Sambucus nigra (elder)

Pictures

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Picture

Title

Caption

Copyright

Flowers and foliage

S. nigra (Elderberry or Elderflower), young foliage and flowers. Oxfordshire, UK. May 1999

©A.R. Pittaway

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Sambucus nigra L.

Preferred Common Name

elder

International Common Names

English: black elder; common elder; elderberry; European elder
Spanish: sambugo; sauco común
French: seu; sureau; sureau noir
Russian: buzina chernaya
Portuguese: sabugueiro; sabugueiro-negro

Local Common Names

Czech Republic: bez cherny
Germany: Schwarzer Holunder
Italy: sambuco nero
Netherlands: gewone Vlier
Norway: fläder
Poland: dziki bez czarny
Romania: soc negru; socul
Sweden: flaeder

EPPO code

SAMNI (Sambucus nigra)

Summary of Invasiveness

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S. nigra is a component of woody scrub vegetation that may appear on previously disturbed ground that has remained uncultivated for some years. It does not withstand regular cultivation and chemical control appears effective. It is generally invasive in hedgerows, roadsides and field margins, and unmanaged grasslands. Since it is frequently found as an understorey shrub in its native range, it is a potential woodland invasive in non-native areas. However, it is also a valuable fruit-producing tree and is likely to be further introduced as a commercial species.

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Spermatophyta
Subphylum: Angiospermae
Class: Dicotyledonae
Order: Dipsacales
Family: Caprifoliaceae
Genus: Sambucus
Species: Sambucus nigra

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

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Sambucus is a large genus with a variety of changing synonymy recorded and some apparent continuing taxonomic confusion. USDA-NRCS (2002) uses the all-embracing species concept of S. nigra including three subspecies, subsp. nigra native to Europe, and the North American natives subsp. canadensis (L.) R. Bolli and subsp. cerulea (Raf.) R. bolli, which are, however, raised to species rank in most taxonomies. S. nigra L. is used here in its strict sense as the European native species (=S. nigra subsp. nigra L.).

A range of cultivars of S. nigra have been described, including: Aurea, Guincho Purple and Laciniata (Boskovic and Tobutt, 1992), Sambu, Sampo, Samidan, Samdal and Samyl (Kaack, 1989; 1997), and Haschberg, Donau, Pragarten and Tulbing (Strauss and Novak, 1982). Some of these have been raised to forms, f. alba, f. aurea, f. lacinata and f. pendula (USDA-ARS, 2003), and some have been raised to varieties, var. aurea (Kulikov and Uleiskaya, 1993), var. lacinata (USDA-NRCS, 2002) and var. rotundifolia. Clearly, there remains some confusion as to the relative rank and classification of the intraspecific morphological variation found within the species. A natural hybrid between S. nigra and S. racemosa, found together with its parents in southern Sweden, was intermediate between the parents in inflorescence shape, flower size, and colour of flowers, pith and fruit (Nilsson, 1987).

Description

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S. nigra is a bushy, fast-growing shrub or small tree reaching 8-10 m tall and 20-30 cm diameter (Hegi, 1966). It often has straight, vigorous, erect shoots from the base, branches often arching. Bark is brownish-grey, often deeply furrowed and corky. Twigs are stout, greyish with prominent lenticels, leaflets 3-9 cm long, often 5-7 cm, ovate-lanceolate or ovate-elliptical, acuminate, rarely orbicular or deeply dissected, sparingly hairy on veins beneath, serrate; leaves with 5-7 leaflets, sometimes as few as 3, stipules none or small and subulate. Inflorescence flat topped, 10-20 cm in diameter, with 5 primary rays, Corolla c. 5 mm in diameter, flowers creamish white, anthers cream, fruits black, globose, 6-8 mm, sometimes greenish-yellow, containing 3-5 seeds.

Plant Type

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Broadleaved
Perennial
Seed propagated
Shrub
Tree
Woody

Distribution

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It occurs in the whole of Europe (with the exception of the northernmost parts of the continent) and also in Africa and south-west Asia. The approximate latitudinal limits of its native range are 34°N to 63°N.

