Polygonum persicaria (redshank)

Pictures

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Picture

Title

Caption

Copyright

Upper part of plant

Upper part of plant with leaves and flowers.

©Kurt G. Kissmann

Flowering shoot

Flowering shoot of P. persicaria.

©Chris Parker/Bristol, UK

Seeds

Mature black seeds of P. persicaria.

©Kurt G. Kissmann

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Polygonum persicaria L.

Preferred Common Name

redshank

Other Scientific Names

Persicaria dolichopoda (Ochi) Sasaki
Persicaria maculata (Raf.) S.F. Gray
Persicaria maculosa S.F. Gray
Persicaria mitis Delarbre
Persicaria persicaria (L.) Small
Persicaria ruderalis (Salisb.) C.F. Reed
Persicaria vulgaris Webb & Moq.
Polygonum dubium Stein
Polygonum fusiforme Greene
Polygonum minus auct. non Huds.
Polygonum puritanorum Fern.
Polygonum vulgaris Samp.

International Common Names

English: lady's thumb; ladysthumb
Spanish: persicaria manchada
French: persicaire douce; pied rouge
Portuguese: erva-pessegueira

Local Common Names

Brazil: persicaria-de-pe-vermelho
Germany: floh knöterich
Italy: persicaria
Japan: harutade
Netherlands: duizendknoop, kleine; perzikkruid
New Zealand: willow weed
Sweden: piloert, aaker-
USA: heart's-ease; heartweed; spotted ladysthumb

EPPO code

POLMI (Polygonum minus)
POLPE (Polygonum persicaria)
PRAVU (Persicaria vulgaris)

Summary of Invasiveness

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P. persicaria can be very competitive with crop plants, particularly in moist areas, and has an ability to spread rapidly once introduced to an area. The economic impact of P. persicaria in agricultural production is sufficient for various governments to declare this weed as a noxious pest (Anon., 1996; Anon., 2003). The state of Minnesota in the USA has declared P. persicaria as a secondary noxious weed and several states have categorized it as invasive (USDA-NRCS, 2002).

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Spermatophyta
Subphylum: Angiospermae
Class: Dicotyledonae
Order: Polygonales
Family: Polygonaceae
Genus: Polygonum
Species: Polygonum persicaria

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

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P. persicaria is a summer annual, herbaceous, broadleaved (dicot) weed and is a member of the Polygonaceae, or smartweed family, also sometimes called the buckwheat, knotweed, or dock family. There are numerous varieties described by various authorities (e.g. Ekman and Knutson, 1994; Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, 2003; USDA-ARS, 2003). Several of these, such as var. minus, var. ruderale and var. vulgare appear to correspond to species now classified as accepted synonyms of P. persicaria. The taxonomical status of other varieties listed, var. angustiflorum Beckh., var. lapathiolium (L.) Meisn., var. opacum (Sam.) A.J. Li and var. vernicosa Cham & Schltdl. may correspond to other species and require confirmation. A form with white flowers rather than the usual deep pink, forma albiflora Millsp. has been described. Also, there are several separate authorities listed for P. persicaria (Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, 2003). This all indicates widespread variation in the species. Many Polygonum species, including P. persicaria, are now placed by a number of authorities in the genus Persicaria, hence Stace (1991) uses the synonym Persicaria maculosa and Grierson and Long (1983) use Persicaria dolichopoda.

Description

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P. persicaria grows erect to spreading to 0.2-1.2 m tall and generally sprawls with age. Leaf blades lanceolate to elliptic-lanceolate, 3-15 cm long, 0.5-3 cm wide, glabrous to sparsely strigose, usually puncticulate, especially beneath, acute to long-acuminate, cuneate at the base, subsessile or on petioles to 1 cm long; ocreae 5-15 mm long, fringed with bristles, glabrous to strigose. Racemes usually globose to cylindric, 0.5-2.5 cm long, 0.5-1 cm thick. The leaves of this species typically have a dark green splotch, which is often 'V'-shaped, in their centres. The stems are glabrous, branching at base, erect, herbaceous, typically reddish at nodes. P. persicaria has a distinctly fringed ocrea, distinguishing it from other Polygonum species (Uva et al., 1997). The fringes on the P. persicaria ocrea are short, less than half the length of the membraneous ocrea. Roots are typically a taproot with branches. Flowers light to deep pink; calyx 2.5-3 mm long, 5-lobed to near the middle; stamens 6, included; style branches 2 or 3. The flowers are present July-September in the northern hemisphere. Achenes (seeds) are black, shiny, two-sided, lenticular or some often trigonous, 2-2.5 mm long.

