Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (Jamaica vervain)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- Habitat
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
- Biology and Ecology
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Impact
- Uses
- Uses List
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Links to Websites
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl
Preferred Common Name
- Jamaica vervain
Other Scientific Names
- Stachytarpheta dichotoma
- Verbena jamaicensis L. (1753)
International Common Names
- English: blue rat's tail; light blue snakeweed
Local Common Names
- Australia: Jamaica snakeweed
- Caribbean: verbena; vervain
- Colombia: golondrina; verbena azul
- Cuba: verbena cimarona
- Dominican Republic: verbena morada
- Guam: false verbena; Jamaica vervain
- India: kariyartharani; katapunuttu; semainyuruvi
- Indonesia: gewongan; jarong
- Indonesia/Java: gajihan; ngadi rengga
- Madagascar: ombimboalareo
- Malaysia: ramput tahi babi; selaseh dandi
- Mauritius: queue de rat
- New Caledonia: herbe blue; nettle leaf vervain
- Niue: mautofu Samoa
- Philippines: albaka; bilu-bilu; bolomaros; Brazil tea; kandi-kandilaan; limbagat; sentemiento; verbena de las antilles
- Samoa: mautofu tala
- Solomon Islands: kinilio
- Sri Lanka: bulunakuta; hai-or ingi
- Tonga: iku'i kuma
- Trinidad and Tobago: rough-leaved false vervain; vervine
- USA/Hawaii: Jamaica vervain
EPPO code
- STCJA (Stachytarpheta jamaicensis)
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Lamiales
- Family: Verbenaceae
- Genus: Stachytarpheta
- Species: Stachytarpheta jamaicensis
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageThe genus Stachytarpheta contains about 65 species, mostly from the American tropics; many are weedy throughout the tropics and subtropics. Some sources treat S. indica and, or S. cayennensis as synonyms, but these will treated as discrete species after USDA et al. (1998).
No information is available on chromosome numbers of Stachytarpheta spp.
Description
Top of pageMany woody stems arise from the base of the plant, these are green, 4-angled at first but cylindrical and often purplish later, ascending or erect, usually up to 1 m long, with swollen nodes.
Leaves paired, opposite, elliptic, 3-10 cm long, rather leathery, strongly nerved with the veins depressed above and prominent below, dark green, hairless or very finely hairy, merging into the short petioles, the margins are regularly toothed.
Flowers lilac, lavender, blue or purple, opening 1-3 at a time from the base towards the tip of 20-40 cm long spikes at the ends of the branches, each flower partly buried in the spike, with five unequal petals 5-8 mm across, and two stamens. Flowers normally open only for a day, but fall within an hour when picked.
Seeds 5 mm long, concavo-convex, ridged, brown, retained within the spikes which thicken to ca 5 mm diameter over the seeds, and are thinner in the intervening furrows.
Seedlings with epigeal germination. Hypocotyl 15-22 mm long, finely hairy, green to purple. Cotyledons shortly stalked, ovate, 7-9 mm long, finely hairy. Juvenile leaves paired, ovate, 8-10 mm long, toothed, finely hairy.
Distribution
Top of pageStachytarpheta species are generally agreed to be native to tropical America but were already known in Asia in the 18th Century. S. jamaicensis is now widespread in Central America, the Caribbean, East and Southern Asia and the Pacific, but occurs less frequently in Africa. However, it is recorded as invasive in Kenya and Tanzania (Witt and Luke, 2017).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 10 Feb 2022Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Ghana | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Kenya | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Madagascar | Present | ||||||
Malawi | Present | Introduced | |||||
Mauritius | Present | ||||||
Nigeria | Present | ||||||
South Africa | Present | ||||||
Tanzania | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Zambia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Asia |
|||||||
Cambodia | Present | ||||||
China | Present | Introduced | First reported: Late 19th Century | ||||
-Hainan | Present | ||||||
Hong Kong | Present | Introduced | 1883 | ||||
India | Present | ||||||
-Karnataka | Present | ||||||
-Kerala | Present | ||||||
-Odisha | Present | ||||||
Indonesia | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Java | Present | Original citation: Kostermans et al., 1987 | |||||
Japan | Present | ||||||
Malaysia | Present | ||||||
Philippines | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Singapore | Present | Introduced | 1883 | ||||
Sri Lanka | Present, Localized | ||||||
Taiwan | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Thailand | Present | ||||||