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 17 Feb 2021

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	First Reported	Invasive	Planted	Reference	Notes
Africa
Algeria	Present	Native				USDA-ARS (2003)
Cabo Verde	Present					CABI (Undated b)
Côte d'Ivoire	Present	Introduced			Planted	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Benoit-Vical, 1996
Ethiopia	Present	Introduced				Witt and Luke (2017)
Kenya	Present	Introduced				Witt and Luke (2017)
Malawi	Present	Introduced				Witt and Luke (2017)
Morocco	Present					CABI (Undated b)
Rwanda	Present	Introduced				Witt and Luke (2017)
Tanzania	Present	Introduced				Witt and Luke (2017)
Tunisia	Present	Native				USDA-ARS (2003)
Uganda	Present	Introduced				Witt and Luke (2017)
Zambia	Present	Introduced				Witt and Luke (2017)
Asia
Armenia	Present	Native				USDA-ARS (2003)
Azerbaijan	Present	Native				USDA-ARS (2003)
China	Present					CABI (Undated a)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Jiangsu	Present	Introduced			Planted	Flora of China Editorial Committee (2003)
-Shandong	Present	Introduced			Planted	Flora of China Editorial Committee (2003)
Georgia	Present	Native				USDA-ARS (2003)
India	Present	Introduced			Planted	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Banerjee, 1956
Iran	Present					CABI (Undated b)
Iraq	Present					CABI (Undated b)
Syria	Present					CABI (Undated b)
Turkey	Present	Native				Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
Europe
Albania	Present	Native				Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003) USDA-ARS (2003)
Andorra	Present					CABI (Undated b)
Austria	Present	Native				Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
Belarus	Present	Native				USDA-ARS (2003)
Belgium	Present	Native				Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
Bosnia and Herzegovina	Present					CABI (Undated b)
Bulgaria	Present	Native				Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003) USDA-ARS (2003)
Croatia	Present					CABI (Undated b)
Czechia	Present	Native				Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003) Svoboda and Polák (2002)
Czechoslovakia	Present					CABI (Undated b)
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia	Present					CABI (Undated b)
Denmark	Present	Native				Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
Estonia	Present	Native				Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
Finland	Present	Native				Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003) USDA-ARS (2003)
France	Present	Native				Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
-Corsica	Present					CABI (Undated b)
Germany	Present	Native				Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
Greece	Present	Native				Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003) USDA-ARS (2003)
Hungary	Present	Native				Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
Iceland	Present					CABI (Undated b)
Ireland	Present	Native				Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
Italy	Present	Native				Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
Latvia	Present	Native				Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
Liechtenstein	Present					CABI (Undated b)
Lithuania	Present	Native				Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
Luxembourg	Present					CABI (Undated b)
Moldova	Present	Native				Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003) USDA-ARS (2003)
Netherlands	Present	Native				Jans and Drost (1995)
North Macedonia	Present					CABI (Undated b)
Norway	Present	Native				USDA-ARS (2003)
Poland	Present	Native				Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003) Kalinowska et al. (2013)
Portugal	Present	Native				Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003) USDA-ARS (2003)
-Azores	Present					Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
-Madeira	Present					USDA-ARS (2003)
Romania	Present	Native				Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
Russia	Present					CABI (Undated b)
-Central Russia	Present	Native				Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003) USDA-ARS (2003)
-Northern Russia	Present	Native				USDA-ARS (2003)
-Russia (Europe)	Present					CABI (Undated b)
-Southern Russia	Present	Native				Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003) USDA-ARS (2003)
Serbia	Present					Barsi and Lamberti (2004)
Serbia and Montenegro	Present	Native				Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003) USDA-ARS (2003)
Slovakia	Present	Native				Gáborčik et al. (1999) Kollár (2007)
Slovenia	Present	Native				Črepinšek et al. (2002)
Spain	Present	Native				Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
-Canary Islands	Present					CABI (Undated b)
Sweden	Present	Native				USDA-ARS (2003)
Switzerland	Present	Native				Tinner et al. (1999) Michel (2009) Michel et al. (2013)
Ukraine	Present	Native				Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
United Kingdom	Present, Widespread	Native				Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
-Channel Islands	Present					CABI (Undated b)
North America
United States	Present					CABI (Undated a) Villamor and Eastwell (2016)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Connecticut	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Planted	CABI (Undated b)
-Pennsylvania	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Planted	CABI (Undated b)
-Virginia	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Planted	CABI (Undated b)
-Washington	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Planted	Missouri Botanical Garden (2003) Villamor and Eastwell (2016)
Oceania
Australia	Present					CABI (Undated a)	Present based on regional distribution.
-New South Wales	Present	Introduced			Planted	Royal Botanic Gardens Sydney (2003)
-Victoria	Present	Introduced			Planted	Royal Botanic Gardens Sydney (2003)
New Zealand	Present	Introduced	1867			Williams (1983) Williams and Karl (1996) CABI (Undated)
South America
Bolivia	Present	Introduced			Planted	Missouri Botanical Garden (2003)
Colombia	Present	Introduced			Planted	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Ortiz de Boada & Cogua, 1989
Ecuador	Present	Introduced			Planted	Missouri Botanical Garden (2003)

