Sesbania grandiflora
(sesbania)

Pictures

Picture	Title	Caption	Copyright
Title Tree bearing flowers Caption Copyright I.P. Wickramasinghe	Tree bearing flowers		I.P. Wickramasinghe
Title Flowers and foliage Caption Copyright ©A.R. Pittaway	Flowers and foliage		©A.R. Pittaway
Title Compound leaf, flowers and pod Caption Copyright I.P. Wickramasinghe	Compound leaf, flowers and pod		I.P. Wickramasinghe
Title Line artwork Caption Flower, showing calyx, petals, stamens and style. Copyright I.P. Wickramasinghe	Line artwork	Flower, showing calyx, petals, stamens and style.	I.P. Wickramasinghe
Title Line artwork Caption Twig showing foliage and flowers Copyright I.P. Wickramasinghe	Line artwork	Twig showing foliage and flowers	I.P. Wickramasinghe

Identity

Preferred Scientific Name

• Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Pers.

Preferred Common Name

• sesbania

Other Scientific Names

• Aeschynomene grandiflora (L.) L.
• Agati grandiflora (L.) Desv.
• Robinia grandiflora L.
• Sesban grandiflorus Poir.

International Common Names

• English: agati sesbania; corkwood tree; hummingbird tree; scarlet wistaria-tree; scarlet wisteria; sesban; vegetable-humming bird; West Indian pea
• Spanish: cresta de gallo; gallito
• French: agati a grandes fleurs; fagotier

Local Common Names

• Bahamas: flamingo bill
• Bangladesh: agasta; agati; bak; bokphul; buko
• China: da hua tian jing
• French Polynesia: afai; ofai; ouai; oufai
• Germany: Turibaum
• Guyana: August flower
• India: agathi; agathio; agati; bagphal; bak; basna; chogache; hadga
• Indonesia: tiger tongue; toroy; turi; tuwi
• Italy: sesbania
• Malaysia: kacang turi; petai belalang; sesban getih; turi
• Mexico: pico de flamenco
• Micronesia, Federated states of: pakphul
• Nepal: agasthi
• Northern Mariana Islands: caturay; katurai
• Palau: katurai
• Philippines: gauai-gauai; katudang; katurai; pan
• Samoa: sepania
• Sri Lanka: kathuru murunga
• Thailand: khae; khae-ban; ton kae
• USA/Hawaii: ohai ke'oke'o
• Vietnam: so dua

EPPO code

• SEBGR (Sesbania grandiflora)

Summary of Invasiveness

S. grandiflora is an important agroforestry species for food, green manure, fodder, forage, pulp and paper, especially in South and South East Asia. It is a very fast growing, nitrogen-fixing and moderately drought resistant tree, widely planted for land rehabilitation, on the rice bunds, in home gardens, and along roadsides and in and around homesteads. However, it has escaped cultivation, as with other introduced sesbanias such as S. cannabina, S. sericea, S. sesban and S. punicea. S. grandiflora is reported as invasive on many Pacific islands, the Philippines and the Chagos islands in the Indian Ocean.

Taxonomic Tree

• Domain: Eukaryota
•     Kingdom: Plantae
•         Phylum: Spermatophyta
•             Subphylum: Angiospermae
•                 Class: Dicotyledonae
•                     Order: Fabales
•                         Family: Fabaceae
•                             Subfamily: Faboideae
•                                 Genus: Sesbania
•                                     Species: Sesbania grandiflora

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

The legume genus Sesbania is placed in the Fabaceae family (USDA-ARS, 2014). The genus comprises about 50-60 species of herbs, shrubs, or small trees (Mabberley, 1997) distributed in tropical and subtropical regions in the Old and New Worlds. There are four subgenera of which Sesbania and Agati are of agricultural value.

The centre of diversity of this genus is in Africa, where more than 30 species occur (Masrahi et al., 2012). The subgenus Sesbania is important in Africa, and it has a large number of species, with more annuals and shrub types. Some of the most agriculturally important species are from subgenus Agate, found mainly in South and South East Asia where many are perennial tree types (Noses Onim and Dzowela, 1988).

S. grandiflora, native to tropical Asia, is closely related to S. formosa from northern Australia (Burbidge, 1965). Both are in the subfamily Papilonoideae (Faboideae) and the tribe Robinieae. The correct naming authority is (L.) Pers. (The Plant List, 2014), although others such as (L.) Poir. are still used (e.g. USDA-ARS, 2014). A number of the most common synonyms are included here, but many others are listed in ILDIS (2014).

