Spodoptera eridania (southern armyworm)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat List
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
- Growth Stages
- Symptoms
- List of Symptoms/Signs
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Plant Trade
- Impact Summary
- Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Links to Websites
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of page| Picture | Title | Caption | Copyright |
|---|---|---|---|
| Larva | Spodoptera eridania (southern armyworm); final instar larva. Laboratory specimen. | Public Domain - Released by the USGS Bee Inventory & Monitoring Lab. | |
| Adult male | Spodoptera eridania (southern armyworm); adult male. Note scale. Curepe, St George Co., Trinidad, West Indies. December 1980. Museum set specimen. | ©Matthew Cock/CABI | |
| Adult male | Spodoptera eridania (southern armyworm); adult male. Note scale. Curepe, Trinidad, West Indies. August 1978. Museum set specimen. | ©Matthew Cock/CABI | |
| Adult female | Spodoptera eridania (southern armyworm); adult female. Note scale. Curepe, Trinidad, West Indies. October 1980. Museum set specimen. | ©Matthew Cock/CABI | |
| Adult female | Spodoptera eridania (southern armyworm); adult female. Note scale. Moren Bleu, Trinidad, West Indies. February 1979. Museum set specimen. | ©Matthew Cock/CABI | |
| Pupa | Spodoptera eridania (southern armyworm); pupa. Laboratory specimen. | Public Domain - Released by the USGS Bee Inventory & Monitoring Lab. | |
| Final instar larva | Spodoptera eridania (southern armyworm); final instar larva. Close-up of head capsule and anterior region. Laboratory specimen. | Public Domain - Released by the USGS Bee Inventory & Monitoring Lab. | |
| Final instar larva | Spodoptera eridania (southern armyworm); final instar larva. Laboratory specimen. | Public Domain - Released by the USGS Bee Inventory & Monitoring Lab. | |
| Adult | Spodoptera eridania (southern armyworm); adult moth, lateral view. Laboratory specimen. | Public Domain - Released by the USGS Bee Inventory & Monitoring Lab. | |
| Adult | Spodoptera eridania (southern armyworm); adult moth, head and anterior region. Laboratory specimen. | Public Domain - Released by the USGS Bee Inventory & Monitoring Lab. | |
| Eggs | Spodoptera eridania (southern armyworm); eggs. Laboratory sample. | Public Domain - Released by the USGS Bee Inventory & Monitoring Lab. | |
| Eggs | Spodoptera eridania (southern armyworm); extreme close-up of eggs. Laboratory sample. | Public Domain - Released by the USGS Bee Inventory & Monitoring Lab. | |
| Colour phases | Spodoptera eridania (southern armyworm); late instar colour phases, on a cotton leaf (Gossypium hirsutum). USA. | ©Ronald Smith/Auburn University/Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US | |
| Larva and larval damage | Spodoptera eridania (southern armyworm); last instar larva and larval damage, on flue-cured tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum). USA. | ©David Jones/University of Georgia/Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US | |
| Larval feeding damage | Spodoptera eridania (southern armyworm); early instar larva feeding damage on a strawberry leaf (Fragaria spp.) | ©Jonas Janner Hamann/Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM)/Bugwood.org - CC BY-SA 3.0 US | |
| Larval feeding damage | Spodoptera eridania (southern armyworm); early instar larval feeding damage on a cotton leaf (Gossypium hirsutum). USA. | ©Ronald Smith/Auburn University/Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US | |
| Larval feeding damage | Spodoptera eridania (southern armyworm); early instar larvae, feeding on a cotton leaf (Gossypium hirsutum). USA. | ©Ronald Smith/Auburn University/Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US | |
| Larval feeding damage | Spodoptera eridania (southern armyworm); early instar larvae, feeding near egg mass on a cotton leaf (Gossypium hirsutum). USA. | ©Ronald Smith/Auburn University/Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US | |
| Leaf damage | Spodoptera eridania (southern armyworm); late instar larva, feeding on a cotton leaf (Gossypium hirsutum). USA. | ©Ronald Smith/Auburn University/Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US | |
