Plantago major (broad-leaved plantain)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
- Biology and Ecology
- Rainfall
- Soil Tolerances
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Plant Trade
- Impact Summary
- Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Links to Websites
- Distribution Maps
Don't need the entire report?
Generate a print friendly version containing only the sections you need.
Generate reportPictures
Top of pageIdentity
Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Plantago major L.
Preferred Common Name
- broad-leaved plantain
International Common Names
- English: broadleaf plantain; common plantain; greater plantain; plantain; ribgrass; ribwort; white-man's foot
- Spanish: llantén; llantén común; llantén major
- French: grand plantain; plantain majeur
- Portuguese: tanachagem major
Local Common Names
- Germany: Breitwegerich
- Italy: petacciola; piantaggine maggiore
- Japan: onioobako; seiyooobako
- Netherlands: weegbree, groote
- South Africa: broad-leaved ribwort; cart-track plant; indlebe-ka-tekwane; large plantain; larger ribwort plantain; ripplegrass; rippleseed plantain; wild sago
- Sweden: groblad
EPPO code
- PLAMA (Plantago major)
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageTaxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Plantaginales
- Family: Plantaginaceae
- Genus: Plantago
- Species: Plantago major
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageDescription
Top of pageSubspecies major: leaves mostly with five to nine veins, usually obtuse at the apex, subcordate to rounded at the base and subentire; capsules mostly with 4-15 seeds; seeds (1)1.2-1.8 (2.10) mm.
Subspecies intermedia: plants usually smaller with much shorter spikes; leaves mostly with three to five veins, usually subacute at apex, broadly cunate at base and +/- undulate toothed near base; capsules mostly with (9)14-25 (36) seeds; seeds (0.6) 0.8-1.2 (1.5) mm.
The morphology of P. major is fairly variable, even within populations and at a small spatial scale of tens of metres for some sites (Lotz et al., 1990). Populations subject to intensive grazing or cutting are generally lower growing and less erect, and variation in growth form has been shown to contain a genetic component (Warwick and Briggs, 1979, 1980).
P. major forms a basal rosette with a compressed stalk and leafless flower stalk. Root contraction has been observed in this species and is related to resistance to treading. The fruit is a capsule opening with an operculum and the seed is mucilaginous and easily transported by cattle or man (Soekarjo, 1992).
Distribution
Top of pageDistribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 10 Feb 2022Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Angola | Present | Introduced | |||||
Cabo Verde | Present | ||||||
Congo, Democratic Republic of the | Present | Introduced | |||||
Egypt | Present | ||||||
Eswatini | Present | ||||||
Ethiopia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Kenya | Present | Introduced | |||||
Lesotho | Present | ||||||
Mauritius | Present | ||||||
Namibia | Present | ||||||
Réunion | Present | Introduced | 1982 | ||||
São Tomé and Príncipe | Present | Introduced | |||||
South Africa | Present | ||||||
Zimbabwe | Present | Introduced | 1942 | ||||
Asia |
|||||||
Afghanistan | Present | ||||||
China | Present | ||||||
-Hubei | Present | ||||||
-Jiangsu | Present | Original citation: Wang et al. (1990) | |||||
-Liaoning | Present | Original citation: Wang et al. (1990) | |||||
-Shandong | Present | Original citation: Wang et al. (1990) | |||||
-Zhejiang | Present | Original citation: Wang et al. (1990) | |||||
Hong Kong | Present | Introduced | 1851 | ||||
India | Present | ||||||
-Himachal Pradesh | Present | ||||||
-Nagaland | Present | ||||||
-Uttarakhand | Present | ||||||
Indonesia | Present | ||||||
Iran | Present | ||||||
Israel | Present | ||||||
Japan | Present | ||||||
-Shikoku | Present | ||||||
Lebanon | Present | ||||||
Malaysia | Present | ||||||
Myanmar | Present | ||||||
Pakistan | Present | ||||||
Saudi Arabia | Present | ||||||
Singapore | Present | Introduced | 1851 | ||||