Some authors have ranked the red flowered and white flowered forms as a distinct species or varieties, though they are now considered to be conspecific (ILDIS, 2014), though Bailey (1971) distinguishes another unnamed variety.

Description

S. grandiflora is a fast growing, medium-size tree 4-10 m tall but reaching up to 15 m, with trunk diameters to 25-30 cm, open-branched with drooping branches. The bark is deeply furrowed, forming thick, soft, cork-like plates, grey, pink or whitish in colour. The inner bark is slightly bitter to the taste. Branches terete, leaf scars and stipule scars conspicuous. Stipules obliquely lanceolate, to 8 mm, caducous. The leaves are alternate and compound, pinnate, 15-(20-30)-40 cm long with 20-50(-60), glabrescent but densely appressed pubescent when young, and petiolules 1-2 mm. Each leaf has terete rachis and acerose stipels, and pairs of oblong rounded leaflets 1.2-5.0 cm long and 0.5-1.6 mm wide, smaller at both ends of rachis than in middle, both surfaces with or without dense appressed purplish brown glands and appressed villous but glabrescent, secondary veins 7 or 8 on each side of midvein but inconspicuous, base rounded to broadly cuneate, apex obtuse to retuse and with a mucro. The leaves are borne on the ends of branches, and turn bright yellow before being shed. Inflorescences and racemes 4-7 cm, pendulous, 2-5-flowered, bract and bracteoles ovate to ovate-lanceolate, 7-10 mm, caducous, both surfaces appressed pubescent, hang at the leaf base and may be pink, red, yellowish or white. Individual flowers are 5-10 cm long, curved and about 30 mm wide before opening. Flowers are produced in short axillary racemes. Calyx bell-shaped, 2 cm long, slightly 2 lobed with 5 shallow teeth; corolla 5 white or red fleshy petals, stalked at base, oblong spreading standard shorter than others and curved back, 2 curved wings, 2 united curved inside petals; 10 curved stamens, 9 united and one separate, pistil with very narrow stalked ovary and slender style. The pods are long (20-60 cm) and narrow (6-9 mm), hanging, flat, septate, with swollen margins containing about 15 to 50 red-brown seeds.

Plant Type

Distribution

S. grandiflora is considered by Gutteridge (1994) to be native to South and South East Asian countries, including India, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines and Myanmar. However, ILDIS (2014) considers that the native range is restricted to Malaysia and Indonesia, although the status in neighbouring countries is left ambiguous.

Until fairly recently, the cultivation of S. grandiflora has been restricted to South and South East Asia. It is now cultivated throughout most of the tropics, i.e. southern Mexico to South America; in Florida and Hawaii; and in West Africa for at least 140 years, and more recently in East Africa ('t Mannetje and Jones, 1992).

In Fiji, it is report to be occasionally naturalized near sea level and around gardens and villages, and in New Caledonia, it is fairly common in gardens and sometimes spontaneous in surrounding areas (PIER, 2014). The white-flowered form is naturalizing around locations where it has been planted in American Samoa (Space and Flynn, 2000), and it appears to be naturalizing extensively in Samoa (Space and Flynn, 2002). It is present in the Caribbean, but reported to be naturalized only in Puerto Rico (Kairo et al., 2003).

Distribution Table

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

History of Introduction and Spread

It was introduced to the Pacific in the 1990s, where it showed promising results in trials in western Samoa and the Solomon Islands (Gutteridge, 1994), and was reported to be naturalized there in 2002 (Space and Flynn, 2002). It is likely that more records regarding introduction as part of tree species trials could indicate other dates of introduction.

Risk of Introduction

Where it is cultivated as an ornamental, it has a tendency to naturalize and thus poses a threat of local dispersal. Being a highly valued tree and on lists of promising fast growing legume trees for agroforestry, further intentional introduction is also likely. However, it was classified as only a low risk species in a risk assessment for the Pacific (PIER, 2014).

Habitat

S. grandiflora is found in a range of sites and different habitats, but is most common in its native range in forest edges and on disturbed ground, but also common as an ornamental, and in and around farmsteads. Where introduced, it has tended to spread as an escape from where initially planted.

Habitat List

Biology and Ecology

Genetics

The chromosome number of S. grandiflora is 2n = 24 (Jacob, 1941; Salimuddin and Ramesh, 1993).

