Plantago lanceolata (ribwort plantain)

Pictures

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Picture

Title

Caption

Copyright

Flowering habit

Plantago lanceolata (ribwort plantain); Flowering habit. New South Wales, Australia. December 2016.

©Harry Rose/via Flickr - CC BY 2.0

Flowering habit

Plantago lanceolata (ribwort plantain); Flowering habit. Hangar Sand Island, Midway Atoll, Hawaii. June 2008.

©Forest and Kim Starr/via Starr Environmental - CC BY 4.0

Foliage

Plantago lanceolata (ribwort plantain); Foliage. Makawao, Maui, Hawaii. March 2008.

©Forest and Kim Starr/via Starr Environmental - CC BY 4.0

Habit

Plantago lanceolata (ribwort plantain); Habit. Kahikinui, Maui, Hawaii. March 2018.

©Forest and Kim Starr/via Starr Environmental - CC BY 4.0

Habit

Plantago lanceolata (ribwort plantain); Habit. Dungog, New South Wales, Australia. September 2018.

©Harry Rose/via Flickr - CC BY 2.0

Habit

Plantago lanceolata (ribwort plantain); Habit. New South Wales, Australia. May 2014.

©Harry Rose/via Flickr - CC BY 2.0

Flower heads

Plantago lanceolata (ribwort plantain); Flower heads different stages. Makawao, Maui, Hawaii. March 2008.

©Forest and Kim Starr/via Starr Environmental - CC BY 4.0

Flower head

Plantago lanceolata (ribwort plantain); Flower head. Dungog, New South Wales, Australia. October 2018.

©Harry Rose/via Flickr - CC BY 2.0

Flower head

Plantago lanceolata (ribwort plantain); Flower head. New South Wales, Australia. December 2016.

©Harry Rose/via Flickr - CC BY 2.0

Seed head

Plantago lanceolata (ribwort plantain); Seed head. New South Wales, Australia. May 2014.

©Harry Rose/via Flickr - CC BY 2.0

Flower head

Plantago lanceolata (ribwort plantain); Flower head. Dreieich-Offenthal, Germany. October 2004.

©Robert Flogaus-Faust/via Wikimedia Commons - CC BY 4.0

Flower head

Plantago lanceolata (ribwort plantain); Flower head. Makawao, Maui, Hawaii. March 2008.

©Forest and Kim Starr/via Starr Environmental - CC BY 4.0

Flower head

Plantago lanceolata (ribwort plantain); Flower head. Science City, Maui, Hawaii. May 2009.

©Forest and Kim Starr/via Starr Environmental - CC BY 4.0

Foliage

Plantago lanceolata (ribwort plantain); Foliage. San Jose, California, USA. March 2007.

©Eugene Zelenko/via Wikimedia Commons - CC BY-SA 4.0

Flowering habit

Plantago lanceolata (ribwort plantain); Flowering habit. Donau Park (Donaupark), Vienna, Austria. June 2017.

©Stefan Lefnaer (Stefan.lefnaer)/via Wikimedia Commons - CC BY-SA 4.0

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Plantago lanceolata L.

Preferred Common Name

ribwort plantain

International Common Names

English: buckhorn plantain; English plantain; lance-leaf plantain; lanceolate plantain; narrowleaf plantain; narrow-leaved plantain; ribgrass; ribwort
Spanish: llantén menor
French: petit plantain
Portuguese: tanchagem menor

Local Common Names

Cuba: llantén
Germany: Spitzwegerich
Italy: cinquenervi; lanciuola cinquenervi; mestolaccio; piantaggine commune
Japan: heraoobako
Netherlands: weegbree, smalle
South Africa: bolilanyana; German psyllium; klein tongblaar; lamb's tongue; narrow leaved ribwort; oorpynhoutjie; oorpynwortels; ripplegrass; smalblaarplantago; small plantain; smalweeblaar; smalweebree; smalweegbree; weeblaar; wild sago
Sweden: kaempar, svart-; spetsgroblad

EPPO code

PLALA (Plantago lanceolata)

Summary of Invasiveness

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There are little data to suggest that this species is a priority invasive species in its native range: it is principally a weed of arable field margins rather than the fields themselves. However it has dispersed widely throughout the temperate, and some of the tropical world, and is common in arable land and pastures. It has proved a problem in specific instances in the tropics and its lack of invasiveness in other areas may reflect global prophylactic use of broadleaf herbicides rather than an inherent lack of invasiveness in the species. It is a perennial and is, therefore, susceptible to cultivation. Traditional chemical control has proved effective.

