Plantago lanceolata (ribwort plantain)

Pictures

Top of page

Picture

Title

Caption

Copyright

Flowering habit

Plantago lanceolata (ribwort plantain); Flowering habit. New South Wales, Australia. December 2016.

©Harry Rose/via Flickr - CC BY 2.0

Flowering habit

Plantago lanceolata (ribwort plantain); Flowering habit. Hangar Sand Island, Midway Atoll, Hawaii. June 2008.

©Forest and Kim Starr/via Starr Environmental - CC BY 4.0

Foliage

Plantago lanceolata (ribwort plantain); Foliage. Makawao, Maui, Hawaii. March 2008.

©Forest and Kim Starr/via Starr Environmental - CC BY 4.0

Habit

Plantago lanceolata (ribwort plantain); Habit. Kahikinui, Maui, Hawaii. March 2018.

©Forest and Kim Starr/via Starr Environmental - CC BY 4.0

Habit

Plantago lanceolata (ribwort plantain); Habit. Dungog, New South Wales, Australia. September 2018.

©Harry Rose/via Flickr - CC BY 2.0

Habit

Plantago lanceolata (ribwort plantain); Habit. New South Wales, Australia. May 2014.

©Harry Rose/via Flickr - CC BY 2.0

Flower heads

Plantago lanceolata (ribwort plantain); Flower heads different stages. Makawao, Maui, Hawaii. March 2008.

©Forest and Kim Starr/via Starr Environmental - CC BY 4.0

Flower head

Plantago lanceolata (ribwort plantain); Flower head. Dungog, New South Wales, Australia. October 2018.

©Harry Rose/via Flickr - CC BY 2.0

Flower head

Plantago lanceolata (ribwort plantain); Flower head. New South Wales, Australia. December 2016.

©Harry Rose/via Flickr - CC BY 2.0

Seed head

Plantago lanceolata (ribwort plantain); Seed head. New South Wales, Australia. May 2014.

©Harry Rose/via Flickr - CC BY 2.0

Flower head

Plantago lanceolata (ribwort plantain); Flower head. Dreieich-Offenthal, Germany. October 2004.

©Robert Flogaus-Faust/via Wikimedia Commons - CC BY 4.0

Flower head

Plantago lanceolata (ribwort plantain); Flower head. Makawao, Maui, Hawaii. March 2008.

©Forest and Kim Starr/via Starr Environmental - CC BY 4.0

Flower head

Plantago lanceolata (ribwort plantain); Flower head. Science City, Maui, Hawaii. May 2009.

©Forest and Kim Starr/via Starr Environmental - CC BY 4.0

Foliage

Plantago lanceolata (ribwort plantain); Foliage. San Jose, California, USA. March 2007.

©Eugene Zelenko/via Wikimedia Commons - CC BY-SA 4.0

Flowering habit

Plantago lanceolata (ribwort plantain); Flowering habit. Donau Park (Donaupark), Vienna, Austria. June 2017.

©Stefan Lefnaer (Stefan.lefnaer)/via Wikimedia Commons - CC BY-SA 4.0

Identity

Top of page

Preferred Scientific Name

Plantago lanceolata L.

Preferred Common Name

ribwort plantain

International Common Names

English: buckhorn plantain; English plantain; lance-leaf plantain; lanceolate plantain; narrowleaf plantain; narrow-leaved plantain; ribgrass; ribwort
Spanish: llantén menor
French: petit plantain
Portuguese: tanchagem menor

Local Common Names

Cuba: llantén
Germany: Spitzwegerich
Italy: cinquenervi; lanciuola cinquenervi; mestolaccio; piantaggine commune
Japan: heraoobako
Netherlands: weegbree, smalle
South Africa: bolilanyana; German psyllium; klein tongblaar; lamb's tongue; narrow leaved ribwort; oorpynhoutjie; oorpynwortels; ripplegrass; smalblaarplantago; small plantain; smalweeblaar; smalweebree; smalweegbree; weeblaar; wild sago
Sweden: kaempar, svart-; spetsgroblad

EPPO code

PLALA (Plantago lanceolata)

Summary of Invasiveness

Top of page

There are little data to suggest that this species is a priority invasive species in its native range: it is principally a weed of arable field margins rather than the fields themselves. However it has dispersed widely throughout the temperate, and some of the tropical world, and is common in arable land and pastures. It has proved a problem in specific instances in the tropics and its lack of invasiveness in other areas may reflect global prophylactic use of broadleaf herbicides rather than an inherent lack of invasiveness in the species. It is a perennial and is, therefore, susceptible to cultivation. Traditional chemical control has proved effective.