Plant Type

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Annual
Broadleaved
Herbaceous
Seed propagated

Distribution

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P. persicaria is thought to be native to Europe, but is quite common in many other temperate and sub-tropical countries around the world and at high elevation in the tropics. The eastern limits to its native range appear to be uncertain however. Although it is known as a European or Eurasian native, it is also stated as a native of China (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2003).

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 25 Feb 2021

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	Invasive	Reference	Notes
Africa
Egypt	Present			Holm et al. (1991)
Kenya	Present	Introduced		Holm et al. (1991)
Tunisia	Present			Holm et al. (1991)
Uganda	Present	Introduced		Holm et al. (1991)
Asia
Afghanistan	Present		Invasive	Holm et al. (1991)
Bangladesh	Present	Introduced		Holm et al. (1991)
Bhutan	Present			Grierson and Long (1983)
China	Present, Localized	Native		Freedman (1998) Flora of China Editorial Committee (2003)
-Fujian	Present	Native		Flora of China Editorial Committee (2003)
-Guangdong	Present	Native		Flora of China Editorial Committee (2003)
-Guizhou	Present	Native		Flora of China Editorial Committee (2003)
-Sichuan	Present	Native		Flora of China Editorial Committee (2003)
-Zhejiang	Present	Native		Flora of China Editorial Committee (2003)
India	Present			Sefaur Rahaman and Mukherjee (2010) Dangwal et al. (2011)
-Uttarakhand	Present			Dangwal et al. (2011)
-West Bengal	Present			Sefaur Rahaman and Mukherjee (2010)
Iran	Present			Holm et al. (1991)
Iraq	Present			Holm et al. (1991)
Japan	Present		Invasive	Holm et al. (1991)
Nepal	Present			Holm et al. (1991)
Pakistan	Present			Holm et al. (1991) Shah et al. (2014)
Philippines	Present		Invasive	Holm et al. (1991)
South Korea	Present			Hwang KiSeon et al. (2015)
Turkey	Present	Native		Holm et al. (1991) Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
Europe
Albania	Present	Native		Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
Austria	Present	Native	Invasive	Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
Belarus	Present	Native		Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
Belgium	Present	Native	Invasive	Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
Bulgaria	Present	Native		Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
Croatia	Present			Kristek et al. (2004)
Czechia	Present	Native	Invasive	Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003) Weed Science Society of America (2003) Čepl and Kasal (2010)
Denmark	Present	Native	Invasive	INRA (2001) Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
Estonia	Present	Native		Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
Faroe Islands	Present	Native		Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
Finland	Present	Native		Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
France	Present	Native	Invasive	INRA (2001) Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003) Weed Science Society of America (2003)
-Corsica	Present	Native		Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
Germany	Present	Native	Invasive	INRA (2001) Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
Greece	Present	Native		Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
Hungary	Present	Native	Invasive	Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
Iceland	Present	Native		Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
Ireland	Present	Native	Invasive	Simmonds (1946) Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
Italy	Present	Native	Invasive	INRA (2001) Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
Latvia	Present	Native		Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
Lithuania	Present	Native		Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
Moldova	Present	Native		Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
Netherlands	Present	Native		Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
Norway	Present	Native	Invasive	Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
Poland	Present	Native	Invasive	Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003) Dąbkowska and Sygulska (2013) Głowacka (2013)
Portugal	Present	Native	Invasive	INRA (2001) Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
-Azores	Present	Native		Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
Romania	Present	Native		Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003) Petre and Carciu (2013)
Russia	Present			CABI (Undated a)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Central Russia	Present	Native		Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
-Northern Russia	Present	Native		Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
-Southern Russia	Present	Native		Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
Serbia	Present			Marković et al. (2008)
Serbia and Montenegro	Present	Native		Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
Slovenia	Present			Eler and Batič (2002)
Spain	Present	Native	Invasive	INRA (2001) Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
-Balearic Islands	Present	Native		Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
Sweden	Present	Native	Invasive	Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
Switzerland	Present	Native		Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
Ukraine	Present	Native		Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
United Kingdom	Present	Native	Invasive	Simmonds (1946) INRA (2001) Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (2003)
North America
Canada	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Holm et al. (1991) Stobbs et al. (2009) CABI (Undated)
-British Columbia	Present	Introduced		CABI (Undated b)
-Manitoba	Present	Introduced	Invasive	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Anon. (1996)
-Ontario	Present			Stobbs et al. (2009)
-Quebec	Present			Bélair et al. (2007)
Mexico	Present	Introduced		Holm et al. (1991) CABI (Undated)
United States	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Alabama	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Alaska	Present	Introduced		USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Arizona	Present	Introduced		USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Arkansas	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-California	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Colorado	Present	Introduced		USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Connecticut	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Delaware	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Florida	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Georgia	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Idaho	Present	Introduced		USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Illinois	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Indiana	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Iowa	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Kansas	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Kentucky	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Louisiana	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Maine	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Maryland	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Massachusetts	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Michigan	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002) Weed Science Society of America (2003)
-Minnesota	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Mississippi	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Missouri	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Montana	Present	Introduced		USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Nebraska	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Nevada	Present	Introduced		USDA-NRCS (2002)
-New Hampshire	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-New Jersey	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-New Mexico	Present	Introduced		USDA-NRCS (2002)
-New York	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-North Carolina	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-North Dakota	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Ohio	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Oklahoma	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Oregon	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Pennsylvania	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Rhode Island	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-South Carolina	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-South Dakota	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Tennessee	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Texas	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Utah	Present	Introduced		USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Vermont	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Virginia	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Washington	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-West Virginia	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Wisconsin	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Wyoming	Present	Introduced		USDA-NRCS (2002)
Oceania
Australia	Present	Introduced		Holm et al. (1991)
-Queensland	Present	Introduced		Adkins and Peters (2001)
New Zealand	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Holm et al. (1991) Knight et al. (2002) Weed Science Society of America (2003)
South America
Argentina	Present	Introduced	Invasive	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: New York Botanical Garden (2003)
Bolivia	Present	Introduced		CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Missouri Botanical Garden (2003)
Brazil	Present			CABI (Undated a)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Parana	Present	Introduced		CABI (Undated)	Original citation: New York Botanical Garden (2003)
-Rio Grande do Sul	Present	Introduced		CABI (Undated)	Original citation: New York Botanical Garden (2003)
Chile	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Holm et al. (1991) Pedreros et al. (2002)
Colombia	Present	Introduced		Holm et al. (1991)
Ecuador	Present	Introduced		CABI (Undated)	Original citation: New York Botanical Garden (2003)

