Pseudaulacaspis pentagona (mulberry scale)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- Risk of Introduction
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
- Growth Stages
- Symptoms
- List of Symptoms/Signs
- Biology and Ecology
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Impact
- Detection and Inspection
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Pseudaulacaspis pentagona (Targioni Tozzetti, 1886) MacGillivray, 1921
Preferred Common Name
- mulberry scale
Other Scientific Names
- Aspidiotus lanatus (Cockerell) Ferris, 1941
- Aspidiotus vitiensis Maskell, 1895
- Aulacaspis pentagona (Targioni Tozzetti) Cockerell, 1902
- Aulacaspis pentagona auranticolor (Cockerell) Carnes, 1907
- Aulacaspis pentagona rubra (Maskell) Fernald, 1903
- Chionaspis prunicola Maskell, 1895
- Diaspis amygdali Tryon, 1889
- Diaspis amygdali var. rubra Maskell, 1889
- Diaspis auranticolor Cockerell, 1899
- Diaspis geranii Maskell, 1897
- Diaspis lanata (Cockerell) Green, 1896
- Diaspis lanatus Cockerell, 1892
- Diaspis patelliformis Sasaki, 1894
- Diaspis pentagona Targioni Tozzetti, 1886
- Diaspis rubra (Maskell) Scott, 1952
- Epidiaspis vitiensis (Maskell) Lindinger, 1937
- Howardia prunicola (Maskell) Kirkaldy, 1902
- Pseudaulacaspis amygdali Tryon, 1889
- Pseudaulacaspis prunicola
- Sasakiaspis pentagona (Targioni Tozzetti), Kuwana, 1926
International Common Names
- English: peach scale; West Indian peach scale; white peach scale; white scale
- Spanish: cochinilla algodonosa; escama de flecos (Colombia)
- French: cochenille du mûrier; kermès du mûrier
- Russian: tutovaya schitovka
- Portuguese: cochonilha branca da amoreira
Local Common Names
- France: chermes des murier; cochenille des murier
- Germany: Mandel-Schildlaus; Maulbeer-Schildlaus
- Hungary: eperfa pajzstetu; Japán pajzstetu
- Italy: cocciniglia bianca del gelso e del pesco
- Japan: kuwa-kaigaramusi
- South Africa: wit perske-dopluis
- Spain: cochinilla blanca del duraznero; escma de fleccos; piojo blanco del moral y melocotonero; piojo de la morera
- Turkey: dut kabuklu biti; dut kosnili
EPPO code
- PSEAPE (Pseudaulacaspis pentagona)
- PSEAPR (Pseudaulacaspis prunicola)
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Metazoa
- Phylum: Arthropoda
- Subphylum: Uniramia
- Class: Insecta
- Order: Hemiptera
- Suborder: Sternorrhyncha
- Unknown: Coccoidea
- Family: Diaspididae
- Genus: Pseudaulacaspis
- Species: Pseudaulacaspis pentagona
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageDescription
Top of pageDistribution
Top of pageP. pentagona originated in eastern Asia. It was accidentally introduced to Italy in the nineteenth century, and subsequently, to other regions: for example, USA, Argentina and Australia. It is currently widely distributed in the Palearctic and Nearctic Regions (Kozar, 1990a). There are many publications concerning its detailed distribution and importance in different parts of the world (Konstantinova, 1976; Kozar and Konstantinova, 1981; Davidson and Miller, 1990; Kozar et al., 1994; Anon., 1996).
This species is probably intercepted in most countries; however, interceptions go largely unreported. The species is thermophilous, so it only lives indoors in colder countries (for example, Sweden). In the past 20 years it has started to spread northwards in Europe in field conditions; this could be as a result of climate change. Where 'eradication' has been reported, P. pentagona may have died out locally because of unsuitable conditions, or it may persist at low densities. Under these circumstances, monitoring using pheromone traps may be advisable.