Taxonomic Tree

Top of page

Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Spermatophyta
Subphylum: Angiospermae
Class: Dicotyledonae
Order: Plantaginales
Family: Plantaginaceae
Genus: Plantago
Species: Plantago lanceolata

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Top of page

Sagar and Harper (1964) note that a number of varieties have been recognised on the basis of hairiness, etc., but that the differences are often obscured as a result of phenotypic variation, and have not been adequately researched.

Description

Top of page

P. lanceolata is a small, glabrous to pubescent perennial with one to several rosettes; leaves linear- to narrowly ovate-elliptic, 2-30 x 0.5-3.5 cm, very gradually narrowed to the petiole, entire to sparsely and weakly toothed; bracts 2.5-3.5 mm, the anterior connate for most of their length but their midribs separate, often shortly hairy. Scapes to 50 cm deeply furrowed. Inflorescence a spike, up to 4(-8) cm long. Flowers bisexual, inconspicuous, corolla 4-lobed, tubular, almost as long as surrounding calyx. Corolla tube 2-3 mm, glabrous, the lobes 1.5-2.5 mm lanceolate to ovate, acute or acuminate, glabrous. Stamens 4, exserted, conspicuous, 3-5 mm long, the anthers yellowish. The fruit, 3-4 mm long, is a capsule opening with an operculum, containing 1-2 smooth, boat-shaped, mucilaginous. This species has a well-developed taproot (Lamp and Collet, 1979; Stace, 1997).

Plant Type

Top of page

Herbaceous
Perennial
Seed propagated

Distribution

Top of page

This remarkably widespread species is apparently native to Europe, North Africa and West and South Asia (USDA-ARS, 2003) but has been introduced extremely widely elsewhere and now occurs e.g. in every continental state of USA as well as in Hawaii, in Australia and New Zealand, 'throughout Japan' (Morita, 2002) and in many countries of Africa, where it thrives at high altitude.