South Korea | Present | ||||||
Turkey | Present | ||||||
Vietnam | Present | ||||||
Europe |
|||||||
Belgium | Present | ||||||
Cyprus | Present | ||||||
Czechia | Present | ||||||
Denmark | Present | ||||||
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia | Present | ||||||
Finland | Present | ||||||
France | Present | ||||||
Germany | Present | ||||||
Greece | Present | Original citation: Babalonas et al., 1987 | |||||
Hungary | Present | ||||||
Iceland | Present | ||||||
Ireland | Present | ||||||
Italy | Present | ||||||
Netherlands | Present | ||||||
Norway | Present | ||||||
Poland | Present | ||||||
Portugal | |||||||
-Azores | Present | Introduced | 1838 | ||||
Romania | Present | ||||||
Russia | Present | ||||||
-Western Siberia | Present | ||||||
Slovakia | Present | ||||||
Slovenia | Present | ||||||
Spain | Present | ||||||
Sweden | Present | ||||||
United Kingdom | Present | ||||||
North America |
|||||||
Canada | Present | ||||||
-Ontario | Present | Original citation: Hawthorne, 1978 | |||||
-Prince Edward Island | Present | Original citation: Thomas Ivany (1990) | |||||
-Quebec | Present | ||||||
Costa Rica | Present | ||||||
Cuba | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Dominican Republic | Present | ||||||
Honduras | Present | ||||||
Jamaica | Present | ||||||
Mexico | Present | Original citation: Lopez-Tellez & Reyes, 1999 | |||||
Nicaragua | Present | ||||||
Panama | Present | ||||||
Puerto Rico | Present | ||||||
U.S. Virgin Islands | Present | ||||||
United States | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Alabama | Present | ||||||
-Alaska | Present | ||||||
-Arizona | Present | ||||||
-Arkansas | Present | ||||||
-California | Present | ||||||
-Colorado | Present | ||||||
-Connecticut | Present | ||||||
-Delaware | Present | ||||||
-Florida | Present | ||||||
-Georgia | Present | ||||||
-Hawaii | Present | Introduced | 1850 | ||||
-Idaho | Present | ||||||
-Illinois | Present | ||||||
-Indiana | Present | ||||||
-Iowa | Present | ||||||
-Kansas | Present | ||||||
-Kentucky | Present | ||||||
-Louisiana | Present | ||||||
-Maine | Present | ||||||
-Maryland | Present | ||||||
-Massachusetts | Present | ||||||
-Michigan | Present | ||||||
-Minnesota | Present | ||||||
-Mississippi | Present | ||||||
-Missouri | Present | ||||||
-Montana | Present | ||||||
-Nebraska | Present | ||||||
-Nevada | Present | ||||||
-New Hampshire | Present | ||||||
-New Jersey | Present | ||||||
-New Mexico | Present | ||||||
-New York | Present | ||||||
-North Carolina | Present | ||||||
-North Dakota | Present | ||||||
-Ohio | Present | ||||||
-Oklahoma | Present | ||||||
-Pennsylvania | Present | ||||||
-South Carolina | Present | ||||||
-South Dakota | Present | ||||||
-Tennessee | Present | ||||||
-Texas | Present | ||||||
-Utah | Present | ||||||
-Vermont | Present | ||||||
-Virginia | Present | ||||||
-Washington | Present | ||||||
-West Virginia | Present | ||||||
-Wisconsin | Present | ||||||
-Wyoming | Present | ||||||
Oceania |
|||||||
Australia | Present | Introduced | 1875 | ||||
-Lord Howe Island | Present | Introduced | 1898 | ||||
Fiji | Present | ||||||
New Zealand | Present | ||||||
-Kermadec Islands | Present | Introduced | 1888 | ||||
South America |
|||||||
Argentina | Present | ||||||
Bolivia | Present | ||||||
Brazil | Present | ||||||
-Bahia | Present | ||||||
-Minas Gerais | Present | Original citation: Silva Filho et al., 1994 | |||||
-Parana | Present | ||||||
-Sao Paulo | Present | ||||||
Chile | Present | Introduced | 1849 | ||||
Colombia | Present | ||||||
Ecuador | Present | ||||||
Peru | Present | ||||||
Venezuela | Present |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageHabitat
Top of pageP. major is found in grass seed mixes for a range of purposes (Kolb and Schwarz, 1983) and therefore it is present in a wide range of seeded grassland habitats. It is tolerant of high nutrient conditions and is found in agriculturally improved grasslands (Aart and Vulto, 1992b). This species is also a plant of man-made habitats such as urban areas and disturbed ground (Bastin and Thomas, 1999).