History of Introduction and Spread

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Spread of P. persicaria from Europe to other parts of the world appears to have been prevalent in the 1800s. It is now particularly common in eastern areas of North America, while also present in every continent.

Risk of Introduction

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Due to the risks of both accidental and intentional introduction, either as a seed contaminant, via biotic or abiotic spread or from the importation of seed for ornamental planting, further spread of P. persicaria is likely. As a result, P. persicaria has been declared a noxious weed in parts of Canada (Anon., 1996) and the USA (USDA-NRCS, 2002).

Habitat

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P. persicaria grows best in moist to wet areas of waste ground, meadows, river banks, roadsides, railroads, and disturbed sites, including croplands and gardens. It is most prevalent near springs, shores, stream banks and ditches, especially irrigation ditches, where water is fresh. Plants often grow in wet moist soils, but tolerate periods of dryness. This species does not tolerate highly acidic soils (California Department of Food and Agriculture, 2003).

Habitat List

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Category	Sub-Category	Habitat	Presence	Status
Terrestrial	Managed	Cultivated / agricultural land	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Managed forests, plantations and orchards	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Managed grasslands (grazing systems)	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Disturbed areas	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Rail / roadsides	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Urban / peri-urban areas	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Natural forests	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Natural grasslands	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Riverbanks	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Wetlands	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Littoral		Coastal areas	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)

Hosts/Species Affected

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P. persicaria can be a serious weed of cultivated agricultural and horticultural crops. Holm et al. (1997) note that it is a weed of 35 crops including many unspecified vegetable and orchard crops.

