Sturnus vulgaris (common starling)

Pictures

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Picture

Title

Caption

Copyright

Adult

Common starling (Sturnus vulgaris); adult. Toulouse, France. February, 2012.

©Pierre Selim Huard-2012 - CC BY-SA 3.0

Juvenile

Common Starling (Sturnus vulgaris); juvenile. Kensington Gardens, London, England. June, 2008.

©Garry Knight-2007 - CC BY-SA 2.0

Immature

Sturnus vulgaris (European or Common Starling). Its feathers are in transition to first-winter plumage. Part of a large flock of mixed blackbirds/Starlings at Crissy Field, San Francisco, California, USA. August, 2009.

©Ingrid Taylar- 2009 - CC BY 2.0

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Sturnus vulgaris (Linnaeus)

Preferred Common Name

common starling

International Common Names

English: blackbird; common starling; English starling; European starling
Spanish: estornino; estornino pinto
French: etourneau; etourneau sansonnet; étourneau sansonnet; sansonnet

Local Common Names

Denmark: stær
Finland: kottarainen
Germany: Europäischer Star; Star
Italy: storno
Norway: stær
Sweden: stare

EPPO code

STURVU (Sturnus vulgaris)

Summary of Invasiveness

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Native to Europe, Asia and North Africa, Sturnus vulgaris (the European starling) has been introduced globally, save in Neotropical regions. The European starling prefers lowland habitats and is an aggressive omnivore. S. vulgaris costs hundreds of millions of dollars in agricultural damage each year (estimated annual cost to agriculture in the USA is $800 million, based on $5/ha damage; Linz et al. 2007). S. vulgaris also contributes to the decline of local native bird species through competition for resources and nesting spaces. S. vulgaris can also act as a disease vector with implications for livestock and human health. The European starling has been nominated as among 100 of the "World's Worst" invaders.

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Metazoa
Phylum: Chordata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Class: Aves
Order: Passeriformes
Family: Sturnidae
Genus: Sturnus
Species: Sturnus vulgaris

Description

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The European starling (Sturnus vulgaris) is a small bird approximately 21.5cm, long and weighing around 70 to 100grms. Iridescent green glossed feathers cover the nape, breast and back of the bird, whilst the wings are black, sometimes with a green or purple veneer. During the winter white flecking may appear on the starling's breast (Chow, 2000).

Distribution

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Native range: Europe, Southwest Asia and Northern Africa.
Known introduced range: North America, South Africa, New Zealand, and Australia (Adeney, 2001). After numerous failed attempts, an introduction in New York in 1890 and 1891 led to the permanent establishment of European starlings in North America; all or most of the starlings in North America, Central America and the Caribbean are thought to derive from the 16 pairs originally introduced to New York (Linz et al. 2007).