| Damaged cotton boll | Spodoptera eridania (southern armyworm); late instar larvae on a damaged cotton boll (Gossypium hirsutum). USA. | ©Ronald Smith/Auburn University/Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US | |
| Larval 'scarring' damage | Spodoptera eridania (southern armyworm); larval 'scarring' damage on a cotton boll (Gossypium hirsutum). USA. | ©Ronald Smith/Auburn University/Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US | |
| Larval damage on a cotton crop | Spodoptera eridania (southern armyworm); larval damage on a cotton crop (Gossypium hirsutum). USA. | ©Ronald Smith/Auburn University/Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US | |
| Larval damage | Spodoptera eridania (southern armyworm); larval damage to Swiss chard (Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris). | ©Lyle J. Buss/Entomology & Nematology Dept./University of Florida - All Rights Reserved | |
| Larval damage | Spodoptera eridania (southern armyworm); larval damage on green (unripe) tomato fruits. | ©Lyle J. Buss/Entomology & Nematology Dept./University of Florida - All Rights Reserved |
Identity
Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Spodoptera eridania (Stoll, 1782)
Preferred Common Name
- southern armyworm
Other Scientific Names
- Laphygma eridania (Stoll, 1782)
- Noctua eridania (Stoll, 1782)
- Phalaena eridania Stoll, 1782
- Prodenia eridania (Stoll, 1782)
- Spodoptera amygia (Guenée, 1852)
- Spodoptera bipunctata (Walker, 1857)
- Spodoptera communicata (Walker, 1869)
- Spodoptera derupta (Morrison, 1875)
- Spodoptera eridania (Cramer, 1972)
- Spodoptera externa (Walker, 1856)
- Spodoptera ignobilis (Butler, 1878)
- Spodoptera inquieta (Walker, 1857)
- Spodoptera linea (Fabricius, 1794)
- Spodoptera nigrofascia (Hulst, 1881)
- Spodoptera peruviana (Walker, 1865)
- Spodoptera phytolaccae (J.E. Smith, 1797)
- Spodoptera putrida (Guenée, 1852)
- Spodoptera strigifera (Walker, 1858)
- Xylomyges eridania (Stoll, 1782)
International Common Names
- English: armyworm, semitropical; armyworm, southern; semi-tropical armyworm
- Spanish: gusano cortador (el salvador); gusano negro; gusano soldado sureño; rosquilla
EPPO code
- PRODER (Spodoptera eridania)
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageSpodoptera eridania is a polyphagous generalist feeder recorded on 200 plants species belonging to 58 botanic families. It is native to the USA and occurs throughout southern USA, Central and South America, and the Caribbean (Pogue, 2002). Due the fact that S. eridania occurs all across the USA and is present in many host plants, several regions around the world are in risk of invasion due to the global trade of vegetables, ornamental and aromatic plants, which can transport larvae and eggs. Even though it is not established in Europe, it has been detected on imported plants from the New World (Karsholt, 1994). The detection of S. eridania in Africa, demonstrates its high dispersal ability, indicating the importance of closely monitoring this species.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Metazoa
- Phylum: Arthropoda
- Subphylum: Uniramia
- Class: Insecta
- Order: Lepidoptera
- Family: Noctuidae
- Genus: Spodoptera
- Species: Spodoptera eridania
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageOlder references cite Spodoptera eridania (Cramer, 1782), however, Pieter Cramer died in 1776 and it was Caspar Stoll who continued the description of species and the publication of books. Thus, taxonomy works indicate Stoll as the true author of the species.
A complete list of synonyms is provided by Todd and Poole (1980). Spodoptera peruviana (Walker) (syn. Laphygma communicata Walker) was synonymized with Spodoptera eridania by Todd and Poole (1980) and Pogue (2002). However, it is currently considered once again to be a separate species (Poole, 1989).
Spodoptera recondita (Möschler) has been removed from the list (see Todd and Poole (1980), Poole (1989) and Pogue (2002)) and validated as a new species (Anicla recondita (Möschler, 1890) by Barbut and Lalanne-Cassou (2009).
Description
Top of pageEggs
Flattened sphere, measuring about 0.45 m in diameter and 0.35 mm in height. The eggs are greenish initially, turning tan as they age. Eggs are laid in large groups on the foliage, and covered with a layer of grey bristles (scales) derived from the abdomen of the female.