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

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Plant name	Family	Context
Allium cepa (onion)	Liliaceae	Other
Beta vulgaris (beetroot)	Chenopodiaceae	Main
Brassica rapa subsp. oleifera (turnip rape)	Brassicaceae	Other
Daucus carota (carrot)	Apiaceae	Other
Glycine max (soyabean)	Fabaceae	Main
Helianthus annuus (sunflower)	Asteraceae	Other
Hordeum vulgare (barley)	Poaceae	Main
Medicago sativa (lucerne)	Fabaceae	Other
Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco)	Solanaceae	Other
Phaseolus vulgaris (common bean)	Fabaceae	Other
Pisum sativum (pea)	Fabaceae	Other
Solanum tuberosum (potato)	Solanaceae	Main
Triticum aestivum (wheat)	Poaceae	Main
Zea mays (maize)	Poaceae	Main

Growth Stages

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Flowering stage, Fruiting stage, Seedling stage, Vegetative growing stage

Biology and Ecology

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Genetics

P. persicaria has been found to hybridize with pale smartweed (P. lapathifolium). Compared with P. persicaria, the hybrid plants have narrower flower spikes and flatter achenes (California Department of Food and Agriculture, 2003). Flora Europaea (Royal Botanic Gardens Edinburgh, 2003) lists a number of hybrids including P. persicaria though considering the array of varietal synonymity the exact status of these requires verification. However, it is certain that there is widespread variation in the morphology of this species.

Physiology and Phenology

Research has shown that P. persicaria has a great deal of plasticity in its traits (Sultan and Bazzaz, 1993). For example, in a resource-rich environment, this species reproduced much more vigorously, while in a low-light environment it doubled the amount of leaf tissue (Sultan, 1996). Plants of this terrestrial summer annual typically do not form close colonies, but grow as scattered individuals. Plants are killed in the autumn by the first hard frost. Foliage turns brown to reddish and does not persist through the cold season (California Department of Food and Agriculture, 2003).

Reproductive Biology

Propagation is by seed. Seeds fall near the parent plant, but often remain on the parent plant until scattered by animals or other disturbance. Once the seeds fall to the soil surface, they may be dispersed with water, animals, in soil movement, or with machinery. They may also survive crop harvest and become contaminants of crop seed. A persistent soil seed bank usually accumulates. Seeds are dormant when shed and require a cold, moist period to break dormancy. Length of initial seed dormancy varies widely on individual plants and between populations. Seeds normally germinate in the springtime, and those that do not germinate the first season enter secondary dormancy (California Department of Food and Agriculture, 2003). Research has shown that most seeds of P. persicaria easily emerge from most soil textures and from soil depths up to 50 mm (James et al., 2002). Seed longevity in the field is poorly documented. Under very rare conditions, fragmented stems can also regenerate into new plants (California Department of Food and Agriculture, 2003).

Environmental Requirements

Climatic requirements include reasonable soil moisture. As noted above, cold, moist conditions are required to break seed dormancy. Although this weed thrives under moist conditions for much of the season, it can tolerate moderate summer droughts. P. persicaria plants have been found to elevations of 1500 m in California, USA (California Department of Food and Agriculture, 2003) or 1800 m in China (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2003).

Associations

Although these plants are considered somewhat toxic, the seeds are frequently consumed by animals. Though rarely having a serious impact on P. persicaria, at least one virus disease (Arabis mosaic nepovirus) can utilize P. persicaria as a host, where symptoms are mosaics, mottling, chlorotic ringspots and sometimes necrosis. Generally these symptoms disappear soon after infection, but plants may remain stunted. This virus can be transmitted by nematodes or through infected seed.

Latitude/Altitude Ranges

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Latitude North (°N)	Latitude South (°S)	Altitude Lower (m)	Altitude Upper (m)
0	0	0	1800

Air Temperature

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Parameter	Lower limit	Upper limit
Absolute minimum temperature (ºC)	-20
Mean annual temperature (ºC)	5	20
Mean maximum temperature of hottest month (ºC)	13	30
Mean minimum temperature of coldest month (ºC)	-10	4

Rainfall

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Parameter	Lower limit	Upper limit	Description
Dry season duration	0	7	number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall
Mean annual rainfall	500	2500	mm; lower/upper limits

Rainfall Regime

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Summer

Soil Tolerances

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Soil drainage

free
impeded
seasonally waterlogged

Soil reaction

acid
alkaline
neutral

Soil texture

heavy
light
medium

Notes on Natural Enemies

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P. persicaria is a host to at least one virus disease (Arabis mosaic nepovirus), though this rarely has a serious impact on the plant.