Vietnam | Present | ||||||
North America |
|||||||
Anguilla | Present | ||||||
Antigua and Barbuda | Present | ||||||
Bahamas | Present | ||||||
Barbados | Present | ||||||
Belize | Present | ||||||
Costa Rica | Present | ||||||
Cuba | Present | ||||||
Dominica | Present | ||||||
Dominican Republic | Present | ||||||
El Salvador | Present | ||||||
Grenada | Present | ||||||
Guadeloupe | Present | ||||||
Guatemala | Present | ||||||
Haiti | Present | ||||||
Honduras | Present | ||||||
Jamaica | Present | ||||||
Martinique | Present | ||||||
Mexico | Present | ||||||
Montserrat | Present | ||||||
Netherlands Antilles | Present | ||||||
Nicaragua | Present | ||||||
Panama | Present | ||||||
Puerto Rico | Present | ||||||
Saint Kitts and Nevis | Present | ||||||
Saint Lucia | Present | ||||||
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | Present | ||||||
Trinidad and Tobago | Present | ||||||
United States | Present | ||||||
-Alabama | Present | ||||||
-Florida | Present | ||||||
-Hawaii | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Oceania |
|||||||
Australia | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Northern Territory | Present | ||||||
-Queensland | Present | ||||||
Christmas Island | Present | ||||||
French Polynesia | Present | ||||||
New Caledonia | Present | ||||||
Niue | Present | ||||||
Papua New Guinea | Present | ||||||
Samoa | Present | ||||||
Solomon Islands | Present | ||||||
Tonga | Present | ||||||
South America |
|||||||
Brazil | Present | ||||||
Colombia | Present | ||||||
Ecuador | Present, Widespread | ||||||
French Guiana | Present | ||||||
Guyana | Present | ||||||
Suriname | Present | ||||||
Venezuela | Present |
Habitat
Top of pageHosts/Species Affected
Top of pageHost Plants and Other Plants Affected
Top of pagePlant name | Family | Context | References |
---|---|---|---|
Ananas comosus (pineapple) | Bromeliaceae | Unknown | |
Citrus | Rutaceae | Unknown | |
Cocos nucifera (coconut) | Arecaceae | Unknown | |
Colocasia esculenta (taro) | Araceae | Unknown | |
Elaeis guineensis (African oil palm) | Arecaceae | Unknown | |
Glycine max (soyabean) | Fabaceae | Unknown | |
Hevea brasiliensis (rubber) | Euphorbiaceae | Unknown | |
Manihot esculenta (cassava) | Euphorbiaceae | Unknown | |
Musa (banana) | Musaceae | Unknown | |
Musa textilis (manila hemp) | Musaceae | Unknown | |
Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco) | Solanaceae | Unknown | |
Oryza sativa (rice) | Poaceae | Unknown | |
pastures | Unknown | ||
Saccharum | Poaceae | Unknown | |
Zea mays (maize) | Poaceae | Unknown |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageThe plant grows in a wide range of environments but prefers moist, uncultivated soils. Following damage resulting from trampling, grazing and mowing it is able to regrow from dormant buds at and below soil level. Plants are destroyed by cultivation, which if frequent enough to prevent the production of viable seed, will result in eradication of the weed.
S. jamaicensis grows in a wide range of soil types, including ferralitic soils on volcanic islands (Florence et al., 1983).
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Asphondylia stachytarphetae | Plants|Growing point | |||||
Omophoita albicollis | Herbivore | Plants|Leaves |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageImpact
Top of pageS. indica is a probable host of cucumber mosaic cucumovirus in India (Mathew and Balakrishnan, 1991), and is a minor host for the lantana bug, Orthezia insignius (Srikanth et al., 1988).
Uses
Top of pageS. jamaicensis is available through a number of American internet sites as an ornamental, rain forest ornamental and medicinal plant.
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageS. cayennensis (= Verbena cayennensis, S. dichotoma) has thinner fruiting spikes (ca 2.5 mm diameter) is also now a pan-tropical weed and somewhat commoner than S. jamaicensis in Africa; it differs in having thinner fruiting spikes (ca. 2.5 mm diameter) with little swelling over the fruits; flowers are paler in colour, varying from mid to pale blue to almost white, and smaller, the tube 4 to 5 mm long (7 to 10 mm in S. jamaicensis) and limbs only 4 to 6 mm long.
S. indica (= S. bogorensis, Verbena indica), where it is dintinguished from S. jamaicensis has softer leaves with the lower margins of the middle leaf teeth at least twice as long as the upper margins, compared with S. jamaicensis in which the leaves are leathery and both sides of the middle leaf teeth are of similar length. This species occurs sporadically from Central America, through Africa and Asia to Australia.
S. urticifolia, occurring mainly in Central America and the Pacific, has soft thin leaves, unlike the rather leathery leaves of the other two species.