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 12 May 2022Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Cabo Verde | Present | ||||||
Comoros | Present | ||||||
Egypt | Present | ||||||
Ghana | Present | ||||||
Kenya | Present | ||||||
Madagascar | Present | ||||||
Malawi | Present | ||||||
Mauritius | Present | ||||||
Réunion | Present | ||||||
Saint Helena | Present | ||||||
São Tomé and Príncipe | Present | ||||||
Seychelles | Present | ||||||
South Africa | Present | ||||||
Tanzania | Present | ||||||
-Zanzibar Island | Present | ||||||
Zimbabwe | Present | ||||||
Asia |
|||||||
Azerbaijan | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Brunei | Present | ||||||
China | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Anhui | Present | ||||||
-Beijing | Present | ||||||
-Fujian | Present | ||||||
-Gansu | Present | ||||||
-Guangdong | Present | ||||||
-Guangxi | Present | ||||||
-Guizhou | Present | ||||||
-Hebei | Present | ||||||
-Henan | Present | ||||||
-Hubei | Present | ||||||
-Hunan | Present | ||||||
-Inner Mongolia | Present | ||||||
-Jiangsu | Present | ||||||
-Jiangxi | Present | ||||||
-Liaoning | Present | ||||||
-Ningxia | Present | ||||||
-Shaanxi | Present | ||||||
-Shandong | Present | ||||||
-Shanxi | Present | ||||||
-Sichuan | Present | ||||||
-Xinjiang | Present | ||||||
-Yunnan | Present | ||||||
-Zhejiang | Present | ||||||
Georgia | Present | ||||||
Hong Kong | Present | ||||||
India | Present, Localized | ||||||
-Assam | Present | ||||||
-Himachal Pradesh | Present | ||||||
-Jammu and Kashmir | Present | ||||||
-Karnataka | Present | ||||||
-Punjab | Present | ||||||
-Sikkim | Present | ||||||
-Uttar Pradesh | Present | ||||||
-West Bengal | Present | ||||||
Indonesia | Present | ||||||
-Irian Jaya | Present | ||||||
-Java | Present | ||||||
Iran | Present | ||||||
Iraq | Present | ||||||
Israel | Absent, Invalid presence record(s) | ||||||
Japan | Present | ||||||
-Hokkaido | Present | ||||||
-Honshu | Present | ||||||
-Kyushu | Present | ||||||
-Ryukyu Islands | Present | ||||||
Laos | Present | ||||||
Malaysia | Present | ||||||
-Peninsular Malaysia | Present | ||||||
-Sarawak | Present | ||||||
Maldives | Present | ||||||
Nepal | Present | ||||||
North Korea | Present | ||||||
Philippines | Present | ||||||
Singapore | Present | ||||||
South Korea | Present | ||||||
Sri Lanka | Present | ||||||
Syria | Present | ||||||
Taiwan | Present | ||||||
Turkey | Present | ||||||
Vietnam | Present | ||||||
Europe |
|||||||
Belgium | Present | ||||||
Bulgaria | Present | Introduced | 1954 | ||||
Croatia | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Cyprus | Present | Original citation: Sisman and Ülgentürk (2010) | |||||
Czechia | Present | Introduced | 2005 | ||||
France | Present, Localized | ||||||
-Corsica | Present | Introduced | 1930 | ||||
Germany | Present | Introduced | First reported: <1952 | ||||
Greece | Present | ||||||
-Crete | Present | ||||||
Hungary | Present | ||||||
Italy | Present | Introduced | 1886 | ||||
-Sardinia | Present | Introduced | 1916 | ||||
Malta | Present | ||||||
Montenegro | Present | ||||||
Netherlands | Present | ||||||
North Macedonia | Present | Introduced | 1960 | Original location reported: Macedonia | |||
Poland | Present, Localized | ||||||
Portugal | Present, Localized | ||||||
-Azores | Present | ||||||
-Madeira | Present | ||||||
Russia | Present | ||||||
-Russia (Europe) | Present | ||||||
-Russian Far East | Present | ||||||
-Southern Russia | Present | ||||||