Means of Movement and Dispersal

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Natural Dispersal (Non-Biotic)

P. persicaria is propagated almost entirely by seeds which are produced in large numbers. Dispersal over short distances (1-10 m) is generally by wind or animals. Dispersal over longer distances can occur with water, particularly floods (NASD, 2002).

Vector Transmission (Biotic)

Birds and other animals can consume and disseminate seeds.

Agricultural Practices

In agricultural areas, both cultivation and harvesting machinery can carry seeds from field to field.

Accidental Introduction

Crop seeds need to be cleaned well to ensure that this and other weed seeds are not disseminated via crop seeds and planted with future crops.

Intentional Introduction

P. persicaria seeds are sold for wildflower gardens. These sales are made through seed catalogues and over the internet and there exists the possibility of further introduction as a minor ornamental species.

Pathway Vectors

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Vector	Notes	Long Distance	Local	References
Mail	Sold as wildflower	Yes
Soil, sand and gravel	Rivers and floods	Yes

Plant Trade

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Plant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transport	Pest stages	Borne internally	Borne externally	Visibility of pest or symptoms
Flowers/Inflorescences/Cones/Calyx	seeds
Fruits (inc. pods)	seeds
Growing medium accompanying plants	seeds
True seeds (inc. grain)	seeds

Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport
Bark
Bulbs/Tubers/Corms/Rhizomes
Leaves
Roots
Seedlings/Micropropagated plants
Stems (above ground)/Shoots/Trunks/Branches
Wood

Impact Summary

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Category	Impact
Animal/plant collections	None
Animal/plant products	None
Biodiversity (generally)	Negative
Crop production	Negative
Environment (generally)	Negative
Fisheries / aquaculture	None
Forestry production	Negative
Human health	None
Livestock production	Negative
Native fauna	None
Native flora	Negative
Rare/protected species	None
Tourism	None
Trade/international relations	None
Transport/travel	None

Impact

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P. persicaria can be very competitive with crop plants, particularly in moist soils and as such can have significant economic impacts in the requirements for use of increased tillage and herbicides, though exact data on costs due to the presence of this species are not known. Holm et al. (1997) note that it is a weed of 35 crops in 50 countries, those outside Europe including Australia, Brazil, Canada, New Zealand and the USA, also noting allelopathic effects on flax potatoes.

Environmental Impact

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P. persicaria competes with natural vegetation, particularly in moist areas along ditches, streams, rivers, and marshes.

Impact: Biodiversity

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P. persicaria can compete strongly with other herbaceous vegetation in moist areas and as such can replace the natural vegetation and threaten biodiversity.

Risk and Impact Factors

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Invasiveness

Invasive in its native range
Proved invasive outside its native range
Highly adaptable to different environments
Has high reproductive potential
Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year

Impact outcomes

Negatively impacts agriculture
Reduced native biodiversity

Impact mechanisms

Competition - monopolizing resources
Pest and disease transmission

Likelihood of entry/control

Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately

Uses

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During times of famine in China, P. persicaria leaves and stems have been consumed by humans (Freedman, 1998). In numerous countries, this weed is used as a decorative planting in flower gardens.

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

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P. persicaria has many similarities to P. pensylvanicum, but P. persicaria generally has a darkly pigmented mark on the leaf blade that is usually lacking on P. pensylvanicum (Uva et al., 1997). P. lapathifolium (= P. scabrum) is also similar but with green flowers and glandular dots on the under surface of upper leaves. P. cepitosum is similar but has a more rose-colored perianth and the bracts of the inflorescence have cilia which typically are longer than the flowers.

Prevention and Control

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Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Cultural Control

Intensive agricultural cultivation that does not allow emerged P. persicaria plants to mature will manage populations over time. Perennial turf or forages with frequent mowing will also deplete this weed.

Mechanical Control

Tillage/cultivation is effective for control of P. persicaria seedlings. The same is true of hoeing in home gardens and similar areas that can be managed by hand. Repeated mowing which prevents seed production will reduce populations over time.