Larvae
There are usually six instars (Montezano et al., 2014). Fully grown caterpillars measure 35-40 mm. Young larvae are black with yellow lateral lines, but older instars are grey-brown with a dorsal row of paired black triangular spots, and subdorsal reddish lines when older; the head capsule is yellow-brown. Larvae are characterized by a prominent yellow subspiracular line which is broken by a dark (sometimes diffuse) spot on the first abdominal segment (Levy and Habeck, 1976). A full description of the larvae is given in Crumb (1956) and Pogue (2002).
Pupae
The pupal stage lasts an average of 9 days under laboratory conditions (Montezano et al., 2014). A typical noctuid pupa, measuring 16-20 mm long with rounded head and abdomen. Shiny mahogany brown, with darker head, spiracles and anterior edges of abdominal segments. Anal segment terminates in a two-spined cremaster. Female pupae are heavier (377 mg) than male pupae (329 mg) (Montezano et al., 2014).
Adult
A sturdy grey-brown moth, wing-span 28-40 mm, forewings grey, hindwings pearly-white above with a stronger lustre below. Markings variable, some individuals have a strongly marked reniform spot or bar on the forewing, a very prominent blackish posterior marginal line and a similar black line on the lateral posterior margin. Others have a straight, broad, jet-black band from the mid forewing to the lateral margin. Abdomen brownish-grey and antennae yellowish-brown. The posterior angle of the forewing is narrowly divided from the rest of the wing by an irregular, oblique, pale band. The principal definitive features are in the male genitalia (Todd and Poole, 1980; Pogue, 2002).
Distribution
Top of pageSpodoptera eridania occurs throughout southern USA, Central and South America, and the Caribbean (Pogue, 2002). Although it is not established in Europe, S. eridania is commonly recorded as an accidental introduction from the New World, for example, in Denmark (Karsholt, 1994).
The distribution map incudes records based on specimens of S. eridania from the collection in the Natural History Museum (BMNH, London, UK).
A record of S. eridania in Guernsey (CABI/EPPO, 2006) published in previous versions of the Compendium was erroneous. Guernsey is not included in the list of countries for S. eridania in CABI/EPPO (2006).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 23 Apr 2020Risk of Introduction
Top of pageSpodoptera eridania is now classed as an EPPO A1 list of quarantine pests, but it is not listed as a quarantine pest by any other regional plant protection organization. As a subtropical species, it is most likely to become established in southern Europe. In the New World it is not especially recorded as a glasshouse pest, but it could become so in Europe. S. eridania occurs very regularly in Europe on imported plant produce from the New World. S. eridania is commonly intercepted in Europe on plants and tomato fruit (Seymour, 1978; EUROPHYT).
Habitat List
Top of page| Category | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Terrestrial | ||||
| Terrestrial – Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
| Protected agriculture (e.g. glasshouse production) | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | ||
| Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | ||
| Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Natural | ||
| Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Natural | ||
| Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Natural | ||
| Buildings | Present, no further details | Natural | ||
| Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Natural | |
| Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Natural | ||
| Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Natural | ||
| Wetlands | Present, no further details | Natural | ||
| Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details | Natural | ||
| Arid regions | Present, no further details | Natural |
Hosts/Species Affected
Top of pageS. eridania is a polyphagous generalist feeder recorded on more than 200 plant species belonging to 58 families, mainly including Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Solanaceae, Poaceae, Amaranthaceae and Malvaceae (Montezano et al., 2014). Crops damaged include aubergines, species of Beta and Capsicum, cassava, cotton, several members of the Brassicaceae, a wide range of legumes, maize and other Poaceae, potatoes, sweet potatoes, tobacco, tomatoes, yams, and many pot plants and vegetables.
Many potential crop hosts are available in Europe, especially those more commonly grown in the southern part of the region. Sugarbeet and field tomatoes could be especially vulnerable, as well as a wide range of vegetables and flowers, including those grown in glasshouses.
Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
Top of pageGrowth Stages
Top of page Flowering stage, Fruiting stage, Seedling stage, Vegetative growing stageSymptoms
Top of page Leaf-eating and skeletonization is the main damage to the host plant, and in extreme cases complete defoliation may occur. Larvae are not normally observed because they are nocturnal feeders, but the first two instars are gregarious and can be seen in clusters on the foliage. Holes may be observed on tomato fruits and large larvae sometimes act as cutworms.List of Symptoms/Signs
Top of page| Sign | Life Stages | Type |
|---|---|---|
| Fruit / external feeding | ||
| Leaves / external feeding | ||
| Leaves / shredding |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageOne female can oviposit 1500-3000 eggs over its lifetime. Eggs are laid in large batches on the leaves of the host plant, protected by a layer of grey bristles from the female abdomen. Observations made at 20-25°C using different host plants and artificial diets show that the incubation period of S. eridania is invariable and lasts 4 days (Chittenden and Russel, 1909; Valverde and Sarmiento, 1987; Mattana and Foerster, 1988; Montezano et al., 2014). Larvae, as with some other Noctuidae, are gregarious and remain together on the leaf for the first two instars, resulting in leaf skeletonization. The third-instar larvae disperse and become more solitary and nocturnal. During the day they hide in the leaf litter or plant foliage, and emerge to feed on the leaves at night. Larval development usually takes 14-21 days and undergoes six and, rarely, seven instars. As with other Noctuidae, the rate of larval development is affected by the quality of diet and prevailing temperatures; the latter also affects the adult condition. Larvae sometimes swarm and migrate to adjacent fields when food is scarce. Occasionally, large larvae have been recorded acting as cutworms.
Pupation takes place in the soil in a weak earthen cell and typically requires 9-12 days. Adults are nocturnal in habit.
S. eridania is essentially a subtropical species and so a temperature of 20-25°C is optimum for development, and breeding may be continuous. The life-cycle can be completed in 28-30 days, but up to 40 days is common. There are several to many generations per year, the number depending on local conditions. Experiments in Brazil by Foerster and Dionizio (1989) showed that development at temperatures of 17 (115 days) and 30°C (33 days) was retarded. At 30°C, pupae weighed less and survival rates were lower.
The sex pheromone produced by female moths has been described, comprising of (Z)-9-tetradecenyl acetate (59.7%), (Z,E)-9,12-tetradecadienyl acetate (23.8%), (Z)-9-tetradecenol (8.4%), (Z)-11-hexadecenyl acetate (5.1%), (Z,Z)-9,12-tetradecadienyl acetate (3%) and (Z,E)-9,11-tetradecadienyl acetate (trace).
Climate
Top of page| Climate | Status | Description | Remark |
|---|---|---|---|
| A - Tropical/Megathermal climate | Preferred | Average temp. of coolest month > 18°C, > 1500mm precipitation annually | |
| Af - Tropical rainforest climate | Preferred | > 60mm precipitation per month | |
| Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Preferred | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
| As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Tolerated | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
| Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
| B - Dry (arid and semi-arid) | Preferred | < 860mm precipitation annually | |
| C - Temperate/Mesothermal climate | Preferred | Average temp. of coldest month > 0°C and < 18°C, mean warmest month > 10°C | |
| Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Preferred | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | |
| Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Preferred | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) | |
| Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year | Preferred | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of page| Latitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 40 | 35 |
Air Temperature
Top of page| Parameter | Lower limit | Upper limit |
|---|---|---|
| Absolute minimum temperature (ºC) | 10 | |
| Mean annual temperature (ºC) | 17 | 30 |
| Mean maximum temperature of hottest month (ºC) | 17 | 40 |
| Mean minimum temperature of coldest month (ºC) | 8 | 15 |
Rainfall
Top of page| Parameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
|---|---|---|---|
| Dry season duration | 3 | 8 | number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall |
| Mean annual rainfall | 400 | 3000 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Natural enemies
Top of pageNotes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageNumerous parasitic wasps from the Hymenoptera family and true flies from the Tachinidae family are of importance for natural control in the field. King and Saunders (1984) list important species on Caribbean Islands. Biological control was attempted on a number of Commonwealth Caribbean islands, resulting in the establishment of Telenomus remus (Cock, 1985).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageEven though Ferguson et al. (1991) include S. eridania as a migratory species present in the islands of Bermuda (approximately 1500 km from the continent), in the New World, S. eridania does not engage in long-distance migrations, so it would be most unlikely to make a transatlantic crossing as a flying adult. It is not known how the infestation of the Galapagos Islands occurred, but it might have been by flying moths. The frequent European records are usually of intercepted larvae on the foliage of infested host plants (Seymour, 1978), but occasionally in the UK and other parts of Europe, larvae are found on plants and some adult moths are found in light traps.