History of Introduction and Spread

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It has been introduced to various parts of North and South America, Africa, Asia and Australasia, though few exact records for first introduction exist. It was introduced into New Zealand in 1867 (Owen, 1996).

Risk of Introduction

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Further introductions are likely as seed is widely available and there are a variety of cultivars available.

Habitat

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Under natural conditions the species is a component of brushwood of various types of forest communities on fertile and relatively humid soils containing carbonates. S. nigra very easily colonizes both natural and man-made forests and many locations of the species have an anthropogenic origin. It has a somewhat invasive character, especially in disturbed sites such as abandoned fields or grasslands (Kollmann, 1995; Decaens et al., 1997) and even communal rubbish or rubble heaps. It also colonizes forests and poplar plantations established on abandoned agricultural land, often forming a dense understorey (Duvigneaud et al., 1981). S. nigra is also a shrub of open areas and woodland edges and is associated with eutrophic and disturbed soils and thick S. nigra scrub can develop in open areas of woodland (Mayer and Reimoser, 1978). S. nigra is one of the commonest riparian shrubs within the catchment of the Great Ouse and other managed watercourses in eastern England (Mason and Macdonald, 1990; Harper et al., 1997). S. nigra is also described from a grassy scrub landscape formed in recently grazed areas at the edges of a marsh (Jans and Drost, 1995) and is associated with post-1837 hedges in a study of hedgerow field boundaries in the parish of Knock, County Mayo, Ireland (Condon and Jarvis, 1989).

Habitat List

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Category	Sub-Category	Habitat	Presence	Status
Terrestrial
Terrestrial	Managed	Cultivated / agricultural land	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Managed forests, plantations and orchards	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Managed grasslands (grazing systems)	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Disturbed areas	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Rail / roadsides	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Urban / peri-urban areas	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Natural forests	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Riverbanks	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Wetlands	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)

Hosts/Species Affected

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It is known to invade abandoned fields and grasslands (Kollmann, 1995; Decaens et al., 1997) and poplar plantations established on abandoned agricultural land (Duvigneaud et al., 1981).

Biology and Ecology

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Genetics

The chromosome number of S. nigra is 2n=28, with 2n=36 also reported.

Physiology and Phenology

Flowering is generally in June and July in Europe. Seed dormancy is orthodox.

Reproductive Biology

Wertheim (1981) describes propagation in cultivation of S. nigra from cuttings taken in the winter, preferably from strong unbranched 1-year shoots and Strauss (1978) indicates propagation of cultivars can be from hardwood cuttings in October, from softwood cuttings under glass in the summer, or from suckers.

Environmental Requirements

S. nigra is strictly stenohydric (Linnenbrink et al., 1993), mesophytic, nitrophilous, frost tolerant and somewhat drought tolerant species, tolerating annual rainfall below 500 mm (Eichstadt and Mahn, 1993). It does have very specific site requirements and is tolerant to soils of low fertility and exposed areas. The species grows mostly on lowlands and on lower levels of mountains. It has an altitudinal limit of 1550 m in the Alps in Europe, 2200 m in Africa in the Atlas and 2300 m in the Pontus Mountains in Asia. It has the ability to regenerate rapidly if cut and is generally noted as shade tolerant, though Kollmann and Reiner (1996) describe S. nigra as not establishing easily in strongly shaded environments. S. nigra is tolerant to pollutants in the soil; it is able to survive on heavily contaminated land within 1-2 km of the copper smelter 'Legnica' in western Poland (Rebele et al., 1993).