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 10 Feb 2022

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	First Reported	Invasive	Reference	Notes
Africa
Botswana	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)
Ghana	Present	Native			Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)
Namibia	Present	Introduced	1970		Seebens et al. (2017)
Saint Helena	Present	Introduced	1852		Seebens et al. (2017)
South Africa	Present	Introduced	1850		Seebens et al. (2017)
Europe
Bulgaria	Present				CABI (Undated a)
Czechia	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
France	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Netherlands	Present				CABI (Undated a)
Poland	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
Russia	Present	Introduced	1954		Seebens et al. (2017)
Slovakia	Present				CABI Data Mining (2001)
United Kingdom	Present				CABI (Undated a)
North America
Bahamas	Present	Introduced	1981		Seebens et al. (2017) Natureserve (2012)
Barbados	Present	Introduced	2006		Seebens et al. (2017)
Bermuda	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011) Seebens et al. (2017)	First reported: early 1950s
British Virgin Islands	Present	Introduced	2007		Seebens et al. (2017) Natureserve (2012)
Canada	Present				CABI (Undated) Seebens et al. (2017)	Present based on regional distribution.
-British Columbia	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)
-Newfoundland and Labrador	Present				CABI (Undated a)
Cayman Islands	Present	Introduced	1992		Seebens et al. (2017)
Cuba	Present	Introduced	1981		Seebens et al. (2017) Natureserve (2012)
Jamaica	Present	Introduced	1903		Seebens et al. (2017) Natureserve (2012)
Mexico	Present	Introduced	1890		Seebens et al. (2017) Natureserve (2012)
Netherlands Antilles	Present				Natureserve (2012)
Panama	Present				Natureserve (2012)
Puerto Rico	Present	Introduced	1972		Seebens et al. (2017) Natureserve (2012)
Turks and Caicos Islands	Present	Introduced	2007		Seebens et al. (2017) Natureserve (2012)
U.S. Virgin Islands	Present	Introduced	1982		Seebens et al. (2017) Natureserve (2012)
United States	Present	Introduced	1890	Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011) Seebens et al. (2017)
-Alaska	Present	Introduced	1952		Seebens et al. (2017)
-California	Present				CABI (Undated a)
-Hawaii	Present	Introduced	1952		Seebens et al. (2017)
-Maryland	Present				CABI (Undated a)
Oceania
Australia	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011) Seebens et al. (2017)	First reported: 1862-1883
-Tasmania	Present	Introduced	1840		Seebens et al. (2017)
-Western Australia	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)
Fiji	Present	Introduced	1921		Seebens et al. (2017)
New Zealand	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011) Greathead and Greathead (1992) Seebens et al. (2017)	First reported: 1862-1883
Norfolk Island	Present	Introduced	1913		Seebens et al. (2017)
Tonga	Present	Introduced	1976		Seebens et al. (2017)
Vanuatu	Present	Introduced	1957		Seebens et al. (2017)
South America
Argentina	Present	Introduced	1998		Seebens et al. (2017) Natureserve (2012)
Venezuela	Present	Introduced	1949		Seebens et al. (2017)

Habitat

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European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) prefer lowland habitats to more mountainous terrain. They are secondary cavity nesters, using extant cracks, crevices, and cavities created by other species. During breeding season the European starling requires holes for nesting and vegetation fields for feeding. The rest of the year it will utilise a wider range of habitats from moorland to salt marshes. European starlings are highly adaptable when selecting nest hollows, e.g. fence posts, roof linings under guttering (there has been an observation of a starling nest in the wool of a live sheep) (John Tracey, pers. comm., 2004).

Habitat List

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Category	Sub-Category	Habitat	Presence
Multiple
Terrestrial
Terrestrial	Managed	Cultivated / agricultural land	Present, no further details
Terrestrial	Managed	Managed forests, plantations and orchards	Present, no further details
Terrestrial	Managed	Disturbed areas	Present, no further details
Terrestrial	Managed	Urban / peri-urban areas	Present, no further details
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Natural forests	Present, no further details
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Natural grasslands	Present, no further details
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Riverbanks	Present, no further details
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Wetlands	Present, no further details
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Cold lands / tundra	Present, no further details
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Scrub / shrublands	Present, no further details
Littoral		Coastal areas	Present, no further details

Biology and Ecology

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Nutrition
European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) are omnivores and subsist mainly on seeds, insects, invertebrates, plants and fruit (Chow, 2000).

Reproduction
Reproduction is sexual; oviparous. Breeding season in the Northern Hemisphere generally begins late March and runs through to early July. The Southern Hemisphere breeding season runs between September and December. European starling clutches contain between 4-6 blue-green eggs. Females may lay as many as three clutches in a single breeding season (Kern, 2003, Chow, 2000).

Lifecycle stages
Eggs incubate in the nest for up to 15 days. The juvenile European starling (S. vulgaris) will stay in the nest for 21 to 23 days and may continue to beg parents for food for a few days after leaving the nest. Banding studies have shown that European starlings can live up to 21 years in the wild. (Chow, 2000, CWBO, 2004).

Behaviour
European starlings are gregarious and often form huge flocks of upwards of 3,000 birds.

Natural enemies

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Natural enemy	Type	Life stages	Specificity	References	Biological control in	Biological control on
Tyto alba	Predator

Means of Movement and Dispersal

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Introduction pathways to new locations
Acclimatisation societies:
Biological control: European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) were introduced to New Zealand to control local insect populations
For ornamental purposes: European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) were allegedly introduced to the U.S. as part of a movement to introduce all the birds of Shakespeare to the States.
Natural dispersal: European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) have spread into Canada and Northern Mexico from the US.
Transportation of domesticated animals: People may move European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) to new areas by taking their pet birds with them.