Further species of Stachytarpheta are occasionally found as weeds in the tropics and subtropics, including S. angustifolia, S. australis and S. mutabilis.
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Cultural ControlS. jamaicensis and related species can be controlled by any form of cultivation which cuts the strong taproots and loosens the plant from the soil (ploughing, grubbing and hoeing, but not mowing). Although it tolerates light shade it is suppressed by heavy shade, as well as by strongly competitive plants such as vigorous twining legumes.
Chemical Control
Kostermans et al. (1987) report that seedlings and young plants can be killed by regular spraying with 2,4-D or MSMA plus 2,4-D. In Mauritian sugarcane germination has been prevented by diuron or atrazine and post-emergence control effected with picloram, paraquat or 2,4-D (McIntyre 1991). Challa (1984) prevented seedling germination in Indian mango root stock nurseries with oxyfluorfen, atrazine, diuron and fluchloralin. McIntyre and Barbe (1994) controlled this plant in citrus and mango nurseries in Mauritius with alternate treatments of glyphosate followed by Krovar 1 (a mixture of diuron and bromacil) + paraquat, or glyphosate followed by diuron and paraquat.
The following herbicides are registered for the control of Stachytarpheta spp. in Australia: 2,4-D sodium, and atrazine + dicamba in sugarcane, and 2,4-D amine in both pastures and uncropped land.
Biological Control
The potential for biological control of S. jamaicensis is discussed by Cock (1985).
References
Top of pageBarker RM, Telford IRH, 1993. Verbenaceae. In: Flora of Australia, Volume 50, Oceanic Islands 2. Canberra, Australia: Australian Government Publishing Service
Hancock IR, Henderson CP, 1988. Flora of the Solomon Islands. Research Bulletin No. 7. Honiara, Solomon Islands: Dodo Creek Research Station
Hnatiuk RJ, 1990. Census of Australian Vascular Plants. Australian Flora and Fauna Series Number 11. Canberra, Australia: Australian Government Publishing Service
Holm LG, Doll J, Holm E, Pancho JV, Herberger JP, 1997. World Weeds: Natural Histories and Distribution. New York, USA: John Wiley & Sons Inc
Mabberley DJ, 1989. The Plant Book. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press
MacKee HS, 1985. Les Plantes Introduites et Cultivees en Nouvelle-Caledonie. Volume hors series, Flore de la Nouvelle-Caledonie et Dependances. Paris, France: Museum Nationelle d'Histoire Naturelle
McIntyre G, 1991. Weeds of Sugar Cane in Mauritius: Their Description and Control. Reduit, Mauritius: Mauritius Sugar Industry Research Institute
McIntyre G, Barbe C, 1994. Chemical v/s hand weeding in young citrus and mango orchards. Revue Agricole et Sucriere de l'Ile Maurice, 73:44-47
Pancho JV, Vega MR, Plucknett DL, 1969. Some Common Weeds of the Philippines. Laguna, Philippines: Weed Science Society of the Philippines, University of the Philippines at Los Ba±os
Smith CS, 1991. Snakeweed (Stachytarpheta spp.). Agnote (Darwin), No. 457:2 pp
Stanley TD, Ross EM, 1986. Flora of South-eastern Queensland, Volume 2. Brisbane, Australia: Queensland Department of Primary Industries, 366
Tadulingam C, Venkatanarayana G, Mudaliar CR, Rao JS, 1955. A Handbook of Some South Indian Weeds. Madras, India: Government Press, 330-331
USDA-ARS, 1999. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx
Waterhouse DF, Norris KR, 1987. Biological control: Pacific prospects. viii + 454pp
Wells MJ, Balsinhas AA, Joffe H, Engelbrecht VM, Harding G, Stirton CH, 1986. A catalogue of problem plants in South Africa. Memoirs of the botanical survey of South Africa No 53. Pretoria, South Africa: Botanical Research Institute
Distribution References
Barker RM, Telford IRH, 1993. Verbenaceae. In: Flora of Australia, Volume 50, Oceanic Islands 2, 50 Canberra, Australia: Australian Government Publishing Service.
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
MacKee HS, 1985. (Les Plantes Introduites et Cultivees en Nouvelle-Caledonie. Volume hors series, Flore de la Nouvelle-Caledonie et Dependances)., Paris, France: Museum Nationelle d'Histoire Naturelle.
Pancho JV, Vega MR, Plucknett DL, 1969. Some Common Weeds of the Philippines., Laguna, Philippines: Weed Science Society of the Philippines, University of the Philippines at Los Baños.
Smith C S, 1991. Snakeweed (Stachytarpheta spp.). In: Agnote (Darwin), 2 pp.
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
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