Distribution Table

Top of page

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 10 Feb 2022

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	First Reported	Invasive	Reference	Notes
Africa
Algeria	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003)
Botswana	Present	Introduced			Wells et al. (1986)
Egypt	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003)
Ethiopia	Present				Holm et al. (1979)
Gabon	Present	Introduced			Verdcourt (1971)
Kenya	Present	Introduced			Verdcourt (1971)
Lesotho	Present	Introduced			Wells et al. (1986)
Libya	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003)
Malawi	Present	Introduced			Verdcourt (1971)
Mauritius	Present	Introduced			McIntyre and Barbe (1994)
Morocco	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003)
Namibia	Present	Introduced			Wells et al. (1986)
Réunion	Present	Introduced	1968		Seebens et al. (2017)
South Africa	Present	Introduced			Holm et al. (1979) Wells et al. (1986) Glen (1998)
Sudan	Present	Introduced			Verdcourt (1971)
Tanzania	Present	Introduced			Verdcourt (1971)
Tunisia	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003)
Zimbabwe	Present	Native			Holm et al. (1979) Seebens et al. (2017)
Antarctica
French Southern Territories	Present	Introduced	1960		Seebens et al. (2017)	Original location reported: Amsterdam Island
Asia
Afghanistan	Present	Native			Holm et al. (1979)
Armenia	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003)
Azerbaijan	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003)
Bhutan	Present, Localized	Introduced			CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Grierson et al., 2001
China	Present, Widespread	Introduced		Invasive	Holm et al. (1979)
-Fujian	Present	Introduced		Invasive	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Wang et al. (1990)
-Guangdong	Present	Introduced		Invasive	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Wang et al. (1990)
-Guangxi	Present	Introduced		Invasive	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Wang et al. (1990)
-Guizhou	Present	Introduced		Invasive	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Wang et al. (1990)
-Hubei	Present	Introduced		Invasive	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Wang et al. (1990)
-Hunan	Present	Introduced		Invasive	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Wang et al. (1990)
-Jiangsu	Present	Introduced		Invasive	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Wang et al. (1990)
-Shaanxi	Present	Introduced		Invasive	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Wang et al. (1990)
-Sichuan	Present	Introduced		Invasive	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Wang et al. (1990)
-Xinjiang	Present	Introduced		Invasive	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Wang et al. (1990)
-Yunnan	Present	Introduced		Invasive	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Wang et al. (1990)
-Zhejiang	Present	Introduced		Invasive	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Wang et al. (1990)
Georgia	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003)
India	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003)
Iran	Present	Native			CABI (Undated) Mohammadi et al. (2006) Ghafarbi and Hassannejad (2013) Hassannejad and Ghafarbi (2013) Abad et al. (2015) Minaei et al. (2016) Behrooz et al. (2017)	Original citation: Mirkamaly Maddah (1973)
Iraq	Present	Native			Holm et al. (1979) Ali et al. (2012)
Israel	Present	Native			Holm et al. (1979)
Japan	Present, Widespread				Holm et al. (1979) Morita (2002)
Jordan	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003)
Kazakhstan	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003)
Kyrgyzstan	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003)
Lebanon	Present	Native			Holm et al. (1979)
Nepal	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003)
North Korea	Present	Introduced	1922		Seebens et al. (2017)
Pakistan	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003) Ihsan Ullah et al. (2011) Khan et al. (2011) Khan et al. (2012) Shah et al. (2014) Fazal Hadi and Muhammad Ibrar (2015)
Philippines	Present	Native			Oviedo Prieto et al. (2012)
Saudi Arabia	Present	Native			Holm et al. (1979)
South Korea	Present	Introduced	1922		Seebens et al. (2017) Holm et al. (1979)
Syria	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003)
Taiwan	Present	Introduced	1991		Seebens et al. (2017) Holm et al. (1979) Chen ShihHuei et al. (1996)
Tajikistan	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003)
Turkey	Present	Native			Holm et al. (1979) Çobanoglu (2000)
Turkmenistan	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003)
Uzbekistan	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003)
Yemen	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003)
Europe
Albania	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003)
Austria	Present	Native			Holm et al. (1979)
Belarus	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003)
Belgium	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003)
Bulgaria	Present	Native			CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Milusheva & Rankova, 2002
Cyprus	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003)
Czechoslovakia	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003)
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia	Present	Native			Holm et al. (1979)
Denmark	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003)
Estonia	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003)
Finland	Present	Native			Holm et al. (1979)
France	Present	Native			Holm et al. (1979)
Germany	Present	Native			Holm et al. (1979)
Greece	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003) Chatzivassiliou et al. (2001)
Hungary	Present	Native			Holm et al. (1979)
Iceland	Present				Holm et al. (1979)
Ireland	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003)
Italy	Present	Native			Holm et al. (1979)
Latvia	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003)
Lithuania	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003)
Malta	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003)
Moldova	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003)
Netherlands	Present	Native			Holm et al. (1979)
Norway	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003)
Poland	Present	Native			Kozlowski et al. (1997) Grzegorczyk and Alberski (1999) Dąbkowska and Sygulska (2013)
Portugal	Present	Native			Holm et al. (1979) CABI (Undated)
-Azores	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003) Seebens et al. (2017)
Romania	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003)
Russia	Present	Native			Holm et al. (1979) Seebens et al. (2017)
-Russia (Europe)	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003)
-Western Siberia	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003)
Spain	Present	Native			Holm et al. (1979) Iraola Calvo et al. (1999)
-Canary Islands	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003)
Sweden	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003) Seebens et al. (2017)
Switzerland	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003)
Ukraine	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003)
United Kingdom	Present	Native			Holm et al. (1979) Roberts and Boddrell (1984) CABI (Undated)
North America
Canada	Present	Introduced	1862		Seebens et al. (2017) Holm et al. (1979) Stobbs et al. (2005) Stobbs et al. (2009) CABI (Undated)
-Ontario	Present				Stobbs et al. (2009) Stobbs et al. (2005)
Cuba	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Oviedo Prieto et al. (2012)
Mexico	Present	Introduced			CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Lopez and Tellez Reyes (1999)
Puerto Rico	Present				Holm et al. (1979)
Saint Pierre and Miquelon	Present	Introduced	1867		Seebens et al. (2017)
United States	Present, Widespread	Introduced		Invasive	Holm et al. (1979) Groves et al. (2002) USDA-NRCS (2003) Scheffer and Lonsdale (2018)
-Alabama	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Alaska	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Arkansas	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-California	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Colorado	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Connecticut	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Delaware	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Florida	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Georgia	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Hawaii	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003) Seebens et al. (2017)
-Idaho	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Illinois	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Indiana	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Iowa	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Kansas	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Kentucky	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Louisiana	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Maine	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Maryland	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Massachusetts	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Michigan	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Minnesota	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Mississippi	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Missouri	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Montana	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Nebraska	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Nevada	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-New Hampshire	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-New Jersey	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-New Mexico	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-New York	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003) Scheffer and Lonsdale (2018)
-North Carolina	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003) Groves et al. (2002)
-North Dakota	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Ohio	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Oklahoma	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Oregon	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Pennsylvania	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Rhode Island	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-South Carolina	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-South Dakota	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Tennessee	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Texas	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Utah	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Vermont	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Washington	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-West Virginia	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Wisconsin	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
-Wyoming	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2003)
Oceania
Australia	Present	Introduced	1801		Seebens et al. (2017) Holm et al. (1979)
-Lord Howe Island	Present	Introduced	1962		Seebens et al. (2017)
-New South Wales	Present	Introduced			James (1988)
-Victoria	Present	Introduced			Lane (1976)
New Zealand	Present	Introduced			Holm et al. (1979) Ferguson and Fraser (1993) Suckling et al. (1998) Knight et al. (2002)
-Kermadec Islands	Present	Introduced	1888		Seebens et al. (2017)
South America
Argentina	Present	Introduced			Holm et al. (1979) Conticello and Gandullo (1991)
Chile	Present	Introduced	1860		Seebens et al. (2017) Holm et al. (1979) Ramírez G. et al. (1989)
Ecuador	Present				Holm et al. (1979)
Uruguay	Present	Introduced			Holm et al. (1979)