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Spermatophyta
Subphylum: Angiospermae
Class: Dicotyledonae
Order: Plantaginales
Family: Plantaginaceae
Genus: Plantago
Species: Plantago lanceolata

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

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Sagar and Harper (1964) note that a number of varieties have been recognised on the basis of hairiness, etc., but that the differences are often obscured as a result of phenotypic variation, and have not been adequately researched.

Description

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P. lanceolata is a small, glabrous to pubescent perennial with one to several rosettes; leaves linear- to narrowly ovate-elliptic, 2-30 x 0.5-3.5 cm, very gradually narrowed to the petiole, entire to sparsely and weakly toothed; bracts 2.5-3.5 mm, the anterior connate for most of their length but their midribs separate, often shortly hairy. Scapes to 50 cm deeply furrowed. Inflorescence a spike, up to 4(-8) cm long. Flowers bisexual, inconspicuous, corolla 4-lobed, tubular, almost as long as surrounding calyx. Corolla tube 2-3 mm, glabrous, the lobes 1.5-2.5 mm lanceolate to ovate, acute or acuminate, glabrous. Stamens 4, exserted, conspicuous, 3-5 mm long, the anthers yellowish. The fruit, 3-4 mm long, is a capsule opening with an operculum, containing 1-2 smooth, boat-shaped, mucilaginous. This species has a well-developed taproot (Lamp and Collet, 1979; Stace, 1997).

Plant Type

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Herbaceous
Perennial
Seed propagated

Distribution

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This remarkably widespread species is apparently native to Europe, North Africa and West and South Asia (USDA-ARS, 2003) but has been introduced extremely widely elsewhere and now occurs e.g. in every continental state of USA as well as in Hawaii, in Australia and New Zealand, 'throughout Japan' (Morita, 2002) and in many countries of Africa, where it thrives at high altitude.