Associations

S. nigra is described from a variety of woodland habitats in Europe. Helliwell et al. (1996) list S. nigra as one element of dense shrub understorey in disturbed ash/oak woodland and Sgardelis and Usher (1994) also indicate S. nigra as forming a dense understorey in a mixed deciduous and coniferous woodland in the UK. S. nigra is also described as a minor forest tree or shrub species, present in mountain and/or marginal areas of Italy (Bounous and Peano, 1990). Hetsch and Schmitt (1993) identify a distinct Humulus lupus / S. nigra community from forest margins in northern Germany. Characteristic shrub associations dominated by S. nigra are successional to ruderal forest characterized by Acer spp., bottomland species and on dry sites, Robinia pseudoacacia (Fischer, 1975). In studies in a deciduous forest in southern Poland over 5 years, the browse of Euonymus europaea, S. nigra and Crataegus oxyacantha were most preferred by deer (Bobek et al., 1979). In a study of food requirements, S. nigra is also listed by Negrutiu and Boghez (1972) as one of the most important species for roe deer.

Latitude/Altitude Ranges

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Latitude North (°N)	Latitude South (°S)	Altitude Lower (m)	Altitude Upper (m)
63	34	0	2300

Air Temperature

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Parameter	Lower limit	Upper limit
Absolute minimum temperature (ºC)	-39
Mean annual temperature (ºC)	4	20
Mean maximum temperature of hottest month (ºC)	15	31
Mean minimum temperature of coldest month (ºC)	-17	7

Rainfall

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Parameter	Lower limit	Upper limit	Description
Dry season duration	0	0	number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall
Mean annual rainfall	400	1800	mm; lower/upper limits

Rainfall Regime

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Bimodal
Summer
Uniform

Soil Tolerances

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Soil drainage

free
impeded

Soil reaction

acid
alkaline
neutral

Soil texture

heavy
medium

Natural enemies

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Natural enemy	Type	Life stages	Specificity	References	Biological control in	Biological control on
Aphis sambuci	Herbivore	Growing point/Stems
Placochela nigripes	Herbivore	Inflorescence

Notes on Natural Enemies

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Placochela nigripes induces galling of flower buds in S. nigra (Robbins, 1999). In Germany, a disease of S. nigra and S. racemosa was observed with foliar symptoms such as reddening, yellowing, reduced leaf size and premature leaf drop as well as dieback and decline. Mycoplasma-like organisms were detected in about 40% of affected plants (Lederer and Seemuller, 1991). Banerjee (1956) presents the biology of Auricularia auricula-judae (Linn.) Schoet. causing rot in S. nigra and describes the progress of decay in infected trees in Scotland, UK. Potential enemies to cultivated S. nigra in the Netherlands include the arthropod pest Synanthedon culiciformis. With respect to elderberry production, Muller (1977) describes difficulties in controlling Aphis sambuci using sprays.

Means of Movement and Dispersal

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Birds feeding on the fruit are likely to be the main dispersal agents of seed, though other small mammals may also have a role. For example, increased gull colonization in offshore islands is thought to encourage the rapid dominance of S. nigra. Seed are likely to be dispersed along watercourses but their viability following immersion in water is not known. Intentional introduction is likely due to the commercial value of S. nigra and the availability as seed from mail order companies and various websites.

Pathway Vectors

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Vector	Notes	Long Distance	Local	References
Mail	Internet	Yes

Plant Trade

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Plant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transport	Pest stages	Borne internally	Borne externally	Visibility of pest or symptoms
Flowers/Inflorescences/Cones/Calyx	seeds
Fruits (inc. pods)	seeds
Growing medium accompanying plants	seeds
Seedlings/Micropropagated plants	flowers; fruits; seeds; stems; whole plants
Stems (above ground)/Shoots/Trunks/Branches	stems
True seeds (inc. grain)	seeds

Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport
Bark
Bulbs/Tubers/Corms/Rhizomes
Leaves
Wood

Impact Summary

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Category	Impact
Animal/plant collections	None
Animal/plant products	None
Biodiversity (generally)	None
Crop production	None
Environment (generally)	None
Fisheries / aquaculture	None
Forestry production	Negative
Human health	None
Livestock production	None
Native fauna	Positive
Native flora	None
Rare/protected species	None
Tourism	None
Trade/international relations	None
Transport/travel	None

Impact

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There are no studies as to the economic effects of invasion by S. nigra. There are, however, positive impacts from commercial sale of the flowers, fruits and their processed products.

Environmental Impact

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The effects of S. nigra invasion have not been quantified, but where they form dense stands along watercourse, they may be expected to have effects on local hydrology.

Impact: Biodiversity

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The copious fruit production is a valuable source of food for birds and other wildlife, and as such, the presence of S. nigra will probably have only positive effects on fauna biodiversity, whereas effects on other plant species are unknown.