Serbia | Present | ||||||
Serbia and Montenegro | Present | ||||||
Slovakia | Present | ||||||
Slovenia | Present | Introduced | 1900 | ||||
Spain | Present, Localized | ||||||
-Canary Islands | Present | ||||||
Switzerland | Present | ||||||
Ukraine | Present | ||||||
United Kingdom | Absent, Formerly present | ||||||
-England | Absent, Formerly present | ||||||
North America |
|||||||
Antigua and Barbuda | Present | ||||||
Bahamas | Present | ||||||
Barbados | Present | ||||||
Bermuda | Present | ||||||
Canada | Absent, Formerly present | ||||||
-Ontario | Absent, Formerly present | ||||||
Costa Rica | Present | ||||||
Cuba | Present | ||||||
Dominica | Present | ||||||
Dominican Republic | Present | ||||||
Guadeloupe | Present | ||||||
Haiti | Present | ||||||
Honduras | Present | ||||||
Jamaica | Present | ||||||
Martinique | Present | ||||||
Netherlands Antilles | Present | ||||||
Panama | Present | ||||||
Puerto Rico | Present | ||||||
Saint Barthélemy | Present | ||||||
Saint Kitts and Nevis | Present | ||||||
Saint Martin | Present | ||||||
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | Present | ||||||
Trinidad and Tobago | Present | ||||||
U.S. Virgin Islands | Present | ||||||
United States | Present, Localized | ||||||
-Alabama | Present | ||||||
-California | Absent, Formerly present | ||||||
-Connecticut | Present | ||||||
-Delaware | Present | ||||||
-District of Columbia | Present | ||||||
-Florida | Present | ||||||
-Georgia | Present | ||||||
-Hawaii | Absent, Formerly present | ||||||
-Indiana | Absent, Formerly present | ||||||
-Louisiana | Present | ||||||
-Maine | Present | ||||||
-Maryland | Present | ||||||
-Mississippi | Present | ||||||
-Missouri | Present | ||||||
-Montana | Present | ||||||
-New Jersey | Present | ||||||
-New Mexico | Absent, Formerly present | ||||||
-North Carolina | Present | ||||||
-Ohio | Present | ||||||
-Oregon | Present | ||||||
-Rhode Island | Present | ||||||
-South Carolina | Present | ||||||
-Tennessee | Present | ||||||
-Texas | Present | ||||||
-Virginia | Present | ||||||
-Washington | Present | ||||||
-West Virginia | Present | ||||||
Oceania |
|||||||
Australia | Present | Introduced | 1898 | ||||
-New South Wales | Present | ||||||
-Queensland | Present | ||||||
Federated States of Micronesia | Present | ||||||
Fiji | Present | ||||||
Guam | Present | ||||||
New Caledonia | Present | ||||||
New Zealand | Absent, Invalid presence record(s) | ||||||
Norfolk Island | Present | ||||||
Northern Mariana Islands | Present | ||||||
Palau | Present | ||||||
Papua New Guinea | Present | ||||||
Samoa | Present | ||||||
Solomon Islands | Present | ||||||
Tonga | Present | ||||||
Vanuatu | Present | ||||||
Wallis and Futuna | Present | ||||||
South America |
|||||||
Argentina | Present | ||||||
Bolivia | Present | ||||||
Brazil | Present, Localized | ||||||
-Amazonas | Present | ||||||
-Bahia | Present | ||||||
-Distrito Federal | Present | ||||||
-Minas Gerais | Present | ||||||
-Para | Present | ||||||
-Parana | Present | ||||||
-Pernambuco | Present | ||||||
-Rio de Janeiro | Present | ||||||
-Rio Grande do Sul | Present | ||||||
-Santa Catarina | Present | ||||||
-Sao Paulo | Present | ||||||
Colombia | Present | ||||||
French Guiana | Present | ||||||
Peru | Present | ||||||
Suriname | Present | ||||||
Uruguay | Present | ||||||
Venezuela | Present |
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageP. pentagona is the subject of quarantine regulations in many countries (Anon., 1976, 1993), but not in EU countries.