P. major subsp. intermedia tends to be found in damp, usually saline places near the sea and less often inland (Stace, 1997).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | ||||
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
Top of pagePlant name | Family | Context | References |
---|---|---|---|
Allium cepa (onion) | Liliaceae | Unknown | |
Allium sativum (garlic) | Liliaceae | Unknown | |
Medicago sativa (lucerne) | Fabaceae | Unknown | |
Solanum lycopersicum (tomato) | Solanaceae | Unknown | |
Triticum aestivum (wheat) | Poaceae | Unknown | |
Zea mays (maize) | Poaceae | Unknown |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageP. major has a chromosome number of 2n=12 (Stace, 1997). Populations show a high level of genetic structure, with a tendency to form a range of morphological variants specialized to fit particular niches. At least some of this specialization is thought to be due to: 1) the high rate of self-fertilization in the species, which restricts gene flow between variants, and 2) the high chromosome variability of this species. Such specialization and interrupted gene flow contrast with the free gene flow of some other Plantago species which are outbreeding generalists (Sharma et al., 1992; Sharma and Koul, 1995). Alloenzyme variation evidence corroborates this analysis, and shows high variation and low gene flow in P. major (Dijk and Wolff, 1992).
P. major tends to show wide variability across, but uniformity within, populations. Analysis of the inter- and intraspecific variation of chloroplast DNA of four European Plantago species (P. major, P. lanceolata, P. media and P. coronopus) by Hooglander et al. (1993) showed P. major to be most closely related to P. media. A short mutation (70 base pairs) could discriminate between the subspecies major and pleiosperma. Wolff and Morgan-Richards (1998) have also distinguished P. major subspecies using PCR markers.
Physiology and Phenology
P. major seed dormancy is broken by stratification (1-7 days), exogenous gibberellic acid (GA3) and potassium nitrate (Saruhan et al., 2002). Light is normally required for germination (Blom, 1978; Pons and Toorn, 1988; Pons, 1991) and an approximately linear decrease in germination rate with increasing soil depth has been observed (Bliss and Smith, 1985). Imbibition (soaking) and alternating temperature (20°C/30°C) increase germination (Deschenes and Moineau, 1972); ethylene treatment was inhibitory and thereafter germination occurred only in the presence of light (Heydecker et al., 1972). Two- to 5-year-old seed showed a higher germination rate than fresh seed (Blom, 1992). Seeds of this species have been shown to survive passage through the digestive tract of a cow and will germinate if followed by a period of low temperature (5°C) but not when followed by a period of higher temperature (20°C) (Holub and Lhotska, 1991).
Under optimal conditions, P. major shows higher rates of emergence and establishment in uncompacted rather than compacted soils. However the roots of this species have a marked ability to penetrate compacted soils and, under conditions of low moisture, P. major does better in compacted than loose sandy soil (Blom, 1976). Although perennial, P. major may behave as an annual, flowering and setting seeds within 6 weeks of germination. In Britain, flowering normally starts in early June and continues for about 3 months (Sagar and Harper, 1964). A micropropagation protocol for this species has been produced by Mederos et al. (1998) and involves shoot tip culture on modified MS medium.
