Ampelopsis arborea (peppervine)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Soil Tolerances
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
- References
- Links to Websites
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Ampelopsis arborea (L.) Koehne
Preferred Common Name
- peppervine
Other Scientific Names
- Ampelopsis bipinnata Michx.
- Cissus arborea (L.) Des Moul.
- Cissus bipinnata (Michx.) Nutt.
- Cissus orientalis A.Gray
- Cissus stans Pers.
- Hedera arborea (L.) Walter
- Nekemias arborea (L.) J.Wen & Boggan
- Vitis arborea L.
- Vitis bipinnata (Michx.) Torr. & A.Gray
International Common Names
- English: pepper vine
Local Common Names
- Cuba: barrita de playa; parrita de playa
- Germany: Baumartige Scheinrebe; Baumartige Zaunrebe
- USA: buckvine; cow itch
EPPO code
- AMCAR (Ampelopsis arborea)
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageA. arborea is a deciduous or semi-evergreen vine which can either grow near the ground or as a climber. It is reported as invasive for Cuba, but without information about the spread and invasiveness in that country (Oviedo Prieto et al., 2012). Although it is not reported as invasive elsewhere, Kimbrough (2008) and Hawkins et al. (2010) argue that the species could overtake other plants due to its growth habit; and that it can smother other species, making it an undesirable plant for cultivation. Hall (1984) reports that it is a weed in citrus groves. Its fruits are attractive to birds and mammals, which act as dispersers of the species (Kimbrough, 2008).
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Rhamnales
- Family: Vitaceae
- Genus: Ampelopsis
- Species: Ampelopsis arborea
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of page
The Vitaceae consist of about 14 genera and 900 species, mainly occurring in tropical regions. The family is known for its economic uses, mainly for grapes, wine and raisins production. Three genera are from temperate regions: Vitis, Parthenocissus and Ampelopsis.
Ampelopsis is a genus of about 25 species; the majority occurring in Asia, with a disjunct distribution of three species in North America and extending into Central America (Lombardi, 2000). Wen et al. (2014) proposed the segregation of 10 species of Ampelopsis to Nekemias, nine occurring in Asia and Nekemias arborea (L.) J.Wen & Boggan (=A. arborea) in North America. This Compendium follows The Plant List (2013), and Ampelopsis arborea (L.) Koehne as the recognized name for the species.
Description
Top of pageThe following description is from the Wildflower Center, 2016:
A deciduous to semi-evergreen vine that can be ground cover-like, but is often high-climbing and bushy. Grows 35 ft. or more. Foliage is bi- or tri-pinnately compound and dark-green, turning pale-yellow in autumn. Leaves up to 6 inches or more long and equally wide, with a central axis and 1 to 3 pairs of lateral axes supporting leaflets. Leaflets roughly ovate, coarsely toothed, dark green on the upper surface, lighter on the lower. Flat-topped clusters of tiny, green flowers are followed by clusters of pea-sized, bluish-purple berries. Fruit fleshy, up to 5/8 inch in diameter, black and shiny when ripe, inedible.