Local dispersal methods
Natural dispersal (local):

Pathway Causes

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Cause	Long Distance	Local
Acclimatization societies	Yes	Yes
Biological control	Yes
Ornamental purposes	Yes

Impact Summary

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Category	Impact
Crop production	Negative
Cultural/amenity	Negative
Economic/livelihood	Negative
Native fauna	Negative

Impact

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European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) cause damage to agricultural crops. When significant numbers are present, starling flocks may descend on fruit and grain crop fields to forage; this causes massive damage and can have a heavy economic effect. European starlings are extremely aggressive omnivores, and will compete with native fauna for food. Open bill probing is most commonly used for ground invertebrates, which is their preferred food. Hence this provides the European starling with an evolutionary advantage over frugivores. Fruit damage is often found to be caused by a higher proportion of juveniles, which have underdeveloped probing skills (Brochier, 2010). Usurping nests by contamination (as well as physical competition) is also a major problem (e.g. native parrots use little, if any, bedding, whereas starlings will rapidly fill and contaminate tree hollows).

European starlings are also a public nuisance and can damage infrastructures, roof linings, etc. and negatively affect aesthetics (Weber 1979). Urban problems can be enhanced during the winter when they seek shelter and warmth. In addition, because of their large flocks, when they roost near airports there is the potential for bird-aircraft collisions which can result in jet engine damage and loss of human life (Linz et al. 2007).

S. vulgaris are recognised as a potential human and animal health hazard; they carry many infectious organisms and have been implicated in the transmission of numerous human and animal diseases (see Linz et al. 2007 for a review). Recent concerns include contamination by starlings of livestock feeding facilities; such concerns have arisen because of their tendency to congregate and contaminate feeding facilities and to interact closely with cattle. Kauffman et al. (2011) showed that S. vulgaris can carry the pathogen Escherichia coli O157:H7 from farm to farm and transmit infection to cattle, this threatens human health through meat consumption. Carlson et al. (2011) found that local control of S. vulgaris at a concentrated animal feeding operation could be used as a component in the control of the foodborne pathogen Salmonella enterica.

Risk and Impact Factors

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Invasiveness

Capable of securing and ingesting a wide range of food

Impact outcomes

Negatively impacts agriculture
Threat to/ loss of native species

Impact mechanisms

Competition - monopolizing resources
Pest and disease transmission

Uses

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European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) play an active role in the control of insect populations. Many people also consider the starling to be aesthetically pleasing, and keep them as pets (Adeney, 2001).

Uses List

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Environmental

Biological control

General

Pet/aquarium trade

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

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The most similar species to the European starling are the other blackbirds. The Common Grackle (Quiscalus quiscula), the Brown-headed Cowbird (Molothrus ater) and the Red-winged Blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus) are the most common eastern blackbirds. All three of these species have dark bills and legs, which distinguishes them from the European Starling (GWW, 2000). Another similar species, the common blackbird (Turdus merula), is also invasive in some parts of its range (John Tracey, pers. comm., Sept. 2004).

Prevention and Control

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Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Physical/mechanical: Non-lethal methods are commonly used, such as warding starlings away using sonic devices, hawk kites, or propane exploders. However, non-lethal methods often have only a temporary effect (Linz et al., 2007). Other methods include exclusion, anti-perching devices and shooting. (Adeney, 2001; Kern, 2003; Campbell, 2012). Trapping followed by euthanasia is also used as a control method. In this case, a live bird may be placed in the trap so that other starlings are lured more effectively, because as gregarious birds, European starlings are often attracted to traps containing a live conspecific (Campbell, 2012).

Chemical: Lethal or deterrent chemicals are used (Campbell, 2012). Linz et al. (2007) mention the exampe of 4-aminopyridine which can be both lethal and a deterrent (not only can it be fatal to birds that ingest it, ingestion causes birds to give warning cries which frighten away other birds). Lethal chemicals are often associated with problems of lethality to non-target organisms.