Reproductive Biology

S. grandiflora seeds are hard-coated with no inherent dormancy, and will germinate soon after imbibition occurs when moisture is available (Graaff and van Staden, 1984). As with other Sesbania spp., reproduction is entirely sexual, although rootstocks can be transplanted manually with some success. Flowers are pollinated by generalist insect pollinators, usually bees (Evans and Rotar, 1987), and give rise to clusters of seed pods on the stalks of the inflorescences. Some pods dehisce while still hanging on the trees and expel their seeds, but most of the pods dislodge from the plants while still intact and containing seeds. Long-range dispersal of seeds occurs through the buoyant water-borne pods being carried downstream and seeds are released as the pods become weathered and disintegrate.

Physiology and Phenology

Members of the genus Sesbania are known for exceptionally fast growth rates, as well as a very high affinity for association with several nitrogen-fixing Rhizobia in the soil that cause the formation of numerous, large nodules in the plant roots (Noses Onim and Dzowela, 1988). Nitrogen-fixation enables these plants to grow vigorously on nutrient deficient soils. Consequently, many Sesbania species including S. cannabina, S. grandiflora, S. exalta, S. sesban and S. sericea have been used extensively in agroforestry as fodder, green manure and soil-improver plants (Ipor and Oyen, 1997).

S. grandiflora is light-demanding and has extremely fast growth rates. It is somewhat drought resistant, although will not survive in very dry conditions unless irrigated. It is sensitive to low temperatures and will not tolerate frost. S. grandiflora will coppice and pollard, but it will not survive repeated cutting (Ella et al., 1989). Roots tend to be shallow, with numerous pinkish nodules containing nitrogen-fixing bacteria, and S. grandiflora nodulates heavily in most soils.

Flowering commonly occurs between December and February, seeds ripening in April-May, though natural regeneration of S. grandiflora is rarely seen, and it is generally known almost exclusively as a cultivated tree. S. grandiflora can be cultivated by direct sowing, or by the planting of bare-rooted seedlings and polythene bag container seedlings. There are 16,000-17,000 seeds/kg. Seeds are orthodox, remaining viable for more than one year under ordinary storage conditions, and do not require any pre-treatment (Evans et al., 1990). Seeds start to germinate within 3 days of sowing, with up to 80% germination within one week from sowing (Luna, 1996).

Environmental Requirements

S. grandiflora is well adapted to hot, humid climates, although it can be grown in more sub-humid regions and can tolerate drought. However, it is a lowland species (up to 800 m altitude) and lacks tolerance of cool temperatures (<10°C). It thrives in areas with an annual rainfall of 2000-4000 mm, and with no dry season or a short dry season. However, it can also grow when the rainfall is as low as 80 mm per month (Evans et al., 1990) and in other semi-arid climates, such as on Timor, Indonesia. In arid areas, it needs irrigation to survive. It is often grown in kitchen gardens, compounds or backyards where it can be irrigated with waste water. Under these conditions, S. grandiflora is widely grown even in arid regions (Hocking, 1993). A modified description of climatic requirements was prepared by CSIRO (Booth and Jovanovic, 2000).

S. grandiflora grows on a wide range of soils, and even poor soils are generally satisfactory for its growth. When grown in poor soils, nodulation and subsequent nitrogen fixation help to restore soil fertility, indicating that S. grandiflora has good soil improvement qualities. It can grow in waterlogged areas, although it prefers well-drained, deep, sandy loam soils. It is well-adapted to alkaline and saline conditions (Hansen and Munns, 1985). It has also shown some tolerance of acid conditions down to pH 4.5 ('t Mannetje and Jones, 1992). S. grandiflora grown in loamy soils have reached 3.2 m tall in 9 months, whereas in nutrient-poor, sandy soils the height was only 1.8 m over the same period (Luna, 1996).

Climate

Latitude/Altitude Ranges

Air Temperature

Rainfall

Rainfall Regime

Soil Tolerances

Soil drainage

• free
• seasonally waterlogged

Soil reaction

• acid
• alkaline
• neutral

Soil texture

• heavy
• light
• medium

Special soil tolerances

• infertile
• saline
• shallow

Natural enemies

Notes on Natural Enemies

S. grandiflora and S. sesban were attacked by Ceroplastodes spp. following their introduction to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India, being the first record of this insect on Sesbania spp. (Shah et al., 1989).

A number of other species have also been reported, including Adelphocoris lineolatus (lucerne bug), Bactrocera cucurbitae (melon fly), Erythricium salmonicolor (damping off), Eurema hecabe (common grass yellow), Megalurothrips distalis, Mesoplatys cincta and Spodoptera litura (taro caterpillar).

Means of Movement and Dispersal

Natural Dispersal

Pods and seeds are likely to be dispersed by water after rains or flooding. In some other Sesbania species, water is considered the principal means of seed dispersal.