Hosts/Species Affected
Top of pageHost Plants and Other Plants Affected
Top of pageSymptoms
Top of pageIn the case of heavy infestations, branches or entire trees can die. Heavily infested plants may die some years after the onset of infestation. Younger plants are more susceptible.
List of Symptoms/Signs
Top of pageSign | Life Stages | Type |
---|---|---|
Leaves / abnormal leaf fall | ||
Leaves / necrotic areas | ||
Leaves / yellowed or dead | ||
Roots / external feeding | ||
Stems / dieback | ||
Stems / discoloration of bark | ||
Stems / distortion | ||
Stems / external feeding | ||
Whole plant / dwarfing | ||
Whole plant / early senescence | ||
Whole plant / plant dead; dieback |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageNatural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Adalia bipunctata | Predator | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Aphytis chilensis | Parasite | |||||
Aphytis chrysomphali | Parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | China; Shanghai | apricots; cherries | ||
Aphytis diaspidis | Parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | Bermuda; Jamaica | cotton; mulberries; Nerium oleander; pawpaws | ||
Aphytis lingnanensis | Parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | Bermuda | Nerium oleander | ||
Aphytis proclia | Parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | Bermuda; Italy | mulberries; Nerium oleander | ||
Aprostocetus purpureus | Parasite | |||||
Archenomus orientalis | Parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | Italy | mulberries | ||
Arrhenophagus albitibiae | Parasite | |||||
Arrhenophagus chionaspidis | Parasite | |||||
Azotus atomon | Parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Azotus lepidus | Parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Azotus pentagona | Parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Azotus perspeciosus | Parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Azotus platensis | Parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Chilocorus cacti | Predator | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | Bermuda; Sao Tome and Principe | Nerium oleander | ||
Chilocorus circumdatus | Predator | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | Bermuda | Nerium oleander | ||
Chilocorus hupehanus | Predator | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Chilocorus kuwanae | Predator | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | Bermuda; China; Shanghai | apricots; cherries; Nerium oleander | ||
Chilocorus nigrita | Predator | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Chilocorus politus | Predator | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Chilocorus renipustulatus | Predator | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | Bermuda | Nerium oleander | ||
Chilocorus similis | Predator | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | USA | peaches | ||
Coccidophilus cariba | Predator | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | Bermuda | Nerium oleander | ||
Coccidophilus citricola | Predator | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | Bermuda | Nerium oleander | ||
Coccophagoides kuwanai | Parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | USA | peaches | ||
Comperiella bifasciata | Parasite | Bermuda | Nerium oleander | |||
Cryptognatha simillima | Predator | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | Bermuda | Nerium oleander | ||
Cybocephalus fodori minor | Predator | |||||
Cybocephalus gibbulus | Predator | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | Bermuda; South Africa | Nerium oleander | ||
Cybocephalus nipponicus | Predator | |||||
Decadiomus hughesi | Predator | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Dentifibula viburni | Predator | |||||
Encarsia amicula | Parasite | |||||
Encarsia berlesei | Parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | Argentina; Austria; Bermuda; Brazil; France; Iran; Italy; Madagascar; Peru; Puerto Rico; Spain; Switzerland; Uruguay; USSR; Western Samoa; Greece | mulberries; Nerium oleander; pawpaws; peaches; woody plants | ||
Encarsia citrina | Parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Encarsia diaspidicola | Parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | Bermuda; Western Samoa | Nerium oleander; woody plants | ||
Encarsia fasciata | Parasite | |||||
Encarsia lounsburyi | Parasite | |||||
Encarsia perniciosi | Parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | Bermuda | Nerium oleander | ||
Epitetracnemus comis | Parasite | |||||
Epitetracnemus zetterstedtii | Parasite | |||||