Social Impact

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S. nigra is often well utilized by local people as valuable fruit and flower crop. In such contexts it has a positive social impact.

Risk and Impact Factors

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Invasiveness

Invasive in its native range
Highly adaptable to different environments
Has high reproductive potential

Impact outcomes

Negatively impacts agriculture

Impact mechanisms

Competition - monopolizing resources

Likelihood of entry/control

Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately

Uses

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S. nigra has a wide range of uses. It is frequently cultivated across parts of Europe for elderberry production (Steffek, 2002). Fruits of the species are used for making confitures, jellies, juice and also for the extraction of dyestuffs (Bounous and Peano, 1990) and many cultivars of the species have been selected for these purposes (Smatana et al., 1988; Christensen, 1996; Kaack, 1997). The flowers of S. nigra are also used in the preparation of drinks and medicines (Pleva, 1982). Bridle and Timberlake (1997) and Bronnum-Hansen and Hansen (1983) identify S. nigra as a source of anthocyanin food colourant. The species has been planted as a garden tree for centuries, and as an ornamental, decorative plant for amenity purposes. It has also been planted for erosion control.

The wood of Sambucus nigra is heavy and quite durable, but poorly used due to the rather small dimensions of the timber. It has, however, been used as a source of sawn or hewn building timbers and for the production of exterior fittings: fences, woodware and for industrial and domestic woodware. Due to its whiteness, close grain and good cutting and polishing properties, the wood is very suitable for making pegs and other small wooden items including use by watchmakers and others concerned with delicate instruments (Metcalfe, 1948). It is sometimes used for fence poles in traditional rural economies. The pith from 1-year-old branches is used in microscopy for making sections of plants.

Dried fruits, flowers and cortex from this tree have been used as diaphoretic and diuretic medicines (Villar Perez et al., 1987). The medicinal properties of S. nigra and its toxicity have been known since antiquity, and have also been used as a source of natural pesticides. The medicinal properties of S. nigra are widely referred to in the literature. Products of S. nigra (sambucol) are natural remedies with antiviral properties, especially against different strains of influenza virus (Barak et al., 2001). Nemeth and Bernath (2001) list S. nigra among the main medicinal species collected from natural populations in Hungary. S. nigra is used in Turkish folk remedies for the treatment of various diseases which are thought to be inflammatory in nature (Yesilada et al., 1997). S. nigra is one of a list of plants identified by Benoit-Vical et al. (1996) that are frequently used to treat malaria. Based on a survey in the Lattari Mountains in Italy, S. nigra was identified as one of several species in which medicinal properties are of significance (Feo and Senatore, 1993). S. nigra is used in the treatment of oedematous swellings, dry coryza of infants, and respiratory problems (Parmar et al., 1993). Efremov et al. (1994) recommended commercial exploitation of S. nigra as a medicinal plant.

S. nigra is classified as a useful reservoir of aphid parasites with respect to management programmes (Stary and Neemec, 1986). Smith and Secoy (1981) also identify S. nigra as being used for agricultural pest control in western Europe before 1850. In a study of Central European forests on the ecological protection of forest against insect pests, S. nigra was found to be advantageous only against Epiblema nigricana (Turcek, 1963).

Uses List

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Environmental

Agroforestry
Erosion control or dune stabilization
Revegetation

General

Ornamental

Materials

Pesticide
Poisonous to mammals
Wood/timber

Medicinal, pharmaceutical

Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
Traditional/folklore

Wood Products

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Roundwood

Posts

Sawn or hewn building timbers

Exterior fittings
Fences

Woodware

Brushes
Cutlery
Industrial and domestic woodware
Tool handles

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

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The North American native S. canadensis is closely related to S. nigra but may be separated by the teeth of the leaves being smaller and sharper than in S. nigra and the leaf points attenuated. The hummocky inflorescence in the later and protracted flowering period is also very characteristic (Wiggington and Graham, 1981).

Prevention and Control

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Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Mechanical Control

Clive (1964) indicates that the mechanical crushing of dense scrub, in which S. nigra was an element, is a viable option for scrub control. In winter cereal crops it was found that S. nigra were favoured by reduced cultivation and by direct drilling (Pollard and Cussans, 1981), suggesting that increasing cultivation was required to reduce the incidence of this weed.