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 17 Feb 2021

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	Invasive	Reference	Notes
Africa
Algeria	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Botswana	Present	Introduced		Wells et al. (1986)
Egypt	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Ethiopia	Present			Holm et al. (1979)
Gabon	Present	Introduced		Verdcourt (1971)
Kenya	Present	Introduced		Verdcourt (1971)
Lesotho	Present	Introduced		Wells et al. (1986)
Libya	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Malawi	Present	Introduced		Verdcourt (1971)
Mauritius	Present	Introduced		McIntyre and Barbe (1994)
Morocco	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Namibia	Present	Introduced		Wells et al. (1986)
South Africa	Present	Introduced		Holm et al. (1979) Wells et al. (1986) Glen (1998)
Sudan	Present	Introduced		Verdcourt (1971)
Tanzania	Present	Introduced		Verdcourt (1971)
Tunisia	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Zimbabwe	Present	Native		Holm et al. (1979)
Asia
Afghanistan	Present	Native		Holm et al. (1979)
Armenia	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Azerbaijan	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Bhutan	Present, Localized	Introduced		CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Grierson et al., 2001
China	Present, Widespread	Introduced	Invasive	Holm et al. (1979)
-Fujian	Present	Introduced	Invasive	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Wang et al. (1990)
-Guangdong	Present	Introduced	Invasive	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Wang et al. (1990)
-Guangxi	Present	Introduced	Invasive	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Wang et al. (1990)
-Guizhou	Present	Introduced	Invasive	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Wang et al. (1990)
-Hubei	Present	Introduced	Invasive	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Wang et al. (1990)
-Hunan	Present	Introduced	Invasive	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Wang et al. (1990)
-Jiangsu	Present	Introduced	Invasive	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Wang et al. (1990)
-Shaanxi	Present	Introduced	Invasive	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Wang et al. (1990)
-Sichuan	Present	Introduced	Invasive	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Wang et al. (1990)
-Xinjiang	Present	Introduced	Invasive	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Wang et al. (1990)
-Yunnan	Present	Introduced	Invasive	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Wang et al. (1990)
-Zhejiang	Present	Introduced	Invasive	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Wang et al. (1990)
Georgia	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
India	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Iran	Present	Native		CABI (Undated) Mohammadi et al. (2006) Ghafarbi and Hassannejad (2013) Hassannejad and Ghafarbi (2013) Abad et al. (2015) Minaei et al. (2016) Behrooz et al. (2017)	Original citation: Mirkamaly Maddah (1973)
Iraq	Present	Native		Holm et al. (1979) Ali et al. (2012)
Israel	Present	Native		Holm et al. (1979)
Japan	Present, Widespread			Holm et al. (1979) Morita (2002)
Jordan	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Kazakhstan	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Kyrgyzstan	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Lebanon	Present	Native		Holm et al. (1979)
Nepal	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Pakistan	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003) Ihsan Ullah et al. (2011) Khan et al. (2011) Khan et al. (2012) Shah et al. (2014) Fazal Hadi and Muhammad Ibrar (2015)
Philippines	Present	Native		Oviedo Prieto et al. (2012)
Saudi Arabia	Present	Native		Holm et al. (1979)
South Korea	Present			Holm et al. (1979)
Syria	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Taiwan	Present	Introduced		Holm et al. (1979) Chen ShihHuei et al. (1996)
Tajikistan	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Turkey	Present	Native		Holm et al. (1979) Çobanoglu (2000)
Turkmenistan	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Uzbekistan	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Yemen	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Europe
Albania	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Austria	Present	Native		Holm et al. (1979)
Belarus	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Belgium	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Bulgaria	Present	Native		CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Milusheva & Rankova, 2002
Cyprus	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Czechoslovakia	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia	Present	Native		Holm et al. (1979)
Denmark	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Estonia	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Finland	Present	Native		Holm et al. (1979)
France	Present	Native		Holm et al. (1979)
Germany	Present	Native		Holm et al. (1979)
Greece	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003) Chatzivassiliou et al. (2001)
Hungary	Present	Native		Holm et al. (1979)
Iceland	Present			Holm et al. (1979)
Ireland	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Italy	Present	Native		Holm et al. (1979)
Latvia	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Lithuania	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Malta	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Moldova	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Netherlands	Present	Native		Holm et al. (1979)
Norway	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Poland	Present	Native		Kozlowski et al. (1997) Grzegorczyk and Alberski (1999) Dąbkowska and Sygulska (2013)
Portugal	Present	Native		Holm et al. (1979) CABI (Undated)
-Azores	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Romania	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Russia	Present	Native		Holm et al. (1979)
-Russia (Europe)	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
-Western Siberia	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Spain	Present	Native		Holm et al. (1979) Iraola Calvo et al. (1999)
-Canary Islands	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Sweden	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Switzerland	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Ukraine	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
United Kingdom	Present	Native		Holm et al. (1979) Roberts and Boddrell (1984) CABI (Undated)
North America
Canada	Present	Introduced		Holm et al. (1979) Stobbs et al. (2005) Stobbs et al. (2009) CABI (Undated)
Cuba	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Oviedo Prieto et al. (2012)
Mexico	Present	Introduced		CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Lopez and Tellez Reyes (1999)
Puerto Rico	Present			Holm et al. (1979)
United States	Present, Widespread	Introduced	Invasive	Holm et al. (1979) Groves et al. (2002) USDA-NRCS (2003) Scheffer and Lonsdale (2018)
-Alabama	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Alaska	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Arkansas	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-California	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Colorado	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Connecticut	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Delaware	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Florida	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Georgia	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Hawaii	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Idaho	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Illinois	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Indiana	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Iowa	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Kansas	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Kentucky	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Louisiana	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Maine	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Maryland	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Massachusetts	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Michigan	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Minnesota	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Mississippi	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Missouri	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Montana	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Nebraska	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Nevada	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-New Hampshire	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-New Jersey	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-New Mexico	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-New York	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003) Scheffer and Lonsdale (2018)
-North Carolina	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003) Groves et al. (2002)
-North Dakota	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Ohio	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Oklahoma	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Oregon	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Pennsylvania	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Rhode Island	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-South Carolina	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-South Dakota	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Tennessee	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Texas	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Utah	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Vermont	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Washington	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-West Virginia	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Wisconsin	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Wyoming	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
Oceania
Australia	Present	Introduced		Holm et al. (1979)
-New South Wales	Present	Introduced		James (1988)
-Victoria	Present	Introduced		Lane (1976)
New Zealand	Present	Introduced		Holm et al. (1979) Ferguson and Fraser (1993) Suckling et al. (1998) Knight et al. (2002)
South America
Argentina	Present	Introduced		Holm et al. (1979) Conticello and Gandullo (1991)
Chile	Present	Introduced		Holm et al. (1979) Ramírez G. et al. (1989)
Ecuador	Present			Holm et al. (1979)
Uruguay	Present	Introduced		Holm et al. (1979)

Risk of Introduction

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Although not a federally listed noxious weed in USA, P. lanceolata is listed and regulated by many individual states (USDA-ARS, 2003).