Exochomus quadripustulatus | Predator | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Heteroconis picticornis | Bermuda | Nerium oleander | ||||
Marietta leopardina | Parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Orius minutus | Predator | |||||
Pentilia insidiosa | Predator | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | Bermuda | Nerium oleander | ||
Pharoscymnus horni | Predator | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Pharoscymnus pharoides | Predator | |||||
Pharoscymnus tomeensis | Predator | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Prodilis sp. nr. gorhami | Predator | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | Bermuda | Nerium oleander | ||
Pteroptrix orientalis | Parasite | |||||
Rhyzobius lophanthae | Predator | Adults; Eggs; Arthropods|Larvae; Arthropods|Nymphs; Arthropods|Pupae | Italy | Citrus | ||
Rhyzobius pulchellus | Predator | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Signiphora aspidioti | Parasite | |||||
Sticholotis quadrisignata | Predator | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Sukunahikona prapawan | Predator | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Zaomma lambinus | Parasite |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageThese natural enemies are efficient regulators of P. pentagona; they keep pest density down in natural habitats. Where chemical control has been used against P. pentagona in orchards, its natural enemies can be killed causing local outbreaks. P. pentagona has caused major problems in areas where it was accidentally introduced, in the absence of its natural regulators. The efficiency of natural enemies is reduced in urban areas by pollution. Consequently, P. pentagona can cause severe damage to ornamental plants in towns and cities.
There have been a number of successful biological control programmes against P. pentagona in different parts of the world, especially in the USA, Europe and Russia. Usually Encarsia (Prospaltella) berlesei is reared, released, and established, according to the protocols of Rosen (1991) (see also Greathead, 1976). E. berlesei was released in several European countries, and spread into neighbouring countries. Encarsia diaspidicola has been successfully released in Western Samoa (Sands et al., 1990).
Many of the listed parasitoids of P. pentagona may also be hyperparasitoids.
Impact
Top of pageIn recent years, outbreaks have been observed in different parts of the world on several species of fruit, especially kiwi, and peach (Whitmore et al., 1974; Kozarzevskaja and Vlainic, 1981; Kozarzevskaja et al., 1986; Ram and Pathak, 1987; Hickel et al., 1997). In Europe, heavy outbreaks have occurred on ornamental plants in Hungary (Kosztarab and Kozar, 1988) and Switzerland (Kozar et al., 1994; Mani et al., 1995).
Detection and Inspection
Top of pageThe structure and composition of the P. pentagona pheromone is known. P. pentagona pheromones are emitted by females and attract males, but not parasitoids. Pheromone traps are widely used for detection in newly infested regions, especially in Europe (Kozar et al., 1997). Colour and sticky traps were have also been developed to monitor the flight and dispersal of males and parasitoids (Kozar, 1990c, and Kozar et al., 1995).
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageOnly microscopic characteristics can be used to identify the species definitively. Kosztarab and Kozar (1988) and Williams and Watson (1988) describe the methodology of slide mounting. This species can be differentiated from P. prunicola according to the number and shape of plates. P. pentagona has mostly bifurcated plates, whilst P. prunicola usually has spine-like plates. These characters show great variability depending on temperature, geographic locality and host plant (Danzig, 1993).
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Regulatory Control
For details of quarantine regulations for P. pentagona see Anon. (1976, 1993). Quarantine recommendations and requirements for the treatment of seedlings and other nursery materials have included irradiation, fumigation, cold-treatment and heat-treatment (Angerilli and Fitzgibbon, 1990; Balsari and Tamagnone, 1997).
Cultural Control and Sanitary Methods
Obtaining scale-free nursery material is very important, because young plants can die very quickly after infestation. The removal of heavily infested parts of the trees and the cleaning of bark from infestation can improve the efficacy of chemical treatments. Surrounding vegetation can be a source of re-infestation by pests and/or a refugium for natural enemies.