Reproductive Biology
P. major reproduces mainly by seeds and cannot multiply freely by vegetative means (Holm et al., 1977). The species is wind pollinated, but relies heavily on self-pollination (Sharma et al., 1992; Sharma and Koul, 1995). There may be 3-30 seeds per capsule and a seed production of 14,000 seeds per plant per year has been recorded (Holm et al., 1977). Sharma and Koul (1995) and Sharma et al. (1992) describe the reproductive strategy of this species as making a greater investment in female rather than male reproductive components and relying heavily on self-fertilization. Sagar and Harper (1964) note that seed is set rapidly after fertilization but is frequently not dispersed from the capsules until the following year.
Environmental Requirements
There is some evidence that P. major is more shade tolerant than other members of the genus (Toorn and Pons, 1988). There is also evidence that this species has a higher soil moisture requirement than some other Plantago species (Blom, 1976). Stoutjesdijk (1992) indicates that P. major tolerates a narrower range of temperature, solar radiation and humidity than other Plantago species such as P. lanceolata. Sagar and Harper (1964) note that P. major occurs on a wide range of soil types in Britain, being absent only from extremely acid peats and mountain grasslands.
P. major is particularly resistant to trampling and compaction (Engelaar et al., 1993; Engelaar, 1995; Gorchakovskii and Abramchuk, 1996). Zelikov and Psonnova (1961) and Kolb and Schwarz (1983) found it inhabited soil with a mean density of 1.42 g/cm3, and its abundance has been positively correlated with soil compaction (Crawford and Liddle, 1977; Aspinall and Pye, 1987). Thomet (1978) and Holeksa and Holeksa (1987) found P. major to be an indicator of excessive treading in permanent pastures. A number of studies show this species to be capable of withstanding considerable foot traffic and it is often an important component of well worn turf (Montacchini and Siniscalco, 1982).
Associations
Sagar and Harper (1964) provide detailed lists of plants associated with P. major in the British Isles.
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Mean annual rainfall | 0 | 0 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
- impeded
- seasonally waterlogged
- seasonally waterlogged
Soil texture
- heavy
- light
- medium
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageMeans of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageThe small seeds are dispersed by the wind.
Vector Transmission (Biotic)
The seeds are mucilaginous and are dispersed by humans and animals (Soekarjo, 1992).
Accidental Introduction
Because of the small size of its seeds, P. major may be introduced as a contaminant of agricultural produce.
Plant Trade
Top of pagePlant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transport | Pest stages | Borne internally | Borne externally | Visibility of pest or symptoms |
---|---|---|---|---|
Flowers/Inflorescences/Cones/Calyx | weeds/seeds | |||
Fruits (inc. pods) | weeds/seeds | Yes | Pest or symptoms usually visible to the naked eye | |
Growing medium accompanying plants | weeds/roots; weeds/seeds | |||
Roots | weeds/roots | |||
Seedlings/Micropropagated plants | weeds/whole plants | |||
True seeds (inc. grain) | weeds/seeds |
Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport |
---|
Bark |
Bulbs/Tubers/Corms/Rhizomes |
Leaves |
Stems (above ground)/Shoots/Trunks/Branches |
Wood |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Animal/plant collections | None |
Animal/plant products | None |
Biodiversity (generally) | None |
Crop production | Negative |
Environment (generally) | None |
Fisheries / aquaculture | None |
Forestry production | None |
Human health | Positive |
Livestock production | Positive |
Native fauna | None |
Native flora | None |
Rare/protected species | None |
Tourism | None |
Trade/international relations | None |
Transport/travel | None |
Impact
Top of pageIn the UK it affects the majority of local authority owned sports turf (Raikes et al., 1994). In Prince Edward Island, Canada, it is present in 80% of cereal fields with a mean density of over 14 plants per m² (Thomas and Ivany, 1990).
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Invasive in its native range
- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Highly mobile locally
- Has high reproductive potential
- Negatively impacts agriculture
- Negatively impacts tourism
- Reduced amenity values
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
- Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
- Difficult/costly to control
Uses
Top of pageP. major is also used as fodder (Fogelfors, 1984). It is higher in trace elements than pasture grasses and therefore can be considered a useful pasture component (Trzaskos, 1996). It is palatable to sheep (Barcsak and Kispal, 1984).