Risk of Introduction

Top of page

Although not a federally listed noxious weed in USA, P. lanceolata is listed and regulated by many individual states (USDA-ARS, 2003).

Habitat

Top of page

P. lanceolata is a plant of grasslands and wastelands with neutral or basic soils (Clapham et al., 1989). It is found in a wider range of grassland microclimates and soil types than some close relatives (such as P. major and P. media), but is not found in the hottest and driest grasslands (Stoutjesdijk, 1992). In general, it is restricted to comparatively open vegetation where there is plenty of light at ground level (Aart et al., 1992).

Habitat List

Top of page

Category	Sub-Category	Habitat	Presence	Status
Terrestrial	Managed	Cultivated / agricultural land	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Managed forests, plantations and orchards	Present, no further details
Terrestrial	Managed	Managed grasslands (grazing systems)	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Disturbed areas	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Rail / roadsides	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Urban / peri-urban areas	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Natural grasslands	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)

Hosts/Species Affected

Top of page

This species is quick to colonize, establish and spread in disturbed agricultural areas. Its small size and low vigour, however, mean that it is seldom reported as a principal weed for a particular crop (Holm et al., 1977). It has been reported as a weed of lucerne in Iran (Mirkamaly and Maddah, 1973) and of citrus and mango in Mauritius (McIntyre and Barbe, 1994).