Habitat

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P. lanceolata is a plant of grasslands and wastelands with neutral or basic soils (Clapham et al., 1989). It is found in a wider range of grassland microclimates and soil types than some close relatives (such as P. major and P. media), but is not found in the hottest and driest grasslands (Stoutjesdijk, 1992). In general, it is restricted to comparatively open vegetation where there is plenty of light at ground level (Aart et al., 1992).

Habitat List

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Category	Sub-Category	Habitat	Presence	Status
Terrestrial	Managed	Cultivated / agricultural land	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Managed forests, plantations and orchards	Present, no further details
Terrestrial	Managed	Managed grasslands (grazing systems)	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Disturbed areas	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Rail / roadsides	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Urban / peri-urban areas	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Natural grasslands	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)

Hosts/Species Affected

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This species is quick to colonize, establish and spread in disturbed agricultural areas. Its small size and low vigour, however, mean that it is seldom reported as a principal weed for a particular crop (Holm et al., 1977). It has been reported as a weed of lucerne in Iran (Mirkamaly and Maddah, 1973) and of citrus and mango in Mauritius (McIntyre and Barbe, 1994).

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

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Plant name	Family	Context
Citrus	Rutaceae	Main
Mangifera indica (mango)	Anacardiaceae	Main
Medicago sativa (lucerne)	Fabaceae	Main
Solanum lycopersicum (tomato)	Solanaceae	Other

Biology and Ecology

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Genetics

P. lancelolata has a chromosome number of 2n=12 (Stace, 1997). The high level of genetic mixing, low polymorphism and lack of population genetic structure in this species are thought to result from its exclusive out-crossing strategy (Sharma and Koul, 1995).

Physiology and Phenology

Evidence suggests that there is little dormancy in this species, and virtually all seeds germinate within the first year (Roberts and Boddrell, 1984; Pons, 1992). However, germination rate seems to increase with storage over 6 months (Sousa et al., 1998). Unlike some close relatives, such as P. major, seed of this species does not require light for germination (Pons and Toorn, 1988; Blom, 1992) although the effect of light intensity on germination rate seems unclear (Roberts and Boddrell, 1984; Sousa et al., 1998). Optimum germination has been obtained at 21% soil moisture (Blom, 1992).

Reproductive Biology

Reproduction is via seed in this species. P. lanceolata is an obligate out-breeder and its flowers are self-incompatible (Sagar and Harper, 1964; Sharma et al., 1992; Sharma and Koul, 1995). The species is considered mainly anemophilous (wind-pollinated) (Sagar and Harper, 1964), but there is evidence to suggest biotic pollination by syrphid flies (Stelleman, 1982) and bees (Apis dorsata and Apis florea) (Sharma et al., 1993). Gynodioecy is observed in P. lanceolata, i.e. populations contain both hermaphrodites and sterile males (Poot et al., 1997).

Environmental Requirements

P. lanceolata is so widely distributed that it is probably not restricted by climate (Holm et al., 1977). Suitable climates include those with winter rainfall (temperate), all-year rainfall (temperate), summer rainfall (temperate), summer rainfall (sub-tropical) (Wells et al., 1986). The deep taproot enables this species to withstand periods of drought. It is seldom reported to be an important weed in the tropics because more vigorous plants keep its growth in check. In open areas, plants will overwinter below ground and, if frosted, they can re-grow from underground storage organs. The chemical and physical characteristics of the soils in which Plantago species grow have been described by Troelstra (1992). Sagar and Harper (1964) note that P. lanceolata is found on a wide variety of soil types in the British Isles and occurs on sand-dunes, and spray-washed cliffs, but is absent from acidic uplands. It is mainly a species of basic and neutral grasslands.

Association

Sagar and Harper (1964) provide detailed lists of plants associated with P. lanceolata in the British Isles.

Natural enemies

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Natural enemy	Type	Life stages
Chrysolina staphylaea	Herbivore	Leaves
Gibberella sacchari	Pathogen
Gymnetron pascuorum	Herbivore	Seeds
Junonia coenia	Herbivore	Leaves
Phomopsis subordinaria	Pathogen
Trichosirocalus troglodytes	Herbivore	Growing point

Notes on Natural Enemies

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Sagar and Harper (1964) provide a long list of natural enemies including invertebrates, fungi and viruses but imply that these have much less influence than livestock management.

Means of Movement and Dispersal

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Natural Dispersal (Non-Biotic)

P. lanceolata produces a large number of small seeds which can be dispersed by the wind.

Vector Transmission (Biotic)

Seeds are mucilaginous and easily transported on animal fur or by man (Soekarjo, 1992). Sagar and Harper (1964) note that seeds retain over 50% viability after passing through cattle.