Chemical Control

Numerous herbicides are highly effective in controlling P. persicaria. However, in France from 1980, there were reports of biotypes of this weed resistant to Group C1/5 (photosystem II inhibitors) herbicides found in maize and other cropland. Research has shown that these particular biotypes are also resistant to atrazine and they may be cross-resistant to other Group C1/5 herbicides (Weed Science Society of America, 2003). Similar resistance to triazines has since been confirmed in the Czech Republic, New Zealand and the United States.

Biological Control

Although P. persicaria plants are susceptible to Arabis mosaic virus, no research has been undertaken on the development of biological control agents, whether viral or fungal. No arthropods known to attack this species specifically have been identified.

Integrated Control

In agricultural and horticultural crops, P. persicaria can be managed through a combination of cultural, mechanical and chemical measures.

References

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Adkins SW; Peters NCB, 2001. Smoke derived from burnt vegetation stimulates germination of arable weeds. Seed Science Research, 11(3):213-222; 30 ref.

Anon., 1996. Manitoba Regulation Noxious Weeds Regulation - MR 38-5/96. http://web2.gov.mb.ca/laws/regs/pdf/n110-035.96.pdf.

Anon., 2003. Quebec Statutes and Regulations. Noxious Weeds. Agricultural Abuses Act. http://www.canlii.org/qc/regu/crqc/20030530/r.q.a-2r.1/whole.html.

Bélair G; Dauphinais N; Benoit DL; Fournier Y, 2007. Reproduction of Pratylenchus penetrans on 24 common weeds in potato fields in Québec. Journal of Nematology, 39(4):321-326. http://palmm.fcla.edu/nematode/index.htm

Cranston R; Ralph D; Wikeem B, 2002. Field Guide to Noxious and Other Selected Weeds of British Columbia. Government of British Columbia. Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries. http://www.agf.gov.bc.ca/cropprot/weedguid/weedguid.htm.

Ekman S; Knutsson T, 1994. Nomenclatural notes on Persicaria. Nordic Journal of Botany, 14(1):23-25

Eler K; Batic F, 2002. Phytocenological and agronomic classification of weed vegetation from intensively used fields of Kranjsko and Sor?ko polje. (Fitocenolo?ka in agronomska opredelitev plevelne vegetacije na intenzivno rabljenih njivah Kranjskega in Sor?kega polja.) In: Novi izzivi v poljedelstvu 2002. Zbornik simpozija, Ljubljana, Slovenia 5-6 decembra 2002. Ljubljana, Slovenia: Slovensko Agronomsko Drustvo (SAD), 368-372.

Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2003. Flora of China Web. Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Harvard University Herbaria. http://flora.huh.harvard.edu/china/.

Freedman R, 1998. Famine Foods. Polygonaceae. USA: Purdue University. http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/faminefoods/ff_families/POLYGONACEAE.html.

Grierson AJC; Long DG, 1983. Flora of Bhutan, Volume 1, Part 1. Edinburgh, UK: Royal Botanic Garden.

Holm LG; Doll J; Holm E; Pancho JV; Herberger JP, 1997. World Weeds: Natural Histories and Distribution. New York, USA: John Wiley & Sons Inc.

Holm LG; Pancho JV; Herberger JP; Plucknett DC, 1991. A Geographical Atlas of World Weeds. Malabar, Florida: Krieger.

INRA, 2001. Weed Science and Agronomy. HYPPA. Dijon, France: INRA. http://www.inra.fr/hyppa/hyppa-a/lamam_ah.htm.

James TK; Rahman A; Webster T; Waller J, 2002. Emergence of weeds as affected by vertical seed distribution in arable soils. New Zealand Plant Protection Volume 55, 2002. Proceedings of a conference, Centra Hotel, Rotorua, New Zealand, 13-15 August 2002, 213-217; 10 ref.

Kristek A; Kristek S; Antunovic M, 2004. Influence of fertilization and herbicides application on soil microflora and elements of sugar beet yield. (Utjecaj gnojidbe i primjene herbicida na biogenost tla i elemente prinosa ?ecerne repe.) Agriculture Scientific and Professional Review, 10(1):35-42.