Host-Plant Resistance
There are no varieties that exhibit real resistance to this pest (Arru, 1976). There are several tolerant varieties of different fruit tree species, but these varieties are not usually marketable.
Biological Control
The biological control of P. pentagona is well-studied (see Natural Enemies). Coccinellids and a number of parasitoids including Encarsia berlesei can be effective control agents. However, the effect of biological control programmes can only be observed over a relatively long period, and only in the absence of insecticides. The use of a range of different introduced parasitoid agents and predators, along with the encouragement of indigenous natural enemies can increase the efficacy of control. However, biological control is unlikely to be of significant use in controlling infestations on stressed ornamental plants in urban areas in Europe at times when the weather favours pest development.
Chemical Control
Fumigation of seedlings has traditionally been the most important means by which early infestation by P. pentagona is prevented.
Oil sprays have proved effective for the treatment of infested plantations (Meyer and Nalepa, 1991). Other insecticides may have different efficacy in different parts of the world (Torrel et al., 1987; Isufi and Mirtha, 1996; Erkilic and Uygun, 1997b). In orchards, insecticides (organophosphates, carbamates and pyrethroids) are very efficient against crawlers. These chemicals are often used in the summer against other orchard pests, such as codling moth (Cydia pomonella), leafrollers, leafminers and mites. However, chemical control should be avoided if biological control is in place, to avoid killing natural enemies of the scale.
Early Warning Systems
Kozar (1990b,c) studied monitoring and forecasting systems for P. pentagona in detail. Yellow sticky traps are useful for monitoring males and parasitoids, and pheromone traps collect males. The percentage of infested fruit can be monitored, with control being implemented when infestation levels pass a threshold.
IPM programmes
IPM programmes against orchard pests including scale insects have been developed by Kozar and Varjas (1976), Darvas and Zseller (1985), Parisot (1990), Semisi et al. (1992), Paloukis and Navzoridis (1995), and Jenser et al. (1997). These programmes incorporate the use of insect growth regulators (Rosen, 1991) which are effective against scale insects.
References
Top of page1993. Quarantine procedure. Hydrogen cyanide fumigation of woody plants to control Quadraspidiotus perniciosus. Bulletin OEPP, 23(2):204
Anon., 1976. Interior quarantine enemies and measures for their restriction on the territory of the People's Republic of Bulgaria. Ministry of Agriculture and Food Industry, Romania: The papers of the 5th Interbalcanic Plant Protection Conference. Probleme de Protectia Plantelor, 4:119-123.
APPPC, 1987. Insect pests of economic significance affecting major crops of the countries in Asia and the Pacific region. Technical Document No. 135. Bangkok, Thailand: Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific region (RAPA)
Arru GM, 1976. Resistance to Pseudaulacaspis pentagona in poplar. Cellulosa e Carta, 17(10):41-44
Balsari P, Tamagnone M, 1997. Evaluation of different techniques of distribution of pesticides to peach crops. Informatore Fitopatologico, 47(4):50-59
Borchsenius NS, 1966. A Catalogue of the Armoured Scale Insects (Diaspidoidea) of the World. (In Russian). Leningrad, Russia: Akademii Nauk SSR Zoologicheskogo Instituta, 449 pp
Danzig EM, 1993. Fauna of Russia. Families Phoenicoccidae and Diaspididae. St. Petersburg, Russia: Nauka, 450 pp
Davidson JA, Miller DR, 1990. Ornamental plants. In: Rosen D, ed. Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. 4B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 603-632
EPPO, 2014. PQR database. Paris, France: European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization. http://www.eppo.int/DATABASES/pqr/pqr.htm
Ghauri M, 1962. The Morphology and Taxonomy of Male Scale Insects (Homoptera, Coccoidea). British Museum (Natural History). Dorking, UK: Adlard and Son, 221 pp
Konstantinova GM, 1976. Coccids - pests of apple. Zashchita Rastenii, 12:49-50
Kosztarab M, 1996. Scale Insects of North Eastern North America: identification, biology, and distribution. Martinsville, USA: Virginia Museum of Natural History, 650 pp