Pathway Causes
Top of page| Cause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cut flower trade | Movement of plants, interceptions | Yes | Yes | Karsholt, 1994 |
| Flooding and other natural disasters | Outbreaks recorded after the passage of a hurricane | Yes | Yes | Torres, 1992 |
| Habitat restoration and improvement | Outbreaks recorded after reforestation projects of native species | Yes | Yes | Mattana and Foerster, 1988 |
| Hitchhiker | Movement of plants, interceptions | Yes | Yes | |
| Horticulture | Movement of plants, interceptions | Yes | Yes | Karsholt, 1994 |
Pathway Vectors
Top of page| Vector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Plants or parts of plants | Yes | Yes | Karsholt, 1994 | |
| Wind | Outbreaks recorded after the passage of a hurricane | Yes | Torres, 1992 |
Plant Trade
Top of page| Plant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transport | Pest stages | Borne internally | Borne externally | Visibility of pest or symptoms |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Flowers/Inflorescences/Cones/Calyx | eggs; larvae | Yes | ||
| Fruits (inc. pods) | eggs; larvae | Yes | Yes | |
| Leaves | eggs; larvae | Yes | Yes | |
| Stems (above ground)/Shoots/Trunks/Branches | larvae | Yes |
Impact Summary
Top of page| Category | Impact |
|---|---|
| Economic/livelihood | Negative |
| Environment (generally) | Negative |
Impact
Top of pageS. eridania is usually only a minor pest on most crops in the New World, but occasionally serious infestations occur. It is most damaging on tomato fruits and sweet potatoes, although many vegetables and flowers can be seriously locally affected on occasions. Since most damage is caused by leaf-eating, light infestations on field crops can be tolerated and ignored, but on tomatoes and ornamentals, control may more often be required. S. eridania larvae have also been recorded as occasional pests of cotton, amaranth and lucerne.
Additionally, S. eridania has been reported from outbreaks under different conditions, such as after the passage of a hurricane (Torres, 1992), in reforestation projects of native species (Mattana and Foerster, 1988) and in truck crops (Michereff Filho et al., 2008), reaching economic injury levels in commercial crops, especially lucerne (Hichings and Rabinovich, 1974) cotton and soyabeans (Santos et al., 2009).
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page Invasiveness- Invasive in its native range
- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Abundant in its native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Is a habitat generalist
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Tolerant of shade
- Capable of securing and ingesting a wide range of food
- Highly mobile locally
- Fast growing
- Has high reproductive potential
- Has high genetic variability
- Altered trophic level
- Damaged ecosystem services
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Host damage
- Increases vulnerability to invasions
- Monoculture formation
- Negatively impacts agriculture
- Negatively impacts cultural/traditional practices
- Negatively impacts livelihoods
- Damages animal/plant products
- Negatively impacts trade/international relations
- Herbivory/grazing/browsing
- Interaction with other invasive species
- Rapid growth
- Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageAdults of S. eridania can be confused with some European Hadeninae and Cuculliinae, especially some species of Cucullia, but these latter moths usually do not have hindwings with translucent white colouration. The forewing margin of S. eridania is also squarer and less oblique than those of Cuculliinae, which have more slender, elongate and pointed wings than species of Spodoptera.
An EPPO standard provides guidance for the identification of S. littoralis, S. litura, S. frugiperda and S. eridania (OEPP/EPPO, 2015).
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Chemical Control
As S. eridania is often only a minor pest, control is only occasionally required. Insecticidal sprays are the usual means of killing the larvae on the plant foliage when damage is seen. Insecticides recommended for Helicoverpa control can be used for S. eridania: suitable chemicals are listed by COPR (1983) and King and Saunders (1984).
Phytosanitary measures
Plants used for production should come from locations found free from the pest during the previous 3 months. Certain types of plants (for example, cuttings) may be treated by being held at low temperatures <1.7°C) for 2-4 days, followed by fumigation.
References
Top of pageAngulo, A. O., Olivares, T. S., Weigert, G. T. H., 2008. (Estados inmaduros de lepidópteros nóctuidos de importancia agrícola y forestal en Chile y claves para su identificación (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), 3a edición). Concepción, Chile: Universidad de Concepción.154 pp.
Barbut, J., Lalanne-Cassou, B., 2009. (Contribution à la connaissance des Noctuoidea des Antilles et descriptions de quatre nouvelles espèces (Lepidoptera)). In: Bulletin de la Société entomologique de France,114(4) . 409-418.