Vector Transmission (biotic)

No information was available for S. grandiflora, but in S. punicea, the other arborescent sesbania, the propagules have no specific adaptations for biotic dispersal, and seeds are toxic and not attractive to birds or animals.

Intentional Introduction

Being a highly valued tree and on lists of promising fast growing legume trees for agroforestry, it has been widely introduced, and further intentional introduction is also likely.

Pathway Causes

Pathway Vectors

Environmental Impact

S. grandiflora has been widely introduced and planted for soils conservation and soil improvement, thus noted as having positive environmental impacts. However, where it has become invasive, primarily on Pacific islands, it tends to form monocultures and outcompete native plant species. It is also noted to have allelopathic effects on crop seed germination (Chinnappan and Mahalingam, 2011), and may also therefore have a similar effect on native plants.

Risk and Impact Factors

• Proved invasive outside its native range
• Abundant in its native range
• Highly adaptable to different environments
• Is a habitat generalist
• Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
• Pioneering in disturbed areas
• Tolerant of shade
• Long lived
• Fast growing
• Has high reproductive potential
• Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
• Has high genetic variability

• Threat to/ loss of native species

• Allelopathic
• Competition - monopolizing resources
• Competition - shading
• Rapid growth

• Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately

Uses

S. grandiflora wood is white and soft, relatively light, with a density of about 500 kg/m³. The timber is not durable, but is sometimes used for posts (Hocking, 1993). As a fuel, it burns rapidly without much heat (Hocking, 1993). However, because of its fast growth and availability within a year of planting, it is a popular fuelwood in areas where it grows. The wood is high in ash content (6.0%), but low in carbon (11.7%) (Pathak et al., 1987), with a calorific value of 17.91 MJ/kg. Wood should be well dried, and deteriorates in storage, becoming corky, dusty and unfit for burning (Evans et al., 1990).

S. grandiflora produces more cellulose as a raw material per unit area over very short rotations, than most other pulp wood tree species, usually in only 3-4 years. Trees of this age can be pulped without debarking and are suitable for chemical pulping for the production of cheap printing, writing, magazine and news printing papers. It has short fibres, but can be blended with long-fibred bamboo pulp in suitable proportions, resulting in much improved strength properties. When blended with bamboo pulp at a ratio of 20:80 it has been found to be suitable for the production of cheap papers and newsprint (Evans et al., 1990). The bark yields tannins, and a clear gum that is used as a substitute for gum arabic in foods and adhesives.

In Indonesia, fuelwood plantations yield 20-25 m³/ha per year (National Academy of Sciences, 1980). Rai et al. (1983) found the highest production after 3.5 years on riverside sites (65 kg/tree), 20 kg/tree under silvipasture and 10 kg/tree on canal-sides. On a 3-year rotation, about 40 t/ha of wood pulp can be harvested (Evans et al., 1990).

Young pods, leaves and flowers are a good food source and are widely used in rural areas. S. grandiflora is known in South East Asia for its large and edible flowers. Raw or lightly steamed after removing calyx and pistil, they are used as an ingredient of soups, salads and vegetable dishes. The white flowers are preferred in the Philippines since red ones are said to be bitter. Tender pods are eaten as string beans. The young leaves are also eaten, usually finely chopped and steamed, boiled or fried, but S. grandiflora leaves were found to be bitter in trials in India (Bai and Devadas, 1973), and had to be prepared in mixture with other leafy vegetables (Gopaldas et al., 1973). Sesbania leaves and pods have been eaten by lactating mothers to stimulate or increase milk secretion (galactagogue). Ochse and Bakhuisen van den Brink (1931) reported that in Java, leaves and young pods of S. grandiflora are eaten, especially by nursing mothers, following a belief from Africa and Asia that Sesbania foliage increases lactation of dairy animals.

Leaves and pods of S. grandiflora are valued as fodder. The foliage is reported to contain 36% crude protein (dry weight) and 9600 IU vitamin A per 100 g. S. grandiflora will produce a crop of leaves for fodder within 4 months of establishment. However, it cannot tolerate frequent lopping. Farmers in Lombok, Indonesia, use a system where the side branches only are lopped for fodder, leaving the main stem untouched (Gutteridge and Shelton, 1994). Due to the high protein content, it should be combined with low protein feeds that are high in energy, such as rice and maize straw. The fodder can be fed fresh, wilted or dried. Dried fodder can be stored and saved for times of shortage. The most effective method of feeding to ruminants is to provide it as a diet supplement at 15-30%. However, caution should be used in feeding the fodder to monogastric animals (Ash and Petaia, 1992; 't Mannetje and Jones, 1992). The leaves are reported to cure night blindness in cattle.