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

Top of page

Plant name	Family	Context	References
Citrus	Rutaceae	Main
Mangifera indica (mango)	Anacardiaceae	Main
Medicago sativa (lucerne)	Fabaceae	Main	Hassannejad and Ghafarbi (2014)
Pistacia vera (pistachio)	Anacardiaceae	Unknown	Mohammadi et al. (2006)
Saccharum officinarum (sugarcane)	Poaceae	Unknown	Khan et al. (2012)
Solanum lycopersicum (tomato)	Solanaceae	Other	Stobbs et al. (2009)
Triticum aestivum (wheat)	Poaceae	Unknown	Hassannejad and Ghafarbi (2013); Shah et al. (2014); Fazal and Muhammad (2015); Ihsan et al. (2011)

Biology and Ecology

Top of page

Genetics

P. lancelolata has a chromosome number of 2n=12 (Stace, 1997). The high level of genetic mixing, low polymorphism and lack of population genetic structure in this species are thought to result from its exclusive out-crossing strategy (Sharma and Koul, 1995).

Physiology and Phenology

Evidence suggests that there is little dormancy in this species, and virtually all seeds germinate within the first year (Roberts and Boddrell, 1984; Pons, 1992). However, germination rate seems to increase with storage over 6 months (Sousa et al., 1998). Unlike some close relatives, such as P. major, seed of this species does not require light for germination (Pons and Toorn, 1988; Blom, 1992) although the effect of light intensity on germination rate seems unclear (Roberts and Boddrell, 1984; Sousa et al., 1998). Optimum germination has been obtained at 21% soil moisture (Blom, 1992).

Reproductive Biology

Reproduction is via seed in this species. P. lanceolata is an obligate out-breeder and its flowers are self-incompatible (Sagar and Harper, 1964; Sharma et al., 1992; Sharma and Koul, 1995). The species is considered mainly anemophilous (wind-pollinated) (Sagar and Harper, 1964), but there is evidence to suggest biotic pollination by syrphid flies (Stelleman, 1982) and bees (Apis dorsata and Apis florea) (Sharma et al., 1993). Gynodioecy is observed in P. lanceolata, i.e. populations contain both hermaphrodites and sterile males (Poot et al., 1997).

Environmental Requirements

P. lanceolata is so widely distributed that it is probably not restricted by climate (Holm et al., 1977). Suitable climates include those with winter rainfall (temperate), all-year rainfall (temperate), summer rainfall (temperate), summer rainfall (sub-tropical) (Wells et al., 1986). The deep taproot enables this species to withstand periods of drought. It is seldom reported to be an important weed in the tropics because more vigorous plants keep its growth in check. In open areas, plants will overwinter below ground and, if frosted, they can re-grow from underground storage organs. The chemical and physical characteristics of the soils in which Plantago species grow have been described by Troelstra (1992). Sagar and Harper (1964) note that P. lanceolata is found on a wide variety of soil types in the British Isles and occurs on sand-dunes, and spray-washed cliffs, but is absent from acidic uplands. It is mainly a species of basic and neutral grasslands.

Association

Sagar and Harper (1964) provide detailed lists of plants associated with P. lanceolata in the British Isles.

Natural enemies

Top of page

Natural enemy	Type	Life stages
Chrysolina staphylaea	Herbivore	Plants\|Leaves
Gibberella sacchari	Pathogen
Gymnetron pascuorum	Herbivore	Plants\|Seeds
Junonia coenia	Herbivore	Plants\|Leaves
Phomopsis subordinaria	Pathogen
Trichosirocalus troglodytes	Herbivore	Plants\|Growing point

Notes on Natural Enemies

Top of page

Sagar and Harper (1964) provide a long list of natural enemies including invertebrates, fungi and viruses but imply that these have much less influence than livestock management.

Means of Movement and Dispersal

Top of page

Natural Dispersal (Non-Biotic)

P. lanceolata produces a large number of small seeds which can be dispersed by the wind.

Vector Transmission (Biotic)

Seeds are mucilaginous and easily transported on animal fur or by man (Soekarjo, 1992). Sagar and Harper (1964) note that seeds retain over 50% viability after passing through cattle.

Accidental introduction

Because of the small size of its seeds, P. lanceolata may be introduced as a contaminant of agricultural produce.