Kozar F, Mazzoni E, Cravedi P, 1997. Comparison of flight periods of male Pseudaulacaspis pentagona in Hungary and northern Italy. In: Cravedi P, Hartfield C, Mazzoni E, eds. Integrated Plant Protection in Stone Fruit. Proceedings of the meeting at Zaragoza, Spain, 24-26 September 1996. Bulletin OILB SROP, 20(6):43-49
Kozßr F, 1990. Deciduous fruit trees. In: Rosen D, ed. Armored Scale Insects their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. 4B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., 593-602
Kozßr F, 1990. Forecasting and Monitoring Infestations. Forecasting. In: Rosen D, ed. Armored Scale Insects their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., 335-340
Kozßr F, 1990. Sampling and Census-Taking. In: Rosen D, ed. Armored Scale Insects their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., 341-347
Li J, 1991. Field parasitization of Pseudaulacaspis pentagona (Hom.: Diaspididae) by Prospaltella berlesei (Hym.: Aphelinidae) in Sichuan. Chinese Journal of Biological Control, 7(3):143
Nakahara S, 1982. Checklist of the Armored Scales (Homoptera: Diapididae) of the Conterminous United States. Washington, USA: USDA, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Plant Protection and Quarantine, 110 pp
Paloukis SS, Navrozidis EI, Kukuryanis VH, 1995. Contribution to the integrated control of Pseudaulacaspis pentagona Targ.-Toz. (Homoptera: Diaspididae) on kiwifruit trees (Actinidia chinensis). In: Sfakiotakis E, Porlingis J, eds. Proceedings of the Third International Symposium of Kiwifruit, Thessaloniki, Greece, 19-22 September. Acta-Horticulturae, No. 444, 797-802
Rosen D, 1991. Armored Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. B. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., 688 pp
Shinano K, Terada T, Imanishi M, 1976. The frequency of generations of Pseudaulacaspis pentagona on tea plants. Bulletin of the Nara Agricultural Experiment Station, No.7, 47-52
Trjapitzin VA, 1978. Superfamily Chalcidoidea. In: Medvedev GS, ed. Insect Determination Manual for the European part of USSR. Hymenoptera, 3(2):28-538
Waterhouse DF, Norris KR, 1987. Biological control: Pacific prospects. viii + 454pp
Wood M, 2012. Pesky white peach scale targeted in tropical studies. USDA-ARS News & Events, 24 September 2012., USA: USDA-ARS. http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/pr/2009/090717.htm
Zaets VG, 1970. The biological control of quarantine pests of fruit trees. Zashchita Rastenii, 15(12):45-46
Distribution References
Anon, 1989. Reference Book - Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. vii + 147 pp.
Borchsenius NS, 1966. A Catalogue of the Armoured Scale Insects (Diaspidoidea) of the World., Leningrad, Russia: Akademii Nauk SSR Zoologicheskogo Instituta. 449 pp.
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Danzig EM, 1993. Fauna of Russia. Families Phoenicoccidae and Diaspididae., St. Petersburg, Russia: Nauka. 450 pp.
Kosztarab M, 1996. Scale Insects of North Eastern North America: identification, biology, and distribution., Martinsville, USA: Virginia Museum of Natural History, 650. 650 pp.
Nakahara S, 1982. Checklist of the Armored Scales (Homoptera: Diapididae) of the Conterminous United States., Washington, USA: USDA, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Plant Protection and Quarantine. 110 pp.
NHM, 1961. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1962. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1971. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1972. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1973. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1976. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1983. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1990. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1993. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1994. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, Undated. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
Wood M, 2012. Pesky white peach scale targeted in tropical studies. In: USDA-ARS News & Events, 24 September 2012, USA: USDA-ARS. http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/pr/2009/090717.htm
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