Distribution
Top of pageA. arborea is native to North America (north-central, northeastern, south-central and southeastern regions of the United States) and the north of Mexico (See Distribution Table for details; Missouri Botanical Garden, 2016; USDA-ARS, 2016). Its status in Cuba is unsettled, being declared as either native or introduced (Lombardi, 2000; Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2012; Oviedo Prieto et al., 2012; Wen et al., 2014; USDA-NRCS, 2016). It has been introduced to Barbuda (Broome et al., 2007). The species was reported for Puerto Rico, but Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012) argue that the species does not occur on the island. It was introduced in the United Kingdom as a garden plant in 1700, but there is no evidence of naturalization in that country (Jarvis, 1973).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 17 Feb 2021Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Europe |
|||||||
United Kingdom | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | 1700 | For horticulture. | |||
North America |
|||||||
Antigua and Barbuda | Present | Introduced | |||||
Cuba | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Mexico | Present | Native | |||||
United States | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Alabama | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
-Arkansas | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
-California | Present | Native | |||||
-Florida | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
-Georgia | Present | Native | |||||
-Illinois | Present | Native | |||||
-Indiana | Present | Native | |||||
-Kentucky | Present | Native | |||||
-Louisiana | Present | Native | |||||
-Maryland | Present | Native | |||||
-Mississippi | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
-Missouri | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
-New Mexico | Present | Native | |||||
-North Carolina | Present | Native | |||||
-Ohio | Present | Native | |||||
-Oklahoma | Present | Native | |||||
-South Carolina | Present | Native | |||||
-Tennessee | Present | Native | |||||
-Texas | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
-Virginia | Present | Native | The most abundant species of the shrub-sapling layer of hardwood forests | ||||
-West Virginia | Present | Native |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageA. arborea was introduced in the United Kingdom as a horticultural garden plant in 1700 (Jarvis, 1973), but there are no reports of the species spreading in the country. It is known from the mid 1800's from Cuba and although is reported as an invasive, no details are given on its spread (Oviedo Prieto et al., 2012; Missouri Botanical Garden, 2016).
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageA. arborea has a low risk of introduction. At present it is only reported as introduced in Barbuda and Cuba; it is thought to be invasive on the latter island but details are lacking (Broome et al., 2007; Oviedo Prieto et al., 2012). In its native range it is noted as having the potential of becoming weedy in gardens and cultivated lands (Hall, 1984; Kimbrough, 2008; Hawkins et al., 2010). In its natural habitats it is mostly listed as occasional, uncommon or infrequent (Montz, 1972; Nixon, 1975; Jones, 1983; Horvitz et al., 1995; Singhurst et al., 2003; Wilder and Barry, 2012). It is available from some nurseries in the United States, advertising it as a good species to attract pollinators, and to use as a ground cover, for walls, fences and trellises (Wildflower Center, 2016). It has the potential to spread through cultivation, should it become a popular garden plant. In its native range, birds and mammals are reported as eating the fruits and dispersing the seeds through their droppings (Kimbrough, 2008).
Habitat
Top of pageA. arborea is reported as growing in hardwood forests, swamps, marshes, stream banks, spoil banks in wetlands, bluffs, shrub lands and prairies (Gemborys, 1974; Schneider and Sharitz, 1986; Stalter, 1984; Easley and Judd, 1993; Kelly, 2006; Nolfo-Clements, 2006; MacRoberts et al., 2009). Near the coasts it is found in salt marshes, estuaries, mudflats and sand dunes (Coker 1905; Evans, 1979; Easley and Judd, 1990; Hoffman and Dawes, 1997; Stalter et al., 1999). It is listed with the FACW, FAC, FACU and UPL wetland indicators, which classify it as a species that can occur in wetlands and uplands (National Wetland Plant List, 2016).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | ||||
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Wetlands | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details | Natural |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Natural | |
Littoral | Coastal dunes | Present, no further details | Natural | |
Littoral | Mud flats | Present, no further details | Natural | |
Littoral | Salt marshes | Present, no further details | Natural | |
Brackish | Estuaries | Present, no further details | Natural |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
The chromosome number for A. arborea is reported as 2n=40 (Lewis, 1958).
Reproductive Biology
A. arborea flowers are inconspicuous and visited by a wide array of insects, including the honey bee, Apis mellifera (Mackensen and Tucker, 1973; Kimbrough, 2008). Internet sites for gardening and nurseries advertise the species as a good plant to attract pollinators. Fruits mature at different rates. Fruits are fleshy and attractive to birds and mammals, which disperse the seed in their droppings. For seed germination the recommended method is soaking the seeds in water at 20°C for 24 hours, and germinating them at 24°C in 75-80% humidity with a 15-hour photoperiod (Hall, 1984). The species can reproduce asexually through hardwood and semi hardwood cuttings and runners (Kimbrough, 2008).