Bibliography

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Adeney, Jennifer Marion. 2001. Introduced Species Summary Project: European Starling (Sturnus vulgaris). http://www.columbia.edu/itc/cerc/danoff-burg/invasion_bio/inv_spp_summ/Sturnus_vulgaris.html

Airola, Daniel A; Grantham, Jesse. Jones and Stokes, Purple Martin population status, nesting habitat characteristics, and management in Sacramento, California Western Birds. 34(4). 2003. 235-251.

Bomford, M., 2003. Risk Assessment for the Import and Keeping of Exotic Vertebrates in Australia. Bureau of Rural Sciences, Canberra. http://www.feral.org.au/feral_documents/PC12803.pdf

Brochier B., Vangeluwe D., Berg T. van den, Pastoret P.P., Moutou F. 2010. Alien invasive birds. Revue Scientifique et Technique 29: 217-225.

Campbell S., Cook S., Mortimer L., Palmer G., Sinclair R., Woolnough A.P. 2012. To catch a starling: testing the effectiveness of different trap and lure types. Wildlife Research, 39: 183-191.

Carlson J.C., Engeman R.M., Hyatt D.R., Gilliland R.L., Deliberto T.J., Clark L., Bodenchuk, M.J., Linz G.M. 2011. Efficacy of European starling control to reduce Salmonella enterica contamination in a concentrated animal feeding operation in the Texas panhandle. BMC Veterinary Research, 7: 9.

Chipper Woods Bird Observatory. 2004. European Starling: Sturnus vulgaris banded 12 December 1998. http://www.wbu.com/chipperwoods/photos/estarling.htm

Chow, J. 2000. "Sturnus vulgaris" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Sturnus_vulgaris.html

Clergeau P., 1986. L’étourneau sansonnet. Payot Lausanne ed., Lausanne.

CONABIO. 2008. Sistema de información sobre especies invasoras en México. Especies invasoras - Aves. Comisión Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad. Fecha de acceso. http://www.conabio.gob.mx/invasoras/index.php/Especies_invasoras_-_Aves

Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia (WA), 2007. Starling updates http://www.agric.wa.gov.au/content/pw/vp/bird/starlings.htm

eNature.com, 2007. European Starling: Sturnus vulgaris. http://www.enature.com/fieldguides/detail.asp?allSpecies=y&searchText=starling&curGroupID=1&lgfromWhere=&curPageNum=2

Feare C.J., 1984. The starling. Oxford University Press. Oxford

Georgia Wildlife Web. 2000. Perching Birds: European Starling, Sturnus vulgaris. Accessed August 11, 2004.

Gulf States Marine Fisheries Commission (GSMFC), 2003. Sturnus vulgaris (Linnaeus). http://nis.gsmfc.org/nis_factsheet.php?toc_id=212

James, Francis C. 1997, Nonindigenous Birds. Pages 139-156 in Daniel Simberloff, Don C. Schmitz, Tom C. Brown, editors. Strangers in Paradise Impact and Management of Nonindigenous Species in Florida. Island Press, Washington D.C. 360 pp.

Kern, William J. 2004. European Starling.

Koenig, Walter D. August 2003. European Starlings and Their Effect on Native Cavity-Nesting Birds. Conservation Biology17(4) 1134-

Komdeur, Jan, P. Wiersma, M. Magrath. 2002. Paternal Care and male mate-attraction effort in the European starling is adjusted to clutch size. Proceedings: Biological Sciences 269(1497): 1253-1261.

Kauffman M.D., LeJeune J. 2011. European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) challenged with Escherichia coli O157 can carry and transmit the human pathogen to cattle. Letters in Applied Microbiology, 53: 596-601.

Long, J. L. (1981). Introduced Birds of the World. (Reed: Sydney.)

Linz G.M., Homan H.J., Gaukler S.M., Penry L.B, Bleier W.J. 2007. European starlings: a review of an invasive species with far-reaching impacts. Managing Vertebrate Invasive Species: Proceedings of an International Symposium. USDA/APHIS/WS, National Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, CO.

Mack, R. N and W. M. Lonsdale., 2002. Eradicating invasive plants: Hard-won lessons for islands. In Turning the tide: the eradication of invasive species: 311-318. Veitch, C.R. and Clout, M.N.(eds). IUCN SSC Invasive Species Specialist Group. IUCN. Gland. Switzerland and Cambridge. UK.