P. major is cultivated as an ornamental in South Africa (Wells et al., 1986).
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pagePrevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Cultural ControlFlooding and trampling regimes aimed at weed control have not been successful against P. major (Engelaar and Blom, 1995). Similarly, a four-course crop rotation (oats, clover, winter wheat, faba beans), using minimal weed control for 4 years, resulted in large increases in weed biomass and surface and subsurface seed bank of P. major (Hill et al., 1989).
Mechanical Control
Mechanized spraying of hot water (85-95°C) in an orchard required two to three repeat sprays for good control of this and other species (Kurfess and Kleisinger, 2000).
Whilst microwave radiation has been tested as a weed control measure, it required more than 32 h of treatment (at 2.45 Ghz, 6 kW) for complete control of P. major in pot experiments. Higher frequencies (13.5 MHz, 50 kW) were effective against some erect weeds but not P. major (Kunisch et al., 1992).
Chemical Control
Treatment with chlorthal-dimethyl + naptalam resulted in successful control in Cucumis crops (Himme et al., 1984). In winter and spring cereals, glyphosate efficiently controlled weeds, including P. major, by pre-harvest application and on stubble after harvesting (Ciuberkis and Petraitis, 1998).
Amitrole or paraquat with diuron failed to control this species in orchards (Himme and Stryckers, 1975a, b), and it is resistant to lenacil (Stryckers and Himme, 1974) and methazole (Tasmanian Department of Agriculture, 1975). In a long-term repeated spraying regime using diuron, P. major was the first weed species to gain resistance (Bulcke et al., 1989).
P. major is controlled less easily with chemicals than are other turf weeds (Schery, 1974). In Festuca rubra / Poa pratensis turf, MCPA or 2,4-D applied in July-August (in northwest USA) provided excellent control of this species (Ebdon and Jagschitz, 1981). In Festuca arundinacea / Poa pratensis turf, the best control of P. major was obtained with 2,4-D (Wehner et al., 1981). In turf close to ornamental shrubs, dicamba + 2,4-D was effective (Hendricks et al., 1983). Neal and Mascianica (1988) found that quinclorac and triclopyr provided adequate control of this species in turf. However, Neal (1990) found 2,4-D and clopyralid + triclopyr were effective treatments but not quinclorac, chlorflurenol or dicamba. MCPA ± mecoprop + dicamba or clopyralid ± triclopyr or chlorflurenol ± clopyralid gave excellent control of Plantago spp. in turf, including P. major (Sawyer and Jagschitz, 1988).
Heavy applications of glyphosate to pasture increased the abundance of P. major (Grabowski, 1990). Vidme (1973) recommends that weed control by herbicide (such as 2,4 D salts or esters) in grassland is combined with heavy nitrogen applications for maximum effect.
Biological Control
P. major has been identified as a priority weed for bioherbicide research of lawn weeds (Gadoury and Watson, 1987).
Integrated Control
This weed was best controlled in rainfed rice (Nagaland, India) by a combination of chemical (2,4-D, butachlor and fluchloralin at 1 day after transplanting (DAT); thiobencarb at 1 and 7 DAT) and hand-weeding (at 25 and 45 DAT; Sharma et al., 1994).
References
Top of pageAart van der PJM; Vulto JC, 1992. Biogeography and human effects. In: Kuiper PJC, Bos M, eds. Plantago: a Multidisciplinary Study. Ecological Studies, Vol. 89. Berlin, Germany: Springer Verlag, 5-6.
Aart van der PJM; Vulto JC, 1992. General ecology. In: Kuiper PJC, Bos M, eds. Plantago: a Multidisciplinary Study. Ecological Studies, Vol. 89. Berlin, Germany: Springer Verlag, 6.
Aspinall RJ; Pye AM, 1997. The effect of trampling on limestone grassland in the Malham area of North Yorkshire. Journal of Biogeography, 14(2):105-115.
Aye T; Mu MSM; Tin M; Win M, 1996. Anti-oedema activity of Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L., Curcuma longa L. and Plantago major L. Myanmar Health Sciences Research Journal, 8(1):36-40.