Physiology and Phenology
The species is reported to be fast growing, either as a ground cover or a climbing vine. Flowering occurs from April to September. Fruits are found from June to October. The foliage turns pale yellow in autumn and it is deciduous in winter (Hall, 1984; Wildflower Center, 2016).
Environmental Requirements
Reported requirements for the species are: pH 6.8 to 7.2; soils sandy, sandy loams, medium loams and clay loams; in sun to partial shade (Wildflower Center, 2016). Harper (1943) reports that A. arborea prefers lime rich soils. The species is reported to survive prolonged flooding for 3-4 months (Brown, 1929; Noble and Murphy, 1975).
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Tolerated | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
BS - Steppe climate | Tolerated | > 430mm and < 860mm annual precipitation | |
Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year | Preferred | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year | |
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Preferred | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
20-39 |
Air Temperature
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit |
---|---|---|
Absolute minimum temperature (ºC) | -25 | |
Mean annual temperature (ºC) | 15 | 25 |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Mean annual rainfall | 890 | 1500 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
- seasonally waterlogged
Soil reaction
- alkaline
- neutral
Soil texture
- heavy
- light
- medium
Special soil tolerances
- saline
- shallow
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Aphis illinoisensis | Herbivore | Plants|Leaves; Plants|Stems | not specific |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageA. arborea is affected by various herbivorous insects, including Aphis illionensis and Capraita saltator (Nielsson et al., 1971; Flowers et al., 1994). The pathogen Xylella fastidiosa, is also reported on the species (Janse and Obradovic, 2010).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageSeeds are reported to be dispersed by birds and mammals (Titus, 1991; Kimbrough, 2008).
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Digestion and excretion | Dispersed by bird and mammal droppings | Yes | Kimbrough (2008); Titus (1991) | |
Horticulture | Plants and seeds sold at nurseries. | Yes | Yes | |
Internet sales | Yes | Yes | ||
Nursery trade | Yes | Yes | ||
Ornamental purposes | Used as ground cover, for walls, fences and trellises | Yes | Yes | Kimbrough (2008); Wildflower Center (2016) |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Machinery and equipment | Vegetative pieces are reported to be moved by machinery at citrus groves | Yes | Hall (1984) |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Cultural/amenity | Positive |
Economic/livelihood | Positive and negative |
Environment (generally) | Positive and negative |
Human health | Negative |
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Abundant in its native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Is a habitat generalist
- Fast growing
- Has high reproductive potential
- Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
- Reproduces asexually
- Infrastructure damage
- Causes allergic responses
- Competition - smothering
- Rapid growth
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Uses
Top of pageA. arborea is used as an ornamental due to its fast growth, its attractive foliage and to attract pollinators and wildlife (Kimbrough, 2008; Wildflower Center, 2016). It is also used for cattle grazing on managed pastures (Kirby and Stuth, 1982).
A. arborea fruits are attractive to birds and mammals (Kimbrough, 2008; Wildflower Center, 2016). The species is reported to be eaten by the nine-banded armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus), the cotton rat (Sigmodon hispidus), the fulvous harvest mouse (Reithrodontomys fulvescens), the rice rat (Oryzomys palustris) and deer (Odocoileus virginianus) (Lay, 1965; Cameron et al., 1979; Bradley Kincaid and Cameron, 1982; Whitaker et al., 2012). It also attracts song birds and wood ducks, Aix sponsa (McGilvery, 1966; Wildflower Center, 2016).
Uses List
Top of pageAnimal feed, fodder, forage
- Forage
Environmental
- Wildlife habitat
Ornamental
- garden plant
- Potted plant
- Seed trade
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of page
Two species of Ampelopsis are native to North America, A. arborea with compound leaves, and fruits maturing to dark blue-black and A. cordata with simple leaves and fruits maturing to purplish-blue (Lombardi, 2000).
A. arborea is often mistaken with poison ivy, Toxicodendron radicans, both with compound leaves. In A. arborea new leaves are purple red, 2-3 pinnately compound with mature fruits that are red to blue-black. The poison ivy leaves are trifoliate with the mature fruits grey to white (Kimbrough, 2008).