Plant Trade

Top of page

Plant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transport	Pest stages	Borne internally	Borne externally	Visibility of pest or symptoms
Bulbs/Tubers/Corms/Rhizomes	weeds/roots
Flowers/Inflorescences/Cones/Calyx	weeds/seeds
Fruits (inc. pods)	weeds/seeds
Growing medium accompanying plants	weeds/seeds
Roots	weeds/roots
Seedlings/Micropropagated plants	weeds/whole plants
Stems (above ground)/Shoots/Trunks/Branches	weeds/seeds
True seeds (inc. grain)	weeds/seeds

Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport
Bark
Leaves
Wood

Impact Summary

Top of page

Category	Impact
Animal/plant collections	None
Animal/plant products	None
Biodiversity (generally)	None
Crop production	Negative
Environment (generally)	None
Fisheries / aquaculture	None
Forestry production	None
Human health	Negative
Livestock production	None
Native fauna	None
Native flora	None
Rare/protected species	None
Tourism	None
Trade/international relations	None
Transport/travel	None

Impact

Top of page

P. lanceolata has been described as an agricultural, pastoral and environmental weed competing with other plants for light, water and nutrients and replacing preferred vegetation. P. lanceolata and P. major have together been reported as weeds in over 50 countries affecting a wide range of crops (Holm et al., 1977). Holm et al. (1979) record P. lanceolata as a serious weed in Italy, and a principal weed in Canada, Ecuador, Iran, Mauritius and New Zealand.

Impact: Biodiversity

Top of page

P. lanceolata forms dense swards that crowd out native vegetation and prevent the establishment of native species (Weber, 2003).

Threatened Species

Top of page

Threatened Species	Conservation Status	Where Threatened	Mechanism	References	Notes
Speyeria callippe callippe (callippe silverspot butterfly)	USA ESA listing as endangered species	California	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2009)
Trifolium dichotomum (showy Indian clover)	EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); National list(s); USA ESA listing as endangered species	USA	Competition - smothering	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2008)

Social Impact

Top of page

Pollen of this species can cause allergies and respiratory problems (Lamp and Collet, 1979; Mehta and Wheeler, 1991).

Risk and Impact Factors

Top of page

Invasiveness

Invasive in its native range
Proved invasive outside its native range
Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
Highly mobile locally
Has high reproductive potential
Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year

Impact outcomes

Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
Negatively impacts agriculture
Negatively impacts human health

Impact mechanisms

Competition - monopolizing resources
Competition - smothering

Likelihood of entry/control

Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant

Uses

Top of page

P. lanceolata has been used for sward improvement (Stewart, 1996; Trzaskos, 1996; Kozlowski et al., 1997). The commercial cultivars 'Grasslands Lancelot' (Rumball et al., 1997) and 'Ceres Tonic' (Pyne Gould Guinness Ltd, 1996) have been developed in New Zealand for forage yield and suitability for livestock grazing. Sagar and Harper (1964) note that P. lanceolata is one of the most palatable species for sheep.

It also has value as a tough amenity turf component (Odermatt et al., 1998) and has been utilized as permanent ground cover in vineyards (Crozier, 1998).

Medicinal uses include the treatment of respiratory and inflammatory skin diseases (Marchesan et al., 1998; Paper and Marchesan, 1999).

Uses List

Top of page

Medicinal, pharmaceutical

Traditional/folklore

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

Top of page

P. lanceolata can be distinguished from P. major by its furrowed scape, lanceolate leaves, one- to two-seeded capsule which splits around the middle and the smooth, boat-shaped seeds with a scar around the middle (Holm et al., 1977).

Prevention and Control

Top of page

Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Mechanical Control

Grazing or mowing may reduce growth of P. lanceolata (Weber, 2003). This species is traditionally hand weeded in mango and citrus orchards in Mauritius (McIntyre and Barbe, 1994).

Chemical Control

Around young trees and shrubs: glyphosate applied twice a year controlled P. lanceolata over several years (Frank and Simon, 1981). Alternate treatments of glyphosate and a mixture of diuron + paraquat were also satisfactory (McIntyre and Barbe, 1994).

In arable crops: butralin + linuron was found to be particularly effective (Fererro, 1978) and mecoprop has been recommended to control field margin weeds (including Plantago lanceolata; Birnie, 1984).

