Pal PK, Karmakar P, 2013. Pollen analysis in understanding the foraging behaviour of Apis mellifera in Gangetic West Bengal. Geophytology, 42(2), 93-114.
PIER, 2019. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. In: Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii.http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Reiner EJ, Robbins RG, 1964. The Middle Sepik Plains, New Guinea: a physiographic study. Geographical Review, 54(1), 20-44.
Steenis CGGJ van, 1947. Notes on a number of New Guinean species. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, 28(4), 419-423.
The DNA of Singapore, 2019. The Digital Nature Archive (DNA) of Singapore. Singapore: Lee Kong Chian Natural History Museum.https://lkcnhm.nus.edu.sg/dna/organisms/details/585
Distribution References
PIER, 2019. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Tagore JK, Jansirani P, Soosairaj S, 2019. A report on additions to the flora of Andaman & Nicobar Islands, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa. 11 (8), 14080-14082.
Contributors
Top of page31/10/19 Original text by:
Jeanine Vélez-Gavilán, University of Puerto Rico at Mayagüez, Puerto Rico
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