Aye T; Mu MSM; Win M; Tin M; Su SH, 1996. The anti-ulcerogenic activity of Plantago major Linn. Myanmar Health Sciences Research Journal, 8(2):74-77.
Barcsak Z; Kispal T, 1990. Palatability examination of grasses. In: Gaborcik N, Krajcovic V, Zimkova M, eds. Soil Grassland Animal Relationships. Proceedings of 13th General Meeting of the European Grassland Federation, Banska Bystrica, Czechoslovakia, June 25-29, 1990, Volume 2. Banska Bystrica, Czechoslovakia: Grassland Research Institute, 281-284.
Basaran AA; Ceritoglu I; Undeger U; Basara N, 1997. Immunomodulatory activities of some Turkish medicinal plants. Phytotherapy Research, 11(8):609-611.
Batic F; Ribaric LC; Gorjup NV; Kopusar N; Bienelli A, 1997. Monitoring the effects of ozone on agricultural plants within the ICP-Crops in Slovenia. Proceedings of the 14th International Congress of Biometeorology. Part 2, Volume 2. Ljubljana, Slovenia, 1-8 September 1996. Research Reports Biotechnical Faculty University of Ljubljana, Agricultural Issue, 1997.
Bliss D; Smith H, 1985. Penetration of light into soil and its role in the control of seed germination. Plant, Cell and Environment, 8(7):475-483.
Brown DJ; Dattner AM, 1998. Phytotherapeutic approaches to common dermatologic conditions. Archives of Dermatology, 134(11):1401-1404.
Chiang LC; Chiang W; Chang MY; Ng LT; Lin CC, 2002. Antiviral activity of Plantago major extracts and related compounds in vitro. Antiviral Research, 55(1):53-62.
Clapham AR; Tutin TG; Moore DM, 1989. Flora of the British Isles. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Coste I, 1970. Contribution to the study of a Molinio-Arrhenatheretea Tx. (1937) 1970 in the Locva Mountains (southwestern Romania). Revue Roumaine de Biologie, Biologie Vegetale, 24(1):17-26.
Crawford AK; Liddle MJ, 1977. The effect of trampling on neutral grassland. Biological Conservation, 12(2):135-142.
Cristea V; Groza G, 1983. Contributions to studies of the vegetation of the hills of 'Batrinu' - Vadu Crisului municipalitu (Bihor district). Contributii Botanice Universitatea 'Babes-Bolyai' din Cluj Napoca, 137-143.
Fogelfors H, 1984. Useful weeds? Part 14. Lantmannen, 105(16):43
Forcella F, 1992. Invasive weeds in the northern Rocky Mountains. Western Wildlands, 18(2):2-5
Franca F; Lago EL; Marsden PD, 1996. Plants used in the treatment of leishmanial ulcers due to Leishmania (Vannia) braziliensis in an endemic area of Bahia, Brazil. Revista da Sociedade Brasileira de Medicina Tropical, 29(3):229-232.
Gadoury H; Watson AK, 1987. Biological control of lawn weeds. Cahier des Journees Horticoles Ornementales, III:9-15.
Godwin H, 1944. Neolithic forest clearance. Nature, London, 153(1944):511-512.
Hawthorn WR, 1974. The biology of Canadian weeds. 4. Plantago major and P. rugelii. Canadian Journal of Plant Science, 54(2):383-396.
Heinrich M, 1998. Plants as antidiarrhoeals in medicine and diet. Prendergast HDV, Etkin NL, Harris DR, Houghton PJ, eds. Plants for Food and Medicine. Proceedings of the Joint Conference of the Society for Economic Botany and the International Society for Ethnopharmacology, London, UK, 1-6 July 1996. London, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, 17-30.
Heydecker W; Olatoye ST; Hall MA, 1973. Interaction of ethylene and light on dormant weed seeds. In: W Heydecker, ed. Seed Ecology. Proceedings of the Nineteenth Easter School in Agricultural Science, University of Nottingham, 1972. London; UK: Butterworths, 233-249.