Chemical Control

Growth suppression was pronounced in young S. nigra plants treated with CCC (Jasa, 1972), controlled by ammonium sulphamate (Bergmann, 1968) and considerable die-back to complete root kill with increasing doses of picloram. Low-volume applications of a new herbicide, 1:1 -ethylene-2:2 -dipyrilium dibromide gave good top-kill of various brush species, including S. nigra, though there was basal regeneration (Brian et al., 1958). S. nigra can be controlled by cutting down or burning.

Biological Control

There are no records of biological control being employed on S. nigra.

Integrated Control

Regular cutting proved satisfactory for reducing dominant tall vegetation if combined with selective herbicides for problem weeds such as S. nigra (Worrall and Palmer, 1988).

References

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Banerjee, S, 1956. On the biology of Auricularia auricula judae (Linn.) Schoet. causing rot in Elder (Sambucus nigra L.). In: Proceedings of the National Institute of Sciences of India, New Delhi, 22(6)

Barak V, Halperin T, Kalickman I, 2001. The effect of Sambucol, a black elderberry based, natural product, on the production of human cytokines: I. Inflammatory cytokines. European Cytokine Network, 12(2):290-296

Benoit-Vical F, Valentin A, Pelissier Y, Marion C, Castel D, Milhau M, Mallie M, Bastide JM, Diafouka F, Kone Bamba D, Malan A, Kone M, Loukou Y, Monet D, Ake Assi L, Yapo A, 1996. In vitro confirmation of the antimalarial activity of some plants of African origin used in traditional medicine. Medecine d'Afrique Noire, 43(7):393-400

Bergmann, JH, 1968. Control of coppice shoots and dwarf shrubs with sulphamate. Sozial. Forstw., Berl. 18(2):55-57

Bobek B, Perzanowski K, Siwanowicz J, Zielinski J, 1979. Deer pressure on forage in a deciduous forest. Oikos, 32(3):373-380

Boratynski A, Browicz K, Zielinski J, 1992. Chorology of trees and shrubs in Greece. Ed. 2, 286 pp.; 6 pp. of ref. Poznan/Kórnik, Poland: Institute of Dendrology

Bounous G, Peano C, 1990. Forgotten fruits. [Frutti dimenticati.] Monti e Boschi, 41(4):23-32; 26 ref

Bounous G, Peano C, 1990. Forgotten fruits. Monti e Boschi, 41(4):23-32

Brian, RC, Homer, RF, Stubbs, J, 1958. A new herbicide 1:1 ethylene 2:2 dipyrilium dibromide. Nature, Lond. 181:446-447

Bridle P, Timberlake CF, 1997. Anthocyanins as natural food colours - selected aspects. Food Chemistry, 58(1/2):103-109

Bronnum-Hansen K, Hansen SH, 1983. High performance liquid chromatographic separation of anthocyanins of Sambucus nigra L. Journal of Chromatography, 262:385-392

Browicz K, 1982. Chorology of trees and shrubs in South-West Asia and adjacent regions. Vol. 1, 172pp.; Limited edition of 400 copies; 259 ref. Warszawa, Poznan, Poland: Institute of Dendrology, Polish Academy of Sciences

Christensen JV, 1996. Fruit and berry varieties for the garden [Sorter af frugt og baer til haven.]. Gron Viden, Havebrug, No. 93: 20 pp

Christensen JV, 1996. Fruit and berry varieties for the garden. Gron Viden, Havebrug, 93:20

Clive PJB, 1964. Crushing scrub. Quarterly Journal of Forestry, 58(2):163-165

Condon FA, Jarvis PJ, 1989. Trees and shrubs in the hedgerows of Knock, Co Mayo, Western Ireland. Irish Naturalists' Journal, 23(1):12-16

Crepinsek Z, Kajfez-Bogataj L, Bergant K, 2002. Correlation between spring phenophases and North Atlantic Oscillation index in Slovenia. Zbornik Biotehnis^hacek~ke Fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani. Kmetijstvo, 79(1):89-98; 19 ref

Decadns T, Dutoit T, Alard D, 1997. Earthworm community characteristics during afforestation of abandoned chalk grasslands (Upper Normandy, France). European Journal of Soil Biology, 33(1):1-11; 40 ref

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Distribution References

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Links to Websites

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Website	URL	Comment
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway	https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6	Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list.
Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS)	http://griis.org/	Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list.

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Sambucus nigra (elder)

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