S. grandiflora has antibiotic, anti-helminthic, anti-neoplastic and contraceptive properties (Evans et al., 1990). For systemic disorders, decoctions are taken internally. A preparation made from the flowers and applied to the eyes is said to relieve dimness of vision. Preparations made from roots are used to treat malaria and as an expectorant, and poultices made from flowers and leaves are used to treat rheumatism, swellings, bruises and itching (Evans and Rotar, 1987).

S. grandiflora is a promising species for reforesting eroded and grassy wastelands throughout the tropics. It is used in agroforestry systems, especially where rehabilitation of eroded hilly areas is also required (Evans et al., 1990). It is well-suited to being grown as a fallow, planted densely, grown for short periods and ploughed under to improve soil fertility before the planting of food crops. It can also be used to shade coconut nurseries and root crop plantings, and to provide live support for pepper (Piper nigrum), betel (Piper betle) and vanilla. It is also used as a windbreak and shelterbelt for citrus, bananas and coffee, and is particularly effective when planted at close spacings in double or triple rows (Evans et al., 1990). Due to its rapid growth and nodulation, S. grandiflora foliage is also used as a green manure. It is grown in gardens, houselots and in mixed plantings for fodder production. It can also be planted in fence lines, field borders, rice paddy bunds and irrigation ditches. It is also commonly grown for ornamental purposes.

Uses List

Animal feed, fodder, forage

• Fodder/animal feed

Environmental

• Agroforestry
• Amenity
• Boundary, barrier or support
• Erosion control or dune stabilization
• Land reclamation
• Revegetation
• Shade and shelter
• Soil conservation
• Soil improvement
• Windbreak

Fuels

• Charcoal
• Fuelwood

Human food and beverage

• Gum/mucilage
• Vegetable

Materials

• Green manure
• Gum/resin
• Mulches
• Tanstuffs
• Wood/timber

Medicinal, pharmaceutical

• Traditional/folklore

Ornamental

• garden plant

Wood Products

Pulp

• Short-fibre pulp

Roundwood

• Building poles
• Posts

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

S. grandiflora can be mistaken for other Sesbania species when small, but has characteristic angled pods. S. punicea, another invasive species, can reach only 5 m, and most other species are 1-3 m shrubs or subshrubs, annuals, biennials and short-lived perennials. As the largest species in the genus, S. grandiflora is distinct in the size it can reach.

Prevention and Control

Physical/Mechanical Control

Seedlings and small plants can be pulled, by hand or with implements, though large plants must be felled and the stumps either removed or treated with triclopyr to prevent coppicing. Mechanical control operations in well-established infestations usually disturb the soil and promote seed germination, so frequent follow-up operations are required to ensure sustained control of the weed.

Biological Control

Much work has been undertaken on other Sesbania spp. such as S. punicea, especially in South Africa, but not yet on S. grandiflora.

Chemical Control

No specific information on S. grandilfora was found, but on S. punicea in South Africa, herbicides are applied as a foliar spray with either triclopyr or glyphosate, or as a cut stump treatment with triclopyr, or as soil treatment with clopyralid and tebuthiuron. However, the use of herbicides as foliar sprays and soil treatment against S. punicea is not common because other control methods (mechanical and biological) are preferred.

References

`t Mannetje L, Jones RM, eds, 1992. Plant Resources of South-East Asia. No. 4. Forages. Wageningen, Netherlands: Pudoc/PROSEA

Akkasaeng R, Gutteridge RC, Wanapat M, 1989. Evaluation of trees and shrubs for forage and fuelwood in northeast Thailand. International Tree Crops Journal, 5(4):209-220

Akunda EW, Oduol PA, 1989. Growth rates of some promising agroforestry tree species. Trees for development in Sub Saharan Africa. Proceedings of a regional seminar held by the International Foundation for Science (IFS), ICRAF House, Nairobi, Kenya, 20-25 February, 1989, 66-70

Ash AJ, Petaia L, 1992. Nutritional value of Sesbania grandiflora leaves for monogastrics and ruminants. Tropical Agriculture, 69(3):223-228

Ashton M, Gunatilleke S, De Zoysa N, Dassanayake MD, Gunatilleke N, Wijesundera S, 1997. A field guide to the common trees and shrubs of Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka: WHT Publications Private Limited for the Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka

Aziz T, Habte M, Prasad MNV, Rajewar J, Harris PJC, Moore THM, Puddephat IJ, Holden SR, Lungu S, Volk J, 1989. Section 2. Contributed papers involving one NFT genus. Sesbania. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research Reports, 7:117-134

Bai, G., Devadas, R. P., 1973. Ability of two rice diets to support reproductive and lactation performance in rats. Indian Journal of Nutrition and Dietetics, 10(6), 275-281.