Accidental introduction

Because of the small size of its seeds, P. lanceolata may be introduced as a contaminant of agricultural produce.

Plant Trade

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Plant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transport	Pest stages	Borne internally	Borne externally	Visibility of pest or symptoms
Bulbs/Tubers/Corms/Rhizomes	roots
Flowers/Inflorescences/Cones/Calyx	seeds
Fruits (inc. pods)	seeds
Growing medium accompanying plants	seeds
Roots	roots
Seedlings/Micropropagated plants	whole plants
Stems (above ground)/Shoots/Trunks/Branches	seeds
True seeds (inc. grain)	seeds

Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport
Bark
Leaves
Wood

Impact Summary

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Category	Impact
Animal/plant collections	None
Animal/plant products	None
Biodiversity (generally)	None
Crop production	Negative
Environment (generally)	None
Fisheries / aquaculture	None
Forestry production	None
Human health	Negative
Livestock production	None
Native fauna	None
Native flora	None
Rare/protected species	None
Tourism	None
Trade/international relations	None
Transport/travel	None

Impact

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P. lanceolata has been described as an agricultural, pastoral and environmental weed competing with other plants for light, water and nutrients and replacing preferred vegetation. P. lanceolata and P. major have together been reported as weeds in over 50 countries affecting a wide range of crops (Holm et al., 1977). Holm et al. (1979) record P. lanceolata as a serious weed in Italy, and a principal weed in Canada, Ecuador, Iran, Mauritius and New Zealand.

Impact: Biodiversity

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P. lanceolata forms dense swards that crowd out native vegetation and prevent the establishment of native species (Weber, 2003).

Threatened Species

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Threatened Species	Conservation Status	Where Threatened	Mechanism	References	Notes
Speyeria callippe callippe (callippe silverspot butterfly)	USA ESA listing as endangered species	California	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2009)
Trifolium dichotomum (showy Indian clover)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); National list(s); USA ESA listing as endangered species	USA	Competition - smothering	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2008)

Social Impact

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Pollen of this species can cause allergies and respiratory problems (Lamp and Collet, 1979; Mehta and Wheeler, 1991).

Risk and Impact Factors

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Invasiveness

Invasive in its native range
Proved invasive outside its native range
Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
Highly mobile locally
Has high reproductive potential
Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year

Impact outcomes

Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
Negatively impacts agriculture
Negatively impacts human health

Impact mechanisms

Competition - monopolizing resources
Competition - smothering

Likelihood of entry/control

Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant

Uses

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P. lanceolata has been used for sward improvement (Stewart, 1996; Trzaskos, 1996; Kozlowski et al., 1997). The commercial cultivars 'Grasslands Lancelot' (Rumball et al., 1997) and 'Ceres Tonic' (Pyne Gould Guinness Ltd, 1996) have been developed in New Zealand for forage yield and suitability for livestock grazing. Sagar and Harper (1964) note that P. lanceolata is one of the most palatable species for sheep.

It also has value as a tough amenity turf component (Odermatt et al., 1998) and has been utilized as permanent ground cover in vineyards (Crozier, 1998).

Medicinal uses include the treatment of respiratory and inflammatory skin diseases (Marchesan et al., 1998; Paper and Marchesan, 1999).

Uses List

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Medicinal, pharmaceutical

Traditional/folklore

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

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P. lanceolata can be distinguished from P. major by its furrowed scape, lanceolate leaves, one- to two-seeded capsule which splits around the middle and the smooth, boat-shaped seeds with a scar around the middle (Holm et al., 1977).

Prevention and Control

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Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Mechanical Control

Grazing or mowing may reduce growth of P. lanceolata (Weber, 2003). This species is traditionally hand weeded in mango and citrus orchards in Mauritius (McIntyre and Barbe, 1994).

Chemical Control

Around young trees and shrubs: glyphosate applied twice a year controlled P. lanceolata over several years (Frank and Simon, 1981). Alternate treatments of glyphosate and a mixture of diuron + paraquat were also satisfactory (McIntyre and Barbe, 1994).

In arable crops: butralin + linuron was found to be particularly effective (Fererro, 1978) and mecoprop has been recommended to control field margin weeds (including Plantago lanceolata; Birnie, 1984).

In turf: 2,4-D used alone and bromoxynil and mecoprop together were effective (Wehner et al., 1981). Bingham et al. (1986) reported that P. lanceolata was controlled better with a mecoprop than a dichlorprop mixture.

Integrated Control

McIntyre and Barbe (1994) observed acceptable control in young mango and citrus orchards in Mauritius with combined chemical and traditional hand weeding.

References

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