Murray, C. and C. Pinkham. 2002. Towards a Decision Support Tool to Address Invasive Species in Garry Oak & Associated Ecosystems in BC. Prepared by ESSA Technologies Ltd., Victoria, B.C. for the GOERT Invasive Species Steering Committee, Victoria, 96 pp. http://www.goert.ca/documents/GOEDSTreport.pdf

Nephew, Benjamin C., L. Romero. 2003. Behavioral, physiological, and endocrine responses of starlings to acute increases in density. Hormones and Behavior 44(3): 222-232

Olsson, Ola, Mans Bruun, and Henrik G. Smith. June 2002. Starling Foraging Success In Relation to Agricultural Land Use. Ecography 25 (3) 363-

The Garry Oak Ecosystems Recovery Team (GOERT)., 2003. Annotated Bibliographies on the Ecology and Management of Sturnus vulgaris

The Garry Oak Ecosystems Recovery Team (GOERT)., 2003. Field manual of Sturnus vulgaris

Timmins, S. M. and H. Braithwaite, 2002. Early detection of invasive weeds on islands. In Turning the tide: the eradication of invasive species: 311-318. Veitch, C.R. and Clout, M.N.(eds). IUCN SSC Invasive Species Specialist Group. IUCN. Gland. Switzerland and Cambridge. UK.

Tracey, P.J.,Woods, R., Roshier, D., West, P., Saunders, G. The role of wild birds in the transmission of avian influenza for Australia: an ecological perspective. Emu, 2004, 104, 109-124

Varnham, K. 2006. Non-native species in UK Overseas Territories: a review. JNCC Report 372. Peterborough: United Kingdom. http://www.jncc.gov.uk/page-3660

Weber, W. J. (1979). Health hazards from pigeons, starlings and English sparrows. (Thomson Publications: California.)

WWF-Australia, Undated. Starling factsheet http://wwf.org.au/publications/starling-factsheet/

References

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Greathead DJ; Greathead AH, 1992. Biological control of insect pests by insect parasitoids and predators: the BIOCAT database. Biocontrol News and Information, 13(4):61N-68N.

ISSG, 2011. Global Invasive Species Database (GISD). Invasive Species Specialist Group of the IUCN Species Survival Commission. http://www.issg.org/database

Natureserve, 2012. NatureServe Web Service. Arlington, VA. Available http://services.natureserve (Accessed: August 2012).

Distribution References

CABI Data Mining, 2001. CAB Abstracts Data Mining.,

CABI, Undated. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI

CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI

Greathead D J, Greathead A H, 1992. Biological control of insect pests by insect parasitoids and predators: the BIOCAT database. Biocontrol News and Information. 13 (4), 61N-68N. https://www.cabi.org/cabreviews/abstract/19921166435

Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG), 2011. Global Invasive Species Database (GISD). In: Global Invasive Species Database (GISD), Auckland, New Zealand: University of Auckland. http://www.issg.org/database

Natureserve, 2012. NatureServe Web Service., Arlington, VA, http://services.natureserve

Seebens H, Blackburn T M, Dyer E E, Genovesi P, Hulme P E, Jeschke J M, Pagad S, Pyšek P, Winter M, Arianoutsou M, Bacher S, Blasius B, Brundu G, Capinha C, Celesti-Grapow L, Dawson W, Dullinger S, Fuentes N, Jäger H, Kartesz J, Kenis M, Kreft H, Kühn I, Lenzner B, Liebhold A, Mosena A (et al), 2017. No saturation in the accumulation of alien species worldwide. Nature Communications. 8 (2), 14435. http://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms14435

Links to Websites

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Website	URL	Comment
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway	https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6	Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list.
Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS)	http://griis.org/	Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list.

Contributors

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Reviewed by: John Tracey, NSW Department of Primary Industries, Orange New South Wales, Australia

Principal sources:

Compiled by: Brandon Gehrke supervised by Dr. Deborah Rudnick University of Washington, Tacoma & IUCN/SSC Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG)Updates with support from the Overseas Territories Environmental Programme (OTEP) project XOT603, a joint project with the Cayman Islands Government - Department of Environment

Last Modified: Monday, October 04, 2010

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Sturnus vulgaris (common starling)

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