Bailey D, 1971. Seychelles: Government Printer Seychelles.42 pp.

Bhat AS, Menon MM, et al., 1971. Sesbania grandiflora (a potential pulpwood). Indian Forester, 97(3):128-144

Booth TH, Jovanovic T, 2000. Improving descriptions of climatic requirements in the CABI Forestry Compendium. A report for the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research. CSIRO - Forestry and Forest Products, Client Report No. 758

Burbidge NT, 1965. The Australian species of Sesbania Scopoli (Leguminosae). Australian Journal of Botany, 13(1):103-141

Catchpoole DW, Blair GJ, 1990. Forage tree legumes. I. Productivity and N economy of Leucaena, Gliricidia, Calliandra and Sesbania and tree/green panic mixtures. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research, 41(3):521-530

Caycedo Amador H, Giraldo Lotero FJ, 1988. Initial performance of five fast-growing tree species in Uraba, Colombia. [Comportamiento inicial de cinco especies forestales de rapido crecimiento en Uraba, Colombia.] CONIF Informa, No. 12, 8 pp

Chinnappan Alagesaboopathi, Mahalingam Deivanai, 2011. Allelopathic potential of Sesbania grandiflora Pers. on germination of Cajanus cajan Millsp. (Redgram) varieties. International Journal of Biosciences (IJB), 1(5), 51-55. http://www.innspub.net/documents/IJB-V1No5-p51-55.pdf

Council of Heads of Australasian Herbaria, 2014. Australia's Virtual Herbarium. Australia: Council of Heads of Australasian Herbaria.http://avh.ala.org.au

Detrez C, Ndiaye S, Dreyfus B, 1994. In vitro regeneration of the tropical multipurpose leguminous tree Sesbania grandiflora from cotyledon explants. Plant Cell Reports, 14(2-3):87-93

Duguma B, Kang BT, Okali DUU, 1988. Effect of pruning intensities of three woody leguminous species grown in alley cropping with maize and cowpea on an alfisol. Agroforestry Systems, 6(1):19-35

Ella A, Blair GJ, Stur WW, 1991. Effect of age of forage tree legumes at the first cutting on subsequent production. Tropical Grasslands, 25(3):275-280

Ella A, Jacobsen C, Stur WW, Blair G, 1989. Effect of plant density and cutting frequency on the productivity of four tree legumes. Tropical Grasslands, 23(1):28-34

Eranna S, Sreenivasulu P, Nayudu MV, 1995. Incidence of a mosaic disease of Sesbania grandiflora caused by a sobemovirus in Andhra Pradesh. Indian Phytopathology, 48(1):66-69

Erb HE, 1979. Natural enemies and distribution of Sesbania punicia (Car) Benth in Argentina. Proceedings of the 3rd National Weed Conference in South Africa. Cape Town, South Africa: AA Balkema, 205-210

Evans DO, 1983. Search for seed of Sesbania grandiflora. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research Reports, 1:43

Evans DO, 1984. Preliminary observations evaluating perennial sesbanias for fodder production. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research Reports, 2:32-33

Evans DO, Macklin B, Anderson DM, Brewbaker JL, Gutteridge RC, Narayan Hegde, Osman AM, Rao DLN, Steinmueller N, Thomson L, Topark Ngarm A, Yamoah C, 1990. 44 pp.

Evans DO, Rotar PP, 1987. Productivity of Sesbania species. Tropical Agriculture, UK, 64(3):193-200

Evans, D. O., Rotar, P. P., 1987. Sesbania in agriculture, Boulder, Colorado, USA: Westview Press.192 pp.

Eys JEvan, Mathius W, Pongsapan P, Johnson WL, 1985. Foliage of tropical legume trees as low level supplement to napier grass diets for growing goats. Journal of Animal Science, 61(1):331-332

GBIF, 2014. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. http://www.gbif.org/species

Ghai SK, Rao DLN, Lalita Batra, 1985. Comparative study of the potential of sesbanias for green manuring. Tropical Agriculture, UK, 62(1):52-56

Gill AS, 1986. A fuel/fodder production system using Sesbania grandiflora. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research Reports, 4:14-15

Gill AS, Palaskar MS, 1994. Response of micronutrients and secondary nutrient on the forage yield of MPTS. International conference: special issue. Range-Management-and-Agroforestry, 15(2):157-159

Gopaldas, T., Ramakrishnan, I., Grewal, T., Rajalakshmi, R., Devadas, R. P., 1973. Use of legumes and green leafy vegetables for infant and young child feeding: summary of results of studies in three different parts of India. PAG Bulletin, 3(2), 51-53.