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Physical/mechanical control
Hand pulling during the spring before flower buds appear, is the preferred management option for the control of A. arborea in gardens (Kimbrough, 2008). Mowing is not recommended as it can spread the vine fragments (Hall, 1984).
Chemical control
Glyphosate is recommended for the control of A. arborea (Schmalzer et al., 2002). Kimbrough (2008) suggests cutting the older vines near the ground and treating the cuts with a broadleaf herbicide. Treatment of emerging vines with a contact or systemic herbicide is also recommended (Hall, 1984).
Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
Top of pageInformation about the invasiveness of the species and its effects over the invaded habitats and the biodiversity is needed.
References
Top of pageAcevedo-Rodríguez P; Strong MT, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, 98:1192 pp. Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm
Bradley Kincaid W; Cameron GN, 1982. Dietary variation in three sympatric rodents on the Texas coastal prairie. Journal of Mammalogy, 63(4):668-672.
Broome R; Sabir K; Carrington S, 2007. Plants of the Eastern Caribbean. Online database. Barbados: University of the West Indies. http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/index.html
Brown CA, 1929. Development of the vegetation inside the levee following the high water of 1927. Torreya, 29(2):32-41.
Brown CA, 1930. Plants observed on an excursion to Grand Isle, Louisiana. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, 57(7):509-513.
Cameron GN; Fleharty ED; Watts HA, 1979. Geographic variation in the energy content of cotton rats. Journal of Mammalogy, 60(4):817-820.
Coker WC, 1905. Observations on the flora of the Isle of Palms, Charleston, S.C. Torreya, 5(8):135-145.
Easley MC; Judd WS, 1993. Vascular flora of Little Talbot Island, Duval County, Florida. Castanea, 58(3):162-177.
Evans DK, 1979. Floristics of the middle Mississippi River sand and mud flats. Castanea, 44(1):8-24.
Hall DW, 1984. Pepper vine - working its way into Florida groves. Citrus Industry, 65(10):25-26.
Harper RM, 1943. Hemlock in the Tennessee Valley of Alabama. Castanea, 8:115-23.
Hawkins TS; Skojac Jr DA; Schiff NM; Leininger TD, 2010. Floristic composition and potential competitors in the Lindera melissifolia (Lauraceae) colonies in Mississippi with the reference to hydrologic regime. Journal of the Botanical Research Institute of Texas, 4(1):381-390.
Hoffman BA; Dawes CJ, 1997. Vegetational and abiotic analysis of the salterns of mangals and salt marshes of the west coast of Florida. Journal of Coastal Research, 13(1):147-154.
Horvitz CC; McMann S; Freedman A, 1995. Exotics and hurricane damage in three hardwood hammocks in Dade County Parks, Florida. Journal of Coastal Research, 21(Special Issue):145-158. [Impacts of Hurricane Andrew on the Coastal Zones of Florida and Louisiana: 22-26 August 1992.]
Jarvis PJ, 1973. North American plants and horticultural innovation in England, 1500-1700. Geographical Review, 63(4):477-499.
Jones RL, 1983. Woody flora of Shiloh National Military Park, Hardin County, Tennessee. Castanea, 48(4):289-299.
Kimbrough MGM, 2008. Peppervine (Ampelopsis arborea), Horticulture Update. http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/newsletters/hortupdate/2008/jan08/Peppervine.html
Lewis WH, 1958. Chromosome numbers for Ampelopsis arborea (Vitaceae) and Linaria texana (Scrophulariaceae). The Southwestern Naturalist, 3(1/4):214.
Lombardi JA, 2000. Vitaceae: Generos Ampelocissus, Ampelopsis e Cissus. Flora Neotropica, 80:1-250.
MacRoberts BR; MacRoberts MH; Reid CS; Faulkner PL, 2009. Vascular flora of Morse Clay Prairies in northwerstern Louisiana. Journal of Botanical Research Institute of Texas, 3(1):355-366.
McGilvery FB, 1966. Fall food habits of wood ducks from Lake Marion, South Carolina. The Journal of Wildlife Management, 30(1):193-195.