Holeksa J; Holeksa K, 1987. Plant communities of trampled sites in the Babia Gora National Park (Western Carpathians). Fragmenta Floristica et Geobotanica, 31-32(1-2):247-259.
Holm L; Pancho J; Herberger J; Plucknett D, 1979. A Geographical Atlas of World Weeds. New York, USA: John Wiley & Sons.
Holub M; Lhotska M, 1991. Influence of bovine digestive tract on germination of diaspores of selected plant species - II. Biologia Bratislava, 46(1):81-87.
Kliment J, 1991. Capsello bursae-pastoris-Poetum annuae Klika 1934 in the Vel'ka Fatra mountains. Biologia Bratislava, 46(1):63-72.
Kobayashi T; Hori Y, 1999. Photosynthesis and seedling survival of weeds with different trampling susceptibilities under contrasting light and water conditions. Journal of Weed Science and Technology, 44(3):195-204.
Kolb W; Schwarz T, 1983. Plant selections for covering parking lots. Rasen Grunflachen Begrunungen, 14(1):1-4.
Lopez Tellez A; Reyes SA, 1999. Flora de Veracruz: Plantaginaceae, No. 108:1-20. Xalapa, Mexico: Instituto de Ecologia.
Mederos S; Martin C; Navarro E; Ayuso MJ, 1998. Micropropagation of a medicinal plant, Plantago major L. Biologia Plantarum, 40(3):465-468.
Missouri Botanical Garden, 2003. VAScular Tropicos database. St. Louis, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://mobot.mobot.org/W3T/Search/vast.html.
Mitch LW, 1987. White man's foot: broadleaf plantain. Weed Technology, 1(3):250-251
Montacchini F; Siniscalco C, 1982. The effects of foot traffic on vegetation and soils of city park turfs. Annali della Facolta di Scienze Agrarie della Universita degli Studi di Torino, 12:365-385.
Nunez Guillen ME; Silva Emim JA da; Souccar C; Lapa AJ, 1997. Analgesic and antiinflammatory activities of the aqueous extract of Plantago major L. International Journalof Pharmacognosy, 35(2):99-104.
Oviedo Prieto R; Herrera Oliver P; Caluff MG, et al. , 2012. National list of invasive and potentially invasive plants in the Republic of Cuba - 2011. (Lista nacional de especies de plantas invasoras y potencialmente invasoras en la República de Cuba - 2011). Bissea: Boletín sobre Conservación de Plantas del Jardín Botánico Nacional de Cuba, 6(Special Issue 1):22-96.
Paton D; Nunez J; Munoz A; Tovar J, 1997. Analysis of overgrazing in Mediterranean grasslands grazed by Retinto cattle using bioindicator plants. Archivos de Zootecnia, 46(176):357-365.
Penkova I, 1986. Contribution to the taxonomy of Plantago major L. s.l. Preslia, 58(2):117-139
Pons TL, 1991. Induction of dark dormancy in seeds: its importance for the seed bank in the soil. Functional Ecology, 5(5):669-675.
Potvin C; Vasseur L, 1997. Long-term CO2 enrichment of a pasture community: species richness, dominance, and succession. Ecology, 78(3):666-677.
Ramos MBM; Vieira MC; Heredia NAZ; Grangeiro RS, 2002. Growth and biomass production of Plantago major and Plantago tomentosa considering spaces and arrangement of plants. In: Ming LC, Craker LE, Scheffer MC, Chaves FCM, eds. Proceedings of the First Latin American Symposium on the Production of Medicinal, Aromatic and Condiment Plants, Sao Pedro, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 30 July-4 August 2000. Acta Horticulturae, No. 569:293-301.
Sagar GR; Harper JL, 1964. Biological Flora of the British Isles. Plantago major L., P. media L. and P. lanceolata L. Journal of Ecology, 52: 189-221.
Schery RW, 1974. Out-of-season weed control. Weeds, Trees and Turf, 13(9):15.