Markovic M; Protic R; Protic N, 2008. Efficiency and selectivity of herbicides in maize (Zea mays L.). Romanian Agricultural Research, No.25:77-82.

Missouri Botanical Garden, 2003. VAScular Tropicos database. St. Louis, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://mobot.mobot.org/W3T/Search/vast.html.

NASD, 2002. Weed management after a flood - strategies for this year and next. Madison, Wisconsin, USA: University of Wisconsin Cooperative Extension.

New York Botanical Garden, 2003. Catalogue of Vascular Plant Species of Eastern Brazil. Polygonaceae. http://www.nybg.org/bsci/hcol/sebc/Polygonaceae.html.

Pedreros A; Gonzßlez MI; Guadamud C; Uragami U, 2002. Weed control during asparagus establishment year in a volcanic soil of Chile. Acta Horticulturae, 589:155-158; 10 ref.

Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003. Flora Europaea, Database of European Plants (ESFEDS). Edinburgh, UK: Royal Botanic Garden. http://rbg-web2.rbge.org.uk/FE/fe.html.

Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, 2003. Electronic Plant Information Centre. Kew, Richmond, London, UK. http://epic.kew.org/index.htm.

Sefaur Rahaman; Mukherjee PK, 2010. Bio-efficacy of herbicides in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in different tillage systems under terai agro-ecological region of West Bengal. Environment and Ecology, 28(1):1-5.

Simmonds NW, 1946. Biological flora of the British Isles. Polygonum L. em. Gaertn. Journal of Ecology, 33:117-143.

Stace C, 1991. New Flora of the British Isles. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Sultan SE, 1996. Phenotypic plasticity for offspring traits in Polygonum persicaria. Ecology, 77(6):1791-1807; 96 ref.

Sultan SE; Bazzaz FA, 1993. Phenotypic plasticity in Polygonum persicaria. III. The evolution of ecological breadth for nutrient environment. Evolution, 47(4):1050-1071

USDA-ARS, 2003. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx

USDA-NRCS, 2002. The PLANTS Database, Version 3.5. National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, USA. http://plants.usda.gov.

Uva RH; Neal JC; DiTomaso JM, 1997. Weeds of the Northeast. Ithaca, USA: Cornell University Press.

Weed Science Society of America, 2003. International Survey of Herbicide Resistant Weeds. HRAC/ NAHRAC/ WSSA. http://www.weedscience.org/in.asp.

Distribution References

Adkins S W, Peters N C B, 2001. Smoke derived from burnt vegetation stimulates germination of arable weeds. Seed Science Research. 11 (3), 213-222.

Bélair G, Dauphinais N, Benoit D L, Fournier Y, 2007. Reproduction of Pratylenchus penetrans on 24 common weeds in potato fields in Québec. Journal of Nematology. 39 (4), 321-326. http://palmm.fcla.edu/nematode/index.htm

CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI

CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI

CABI, Undated b. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI

Čepl J, Kasal P, 2010. Weed mapping - a way to reduce herbicide doses. Potato Research. 53 (4), 359-371. DOI:10.1007/s11540-010-9173-y

Dąbkowska T, Sygulska P, 2013. Variations in weed flora and the degree of its transformation in ecological and extensive conventional cereal crops in selected habitats of the Beskid Wyspowy Mountains. Acta Agrobotanica. 66 (2), 123-136. DOI:10.5586/aa.2013.029

Dangwal L R, Antima Sharma, Amandeep Singh, Rana C S, Tajinder Singh, 2011. Weed flora of S.R.T. Campus Badshahi Thaul Tehri Garhwal (H.N.B. Garhwal Central University, Uttarakhand), India. Pakistan Journal of Weed Science Research. 17 (4), 387-396. http://www.wssp.org.pk/174-10.pdf

Eler K, Batič F, 2002. Phytocenological and agronomic classification of weed vegetation from intensively used fields of Kranjsko and Sorško polje. (Fitocenološka in agronomska opredelitev plevelne vegetacije na intenzivno rabljenih njivah Kranjskega in Sorškega polja.). In: Novi izzivi v poljedelstvu 2002. Zbornik simpozija, Ljubljana, Slovenia 5-6 decembra 2002. Ljubljana, Slovenia: Slovensko Agronomsko Drustvo (SAD). 368-372.

Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2003. Flora of China Web., Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Harvard University Herbaria. http://flora.huh.harvard.edu/china/

Freedman R, 1998. Famine Foods. Polygonaceae., USA: Purdue University. http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/faminefoods/ff_families/POLYGONACEAE.html

Głowacka A, 2013. The influence of strip cropping and weed control methods on weed diversity in dent maize (Zea mays L.), narrow-leafed lupin (Lupinus angustifolius L.) and oats (Avena sativa L.). Acta Agrobotanica. 66 (4), 185-194. DOI:10.5586/aa.2013.065

Grierson A J C, Long D G, 1983. Flora of Bhutan, including a record of plants from Sikkim. Volume 1 parts 1 and 2. Edinburgh, United Kingdom: Royal Botanic Garden. 462pp.

Holm LG, Pancho JV, Herberger JP, Plucknett DC, 1991. A Geographical Atlas of World Weeds., Malabar, Florida, Krieger.

Hwang KiSeon, Eom MinYong, Park SuHyuk, Won OkJae, Lee InYong, Park KeeWoong, 2015. Occurrence and distribution of weed species on horticulture fields in Chungnam province of Korea. Journal of Ecology and Environment. 38 (3), 353-360. DOI:10.5141/ecoenv.2015.036

INRA, 2001. Weed Science and Agronomy. HYPPA., Dijon, France: INRA. http://www.inra.fr/hyppa/hyppa-a/lamam_ah.htm

Knight K W L, Hill C F, Sturhan D, 2002. Further records of Aphelenchoides fragariae and A. ritzemabosi (Nematoda: Aphelenchida) from New Zealand. Australasian Plant Pathology. 31 (1), 93-94. DOI:10.1071/AP01063

Kristek A, Kristek S, Antunović M, 2004. Influence of fertilization and herbicides application on soil microflora and elements of sugar beet yield. (Utjecaj gnojidbe i primjene herbicida na biogenost tla i elemente prinosa šećerne repe.). Agriculture Scientific and Professional Review. 10 (1), 35-42.

Marković M, Protić R, Protić N, 2008. Efficiency and selectivity of herbicides in maize (Zea mays L.). Romanian Agricultural Research. 77-82.

Pedreros A, González M I, Guadamud C, 2002. Weed control during asparagus establishment year in a volcanic soil of Chile. Acta Horticulturae. 155-158.

Petre C, Carciu G, 2013. Dynamics of weeding of winter wheat and grain maize in Western Caras-Severin County, Romania. Journal of Horticulture, Forestry and Biotechnology. 17 (2), 294-298. http://journal-hfb.usab-tm.ro/engleza/2013/Lista%20Lucrari%20PDF/Volum%2017(2)%20PDF/57Sulugiu%20Camelia.pdf

Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003. Flora Europaea, Database of European Plants (ESFEDS)., Edinburgh, UK: Royal Botanic Garden. http://rbg-web2.rbge.org.uk/FE/fe.html

Sefaur Rahaman, Mukherjee P K, 2010. Bio-efficacy of herbicides in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in different tillage systems under terai agro-ecological region of West Bengal. Environment and Ecology. 28 (1), 1-5.

Shah S M, Asad Ullah, Fazal Hadi, 2014. Ecological characteristics of weed flora in the wheat crop of Mastuj valley, district Chitral, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Weed Science Research. 20 (4), 479-487. http://www.wssp.org.pk/vol-20-4-2014/6.%20PJWSR-22-2014.pdf

Simmonds N W, 1946. Biological flora of the British Isles. Polygonum L. em. Gaertn. Journal of Ecology. 117-143.

Stobbs L W, Greig N, Weaver S, Shipp L, Ferguson G, 2009. The potential role of native weed species and bumble bees (Bombus impatiens) on the epidemiology of Pepino mosaic virus. Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology. 31 (2), 254-261. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07060660909507599

USDA-NRCS, 2002. The PLANTS Database. Greensboro, North Carolina, USA: National Plant Data Team. https://plants.sc.egov.usda.gov

Weed Science Society of America, 2003. International Survey of Herbicide Resistant Weeds., HRAC/ NAHRAC/ WSSA. http://www.weedscience.org/in.asp

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Polygonum persicaria (redshank)

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