In turf: 2,4-D used alone and bromoxynil and mecoprop together were effective (Wehner et al., 1981). Bingham et al. (1986) reported that P. lanceolata was controlled better with a mecoprop than a dichlorprop mixture.

Integrated Control

McIntyre and Barbe (1994) observed acceptable control in young mango and citrus orchards in Mauritius with combined chemical and traditional hand weeding.

References

Top of page

Aart PJM van der, Vulto JC, 1992. General ecology. Plantago: a multidisciplinary study [edited by Kuiper, P. J. C.; Bos, M.] Berlin, Germany; Springer-Verlag, 6

Bingham SW, Rucker EG, Shaver RL, 1986. Broadleaf weed species' response to turfgrass herbicides. Proceedings, Southern Weed Science Society, 39th annual meeting, 110

Birnie JE, 1984. A preliminary study on the effect of some agricultural herbicides on a range of field margin flora. Technical Report, AFRC Weed Research Organization, No.79:24 pp.

Blom CWPM, 1992. Germination and establishment. In: Kuiper PJC, Bos M, eds. Plantago: a Multidisciplinary Study. Ecological Studies, Vol. 89. Berlin, Germany: Springer Verlag, 88-98.

Cavers PB, Bassett IJ, Crompton CW, 1980. The biology of Canadian weeds. 47. Plantago lanceolata L. Canadian Journal of Plant Science, 60(4):1269-1282

Chen ShihHuei, Tseng YenHsueh, Wu MingJou, Liu ChingYu, 1996. Plantago lanceolata L., a newly naturalized plant in Taiwan. Taiwania, 41(3):180-184; 8 ref.

Clapham AR, Tutin TG, Moore DM, 1989. Flora of the British Isles. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Cobanoglu S, 2000. Aphididae (Homoptera) species of Edirne Province (Thrace part of Turkey). Entomologist's Monthly Magazine, 136(1628-31):45-52; 18 ref.

Conticello L, Gandullo R, 1991. Survey of summer weeds in the upper valley of Rio Negro y Neuquen. Proceedings of the 12th Argentine meeting on weeds and their control, Mar del Plata, Argentina, 9-11 October 1991., Vol. 1:19-26; 22 ref.

Crozier P, 1998. Permanent ground cover and mulch: agricultural aspects. Phytoma, No. 511:42-45.

Fazal Hadi, Muhammad Ibrar, 2015. Ecology of weeds in wheat crops of Kalash valley, district Chitral, Hindukush Range, Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Weed Science Research, 21(3), 425-433. http://www.wssp.org.pk/vol-21-3-2015/11.%20PJWSR-06-2015.pdf

Ferguson CM, Fraser WJ, 1993. Eurythecta zelaea, an occasional dryland pasture pest. Proceedings of the Forty Sixth New Zealand Plant Protection Conference, Christchurch, New Zealand, 10-12 August 1993 Rotorua, New Zealand; New Zealand Plant Protection Society, 242-244

Ferrero A, 1978. Selective weed control in maize. Rapporti sull'attivita svolta nell'ambito del subprogetto "Fitoiatria del frumento del mais e del sorgo" Progetto finalizzato fitofarmaci e fitoregolatori, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche; coordinatore V. Piglionica, Rome, 1978., 309-316

Frank JR, Simon JA, 1981. Glyphosate and paraquat effectiveness in woody nursery stock. Weed Science, 29(4):455-461

Glen HF, 1998. Investigation of the antiinflammatory activity of liquid extracts of Plantago lanceolata L. FSA contributions 12: Plantaginaceae. Bothalia, 28(2):151-157; 26 ref.

Grierson AJC, Long DG, 2001. Flora of Bhutan including a record of plants from Sikkim and Darjeeling. Volume 2 Part 3. Edinburgh, UK: Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh and Royal Government of Bhutan.

Grzegorczyk S, Alberski J, 1999. The presence of forbs in meadow-pasture plant communities of the Olsztyn Lakeland. Folia Universitatis Agriculturae Stetinensis, Agricultura, No. 75:103-106.