Graaff, J. L., Staden, J. van, 1984. The germination characteristics of two Sesbania species. South African Journal of Botany, 3(1), 59-62.

Gutteridge, R. C., Shelton, H. M., 1994. Forage tree legumes in tropical agriculture, Wallingford, UK: CAB INTERNATIONAL.xv + 389 pp.

Halepyati AS, Sheelavantar MN, 1991. Pattern of dry matter and nitrogen accumulation by some green manure species. Journal of Maharashtra Agricultural Universities, 16(2):292-293

Hansen EH, Munns DN, 1985. Screening of Sesbania species for NaCl tolerance. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research Reports, 3:60-61

Haque SMS, 1990. Nitrogen fixing trees and shrubs of Pakistan and their role in soil improvement - a review. Commonwealth Forestry Review, 69(4):345-349

Harris JO, Allen EK, Allen ON, 1949. Morphological development of nodules on Sesbania grandiflora Poir, with reference to the origin of nodule rootlets. American Journal of Botany, 36 (9):651-661

Hasan N, Jain RK, 1985. Response of some selected Sesbania species to root-knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita. Nematologia Mediterranea, 13(1):15-19

Hocking D, ed. New Delhi, India: Oxford and IBH.

ILDIS, 2014. International Legume Database and Information Service: World Database of Legumes (version 10). Reading, UK: School of Plant Sciences, University of Reading.http://www.ildis.org/

Ipor IB, Oyen LPA, 1997. Sesbania sericea. In: Plant Resources of South-East Asia, No. 11. Auxiliary Plants, [ed. by Faridan-Hanum I, Maesen LJG van der]. Bogor, Indonesia: PROSEA Foundation. 236-240.

Jackson JK, 1987. Manual of afforestation in Nepal. Nepal: UK Forestry Research Project

Jacob K, 1941. Cytological studies in the genus Sesbania. Bibliographica Genetica, 13:225-300

Joshi HK, Kumar A, 1982. Note on the biology of Pseudocercospora sesbaniae on agasthi (Sesbania grandiflora Pers.). Legume Research, 5(1):57-59

Joshi HK, Kumar A, 1986. On the occurrence of fungal diseases in some fodder trees. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research Reports, 4:18-19

Kairo, M., Ali, B., Cheesman, O., Haysom, K., Murphy, S., 2003. Invasive species threats in the Caribbean region. Report to the Nature Conservancy. In: Invasive species threats in the Caribbean region. Report to the Nature Conservancy . Curepe, Trinidad and Tobago: CAB International.132 pp.

Kalyanaguranathan P, Sulochana N, Murugesh N, 1985. In vitro haemolytic effect of the flowers of Sesbania grandiflora. Fitoterapia, 56(3):188-189

Khattar S, Ram HYM, 1983. Organogenesis and plantlet formation in-vitro Sesbania grandiflora. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology, 21:251-252

Kudler J, 1970. Insect attack on Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Poir. Tech. Newslett. For. Prod. Res. Inst. Ghana, 4(4):9-12

Kumar A, Joshi HK, 1983. Occurence, incidence and appraisal of grey leaf spots on Sesbania grandiflora. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research Reports, 1:7-8

Lenné JM, Boa ER, 1994. Diseases of tree legumes. Forage tree legumes in tropical agriculture., 292-308

Little EL Jr, 1983. Common fuelwood crops. A handbook for their identification. Morgantown, WV: Commune-Tech Associates

Luna RK, 1996. Plantation trees. Delhi, India: International Book Distributors

Mabberley, D. J., 1997. The plant-book: a portable dictionary of the vascular plants, (Ed. 2) . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.xvi + 858 pp.

MacDicken KG, Brewbaker JL, 1988. Growth rates of five tropical leguminous fuelwood species. Journal of Tropical Forest Science, 1(2):83-91

Macklin B, Evans DO, 1990. [Perennial Sesbania species in agroforestry systems: proceedings of a workshop held in Nairobi, Kenya, 27-31 March, 1989], Nairobi, Kenya: Special Publication No. 90-01 of NFTA, jointly published with the International Council for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF). 240 pp.