Stace CA, 1997. New Flora of the British Isles. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Stryckers J; Himme M van, 1974. Influence of herbicides on various strawberry varieties planted in a temporary bed in summer. Review of the results obtained for the cropping year 1972-73 by the Centrum voor Onkruidonderzoek. Gent, Belgium: Rijksuniversiteit, 143-144.
Tasmanian Department of Agriculture, 1975. Annual report 1974/75, No. 46. Australia: Tasmanian Department of Agriculture, 34-35.
Thomas AG; Ivany JA, 1990. The weed flora of Prince Edward island cereal fields. Weed Science, 38(2):119-124.
Thomet P, 1978. The influence of pasture management on the botanical composition of permanent pasture. Schweizerische Landwirtschaftliche Monatshefte, 56(5-6):125-140.
USDA-ARS, 2003. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx
USDA-NRCS, 2003. The PLANTS Database, Version 3.5. National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, USA. http://plants.usda.gov.
Verdcourt B, 1971. Plantaginaceae. In: Milne-Redhead E, Polhill RM, eds. Flora of Tropical East Africa. London, UK: Crown Agents.
Vidme T, 1973. Chemical weed control in grassland. Forskning og Forsoek i Landbruket, 24(3):127-157.
Wang Z; Xin M; Ma D, eds. , 1990. Farmland Weeds of China. Beijing, China: Agricultural Publishing House.
Wells MJ; Balsinhas AA; Joffe H; VM Engelbrecht; G Harding; CH Stirton, 1986. A Catalogue of Problem Plants in Southern Africa. Memoirs of the Botanical Survey of South Africa No. 53. South Africa: Botanical Research Institute, Department of Agriculture and Water Supply.
Wolff K; Morgan-Richards M, 1998. PCR markers distinguish Plantago major subspecies. Theoretical and Applied Genetics, 96(2):282-296.
Wolff K; Schaal B, 1992. Chloroplast DNA variation within and among five Plantago species. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 5(2): 325-344.
Yao RY; Chen M; Wang ZD; Hou JQ; Liu HQ; Zhang LH; Luo YY; Ma CH, 1992. The abundance measurement of delta 15N and the potential of N-fixation of forage in Balihuang pasture, Hubei Province. Grassland of China, No. 2:20-24.
Yuldashev AS; Ikramov MI, 1987. Medicinal plant resources in the Samarkand region. Rastitel'nye Resursy, 23(4):536-539.
Zelikov VD; Psonnova VG, 1961. Effect of soil compaction on green-belt and park stands. Lesn. Hoz., 14(12):34-36.
Distribution References
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Coste I, 1970. Contribution to the study of a Molinio-Arrhenatheretea Tx. (1937) 1970 in the Locva Mountains (southwestern Romania). In: Revue Roumaine de Biologie, Biologie Vegetale, 24 (1) 17-26.
Fogelfors H, 1984. Useful weeds? Part 14. (Nyttiga ogräs? Del 14.). Lantmannen. 105 (16), 43.
Glen H F, 1998. FSA contributions 12: Plantaginaceae. Bothalia. 28 (2), 151-157.
Holeksa J, Holeksa K, 1987. Plant communities of trampled sites in the Babia Gora National Park (Western Carpathians). In: Fragmenta Floristica et Geobotanica, 31-32 (1-2) 247-259.
Missouri Botanical Garden, 2003. Vascular Tropicos database., St. Louis, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://mobot.mobot.org/W3T/Search/vast.html
USDA-NRCS, 2003. The PLANTS Database. Greensboro, North Carolina, USA: National Plant Data Team. https://plants.sc.egov.usda.gov
Verdcourt B, 1971. Plantaginaceae. In: Flora of Tropical East Africa, [ed. by Milne-Redhead E, Polhill RM]. London, UK: Crown Agents.
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Distribution Maps
Top of pageSelect a dataset
Map Legends
-
CABI Summary Records
Map Filters
Unsupported Web Browser:
One or more of the features that are needed to show you the maps functionality are not available in the web browser that you are using.
Please consider upgrading your browser to the latest version or installing a new browser.
More information about modern web browsers can be found at http://browsehappy.com/