Missouri Botanical Garden, 2015. Tropicos database. St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/
Montz GN, 1972. A seasonal study of the vegetation on leeves. Castanea, 37(2):140-146.
National Wetland Plant List, 2016. National Wetland Plant List. http://rsgisias.crrel.usace.army.mil/NWPL/#
Nixon ES, 1975. Successional stages in a hardwood bottomland forest near Dallas, Texas. The Southwestern Naturalist, 20(3):323-335.
Oviedo Prieto R; Herrera Oliver P; Caluff MG, et al. , 2012. National list of invasive and potentially invasive plants in the Republic of Cuba - 2011. (Lista nacional de especies de plantas invasoras y potencialmente invasoras en la República de Cuba - 2011). Bissea: Boletín sobre Conservación de Plantas del Jardín Botánico Nacional de Cuba, 6(Special Issue 1):22-96.
Stalter R, 1984. The flora of Bull Island, Charleston County, South Carolina. Bartonia, 50:27-30.
Stalter R; Leyva M; Kincaid DT, 1999. The Flora of Indian shell rings from coastal South Carolina to northern Florida. SIDA, Contributions to Botany, 18(3):861-875.
The Plant List, 2013. The Plant List: a working list of all plant species. Version 1.1. London, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://www.theplantlist.org
Titus JH, 1991. Seed bank of a hardwood floodplain swamp in Florida. Castanea, 56(2):117-127.
USDA-ARS, 2016. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). National Plant Germplasm System. Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx
Whitaker Jr JO; Ruckdeschel C; Bakken L, 2012. Food of the armadillo Dasypus novemcinctus L. from Cumberland Island, GA. Southeastern Naturalist, 11(3):487-506.
Wilder GT; Barry; MJ, 2012. A floristic inventory of Dismal Key and Fakahatchee Island- Two shell mounds situated within the Ten Thousand Islands region in the Gulf of Mexico (Collier County, Florida). Journal of the Botanical Research Institute of Texas, 6(1):259-272.
Wildflower Center, 2016. Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center. https://www.wildflower.org
Wyman D, 1944. Available rapid growing vines for the United States. Arnoldia, 4(9/11):45-64.
Zomlefer WB; Giannasi DE; Judd WS; Kruse; LM; Bettinger KA, 2004. A floristic survey of Fort Matanzas National Monument, St. Johns county, Florida. SIDA, Contributions to Botany, 21(2):1081-1106.
Distribution References
Broome R, Sabir K, Carrington S, 2007. Plants of the Eastern Caribbean., Barbados: University of the West Indies. http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/index.html
Brown CA, 1930. Plants observed on an excursion to Grand Isle, Louisiana. In: Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, 57 (7) 509-513.
CABI, Undated. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Hawkins TS, Skojac Jr DA, Schiff NM, Leininger TD, 2010. Floristic composition and potential competitors in the Lindera melissifolia (Lauraceae) colonies in Mississippi with the reference to hydrologic regime. In: Journal of the Botanical Research Institute of Texas, 4 (1) 381-390.
Jarvis PJ, 1973. North American plants and horticultural innovation in England, 1500-1700. In: Geographical Review, 63 (4) 477-499.
Missouri Botanical Garden, 2015. Tropicos database., St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/
USDA-ARS, 2016. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx
Wyman D, 1944. Available rapid growing vines for the United States. In: Arnoldia, 4 (9/11) 45-64.
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
Atlas of Florida Vascular Plants | http://florida.plantatlas.usf.edu | |
National Wetland Plant List | http://rsgisias.crrel.usace.army.mil/NWPL/# | |
Plants for a future, edible, medicinal and useful plants for a healthier world | http://www.pfaf.org/database | |
Plants of the Eastern Caribbean | http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/index.html | |
Wildflower Center | https://www.wildflower.org/about.php |
Contributors
Top of page28/05/2016 Original text by:
Jeanine Vélez-Gavilán, University of Puerto Rico at Mayagüez
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