Masrahi, Y., Al-Huqail, A., Al-Turki, T., Thomas, J., 2012. Odyssea mucronata, Sesbania sericea, and Sesamum alatum - new discoveries for the flora of Saudi Arabia. Turkish Journal of Botany, 36(1), 39-48. http://journals.tubitak.gov.tr/botany/

Missouri Botanical Garden, 2014. Tropicos database. St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden.http://www.tropicos.org/

Nakagawa S, Yamada T, 1965. Two varieties of Sesbania grandiflora as fruit fly hosts. Journal of Economic Entomology, 58(4):796

National Academy of Sciences, 1979. Tropical legumes: resources for the future. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences

National Academy of Sciences, 1980. Firewood Crops: Shrub and Tree Species for Energy Production. Washington DC, USA; National Academy of Sciences

Noses Onim JF, Dzowela BH, 1988. The distribution of Sesbania species in the PANESA region. In: Pasture Network for Eastern and Southern Africa (PANESA), African forage plant genetic resources, evaluation of forage germplasm and extensive livestock production systems [Proceedings of the Third Workshop held at the International Conference Centre, Arusha, Tanzania, 27-30 April 1987], Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: ILCA. www.fao.org/wairdocs/ilri/x5491e/x5491e0a.htm

Ochse, J. J., Bakhuisen van den Brink, R. C., 1931. Vegetables of the Dutch East Indies. (English edition of Indische Groenten), Archipel Drukkerij, Buitenzorg.1006 pp.

Parrotta JA, 1990. Hurricane damage and recovery of multipurpose tree seedlings at a coastal site in Puerto Rico. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research Reports, 8:64-66

Pathak BS, Jain AK, Ajaib Singh, 1987. Characteristics of Leucaena leucocephala and Sesbania grandiflora woods. Indian Forester, 113(3):228-232

PIER, 2014. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii.http://www.hear.org/pier/index.htm

Rai P, Pathak PS, Debroy R, 1983. Growth of Sesbania grandiflora in different habitats. International Journal of Eco-Environmental Science, 9:21-27

Ruskin FR, 1983. Firewood crops. Shrub and tree species for energy production. Volume 2. 92 pp.; 36 pl. BOSTID Report No. 40. Washington DC, USA: National Academy Press. 6 pp

Sachet MH, 1987. The littoral species of Sesbania (Leguminosae) in the South Pacific islands and its relatives. Bulletin du Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle.-Section-B,-Adansonia, 9(1):3-27

Saleem M, Bali SV, 1992. Comparative study on the growth of three provenances of Sesbania grandiflora. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research Reports, 10:204-205

Salimuddin, Ramesh B, 1993. Karyological studies in the genus Sesbania. Cytologia, 58(3):241-246

Semple AT, Pendleton RL, 1950. Woody legumes for the poor soils of humid equatorial lowlands. Indian Farming, 11(6):223-225

Shah NK, Belavadi VV, Pal RN, 1989. Occurrence of the scale insect Ceroplastodes sp. (Homoptera: Coccidae) on Sesbania. Journal of the Andaman Science Association, 5(1):86

Shanker S, Ram HYM, 1990. Plantlet regeneration from tissue cultures of Sesbania grandiflora. Current Science, 59(1):39-43

Space JC, Flynn T, 2000. Observations on invasive plant species in American Samoa. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service.51 pp.

Subramanium TR, Muthukrishnan TS, Rao KRN, 1953. Control of Weevil Alcidodes bubo - Fabr. A pest of Agathi, Sesbania grandiflora. Madras Agricultural Journal, 40:525-531

Tekle-Haimanot A, Weeraratna CW, Doku EV, 1991. Evaluation of three tree legume species in Western Samoa. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research Reports, 9:71-74

The Plant List, 2014. The Plant List: a working list of all plant species. Version 1.1. London, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.http://www.theplantlist.org

Troup RS, Joshi HB, 1983. The Silviculture of Indian Trees. Vol IV. Leguminosae. Delhi, India: Controller of Publications

USDA-ARS, 2014. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory.http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl

Walter GH, Parry WH, 1994. Insect pests of forage tree legumes: biology and non-chemical control. Forage tree legumes in tropical agriculture., 309-321

Webb DB, Wood PJ, Smith JP, Henman GS, 1984. A guide to species selection for tropical and sub-tropical plantations. Tropical Forestry Papers, No. 15. Oxford, UK: Commonwealth Forestry Institute, University of Oxford

Whyte RO, NilssonLeissner G, Trumble HC, 1953. Legumes in agriculture. FAO Agric. Stud. No. 21, 367 pp

Wood IM, Larkens AG, 1987. Agronomic and phenological data for a collection of Sesbania species grown in south-east Queensland, Australia. Genetic Resources Communication, No. 11, 13 pp

Contributors

11/10/14 Updated by:

Nick Pasiecznik, Agroforestry Enterprises, France

Distribution Maps