Biezanko, C. M., Bertholdi, R. E., 1951. (Principais noctuídeos prejudiciais às plantas cultivadas em arredores de Pelotas). Agronomia, 10, 235-247.
Capinera, J. L., 2018. Southern Armyworm, Spodoptera eridania (Stoll) (Insecta: Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) - EENY-106. Florida, USA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, UF/IFAS Extension Service, University of Florida. http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu or https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/IN/IN26300.pdf
Chittenden, F. H., Russel, H. M., 1909. Some insects injurious to truck crops - the semitropical army worm (Prodenia eridania Cram.). In: USDA Bureau Entomol. Bull,66. 53-70.
Clarke-Harris, D. O., Fleischer, S., Fender, A., 1998. The Pennsylvania State University. Major pests of callaloo. In: Identification guide . http://www.oired.vt.edu/ipmcrsp/TechTransfer/Callaloo.pdf
COPR, 1983. Pest Control in Tropical Tomatoes. London, UK: COPR
Coto, D., Saunders, J. L., Vargas, S. C. L., King, B. S., 1995. (Plagas invertebradas de cultivos tropicales con énfasis en América Central - Un inventário, Turrialba, Costa Rica). In: Série Técnica: Manual Técnico , (12) . Turrialba, Costa Rica: CATIE. 200 pp.
Crumb SE, 1956. The Larvae of the Phalaenidae. Technical Bulletin No. 1135. Washington DC, USA: United States Department of Agriculture
EPPO, 2018. EPPO Global Database. Paris, France: EPPO. https://gd.eppo.int/
Goergen, G., 2018. New alien invasive pest identified in West and Central Africa!. In: IITA Factsheet . Cotonou, Benin: IITA.http://www.iita.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/SAW_factsheet-22-May-2018.pdf
Hichings, O. N., Rabinovich, J. E., 1974. (Fluctuaciones de la población de larvas de cinco especies de Nóctuidos de importancia económica asociadas a la alfalfa en el Valle de Lluta). Idesia, 3, 35-79.
Huiza, I. R., Loayza, R. M., 1993. (Los controladores biológicos de Spodoptera eridania (Cramer) en la costa Central de Peru). Revista Peruana de Entomologia, 35, 121-124.
Janzen, D. H., Hallwachs, W., 2009. In: Dynamic database for an inventory of the macrocaterpillar fauna, and its food plants and parasitoids, of Area de Conservacion Guanacaste (ACG), northwestern Costa Rica (nn-SRNP-nnnnn voucher codes) , USA: University of Pennsylvania.http://janzen.sas.upenn.edu
Mendoza, A., Veja, G., Cescdon, R. S. M., 2011. (Recomendaciones técnicas pra el cultivo de Mentha arvensis L. var. piperacens Malinvaud (Menta japonesa) em Cuba). Italy, Rome: FAO.http://www.fao.org/
Montezano, D. G., Specht, A., Sosa-Gomez, D. R., Roque-Specht, V. F., de Barros, N. M., 2014. Immature stages of Spodoptera eridania (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae): developmental parameters and host plants. Journal of Insect Science, 14(1), 238.
OEPP/EPPO, 2015. EPPO Standards PM 7/124(1) Diagnostic protocol for Spodoptera littoralis, Spodoptera litura, Spodoptera frugiperda, Spodoptera eridania. Bulletin OEPP/EPPO Bulletin, 34:257-270
Pastrana, J. A., 2004. (Los Lepidópteros Argentinos: sus plantas hospedadoras y otros substratos alimenticios). Buenos Aires, Argentina: Sociedad Entomológica Argentina.334 pp.
Pogue, G. M., 2002. A world revision of the genus Spodoptera Guenée (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). In: Mem. Am. Entomol. Soc , 43. 1-202.
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Distribution References
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Goergen G, 2018. New alien invasive pest identified in West and Central Africa! In: IITA Factsheet, Cotonou, Benin: IITA. http://www.iita.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/SAW_factsheet-22-May-2018.pdf
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Links to Websites
Top of page| Website | URL | Comment |
|---|---|---|
| GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Contributors
Top of page09/10/2019 Review by:
Debora Montezano, Department of Entomology, University of Nebraska at Lincoln, Nebraska, USA
Alexandre Specht, EMBRAPA Cerrados, Planaltina, DF, Brazil
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