Hassannejad, S., Ghafarbi, S. P., 2013. Weed flora survey of Tabriz wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) fields. Journal of Biodiversity and Environmental Sciences (JBES), 3(9), 118-132. http://www.innspub.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/JBES-Vol3No9-p118-132.pdf

Hassannejad, S., Ghafarbi, S. P., 2014. Weed flora survey in alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) fields of Shabestar (northwest of Iran). Archives of Agronomy and Soil Science, 60(7), 971-991. doi: 10.1080/03650340.2013.859383

Holm L, Pancho JV, Herberger JP, Plucknett DL, 1979. A Geographical Atlas of World Weeds. Toronto, Canada: John Wiley and Sons Inc.

Holm LG, Plucknett DL, Pancho JV, Herberger JP, 1977. The World's Worst Weeds. Distribution and Biology. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: University Press of Hawaii.

Ihsan Ullah, Wazir, S. M., Ayesha Farooq, Khan, S. U., Zahid Hussain, 2011. Identification of common weeds and its distribution pattern in wheat fields of FR Bannu, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Weed Science Research, 17(4), 407-416. http://www.wssp.org.pk/174-12.pdf

Iraola Calvo VM, Moraza ML, Biurrun R, 1999. Spider mites (Acari: Tetranychidae Berlese) and phytoseiid mites (Acari: Phytoseiidae Berlese) in pear orchards and ground cover vegetation in Navarra. Boleti^acute~n de Sanidad Vegetal, Plagas, 25(1):49-58; 27 ref.

James DG, 1988. A new host plant for Junonia villida calybe (Godart) (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae). Australian Entomological Magazine, 15(1):6

Khan, R. U., Wazir, S. M., Muhammad Subhan, Saad Ullah, Hidayat Ullah, Aysha Farooq, Farheen Jaffar, Shazia, Shah, I. A., Mustafa Kamal, 2012. Weed flora of sugarcane in district Bannu, Khyber Pakhtunkhawa, Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Weed Science Research, 18(4), 541-552. http://www.wssp.org.pk/article.htm

Kozlowski S, Golinski P, Swedrzynska D, Kolpak M, 1997. Plantago lanceolata - a commendable sward component of grasslands? Management for Grassland Biodiversity. Proceedings of the International Occasional Symposium of the European Grassland Federation, Warszawa-Lomza, Poland, 19-23 May, 1997. Grassland Science in Europe Vol. 2. Poznan, Poland: Organizing Committee of the International Occasional Symposium of the European Grassland Federation, 227-231.

Lamp C, Collet F, 1979. A field guide to weeds in Australia, revised edition. Melbourne, Australia: Inkata Press.

Lane D, 1976. The vegetation of roadsides and adjacent farmland of the Mornington Peninsula, Victoria, Australia. Weed Research, 16(6):385-389

Lopez Tellez A, Reyes SA, 1999. Flora de Veracruz: Plantaginaceae, No. 108:1-20. Xalapa, Mexico: Instituto de Ecologia.

Marchesan M, Paper DH, Hose S, Franz G, 1998. Investigation of the antiinflammatory activity of liquid extracts of Plantago lanceolata L. Phytother. Res., 12:33-34.

McIntyre G, Barbe C, 1994. Chemical v/s hand weeding in young citrus and mango orchards. Revue Agricole et Sucriere de l'Ile Maurice, 73:44-47.

Mehta V, Wheeler AW, 1991. IgE-mediated sensitization to English plantain pollen in seasonal respiratory allergy: identification and partial characterisation of its allergenic components. International Archives of Allergy and Applied Immunology, 96(3):211-217

Milusheva S, Rankova Z, 2002. Plum pox potyvirus detection in weed species under field conditions. Acta Horticulturae, No.577:283-287; 10 ref.

Mirkamaly H, Maddah MV, 1973. Weeds of alfalfa fields in Arak area. Iranian Journal of Plant Pathology, 9(2):23-24.

Mohammadi, A. H., Haghdel, M., Mohammadi-Moghaddam, M., Banihashemi, Z., 2006. Current status of Verticillium wilt disease of pistachio trees in Iran. Acta Horticulturae, (No.726), 631-635. http://www.actahort.org

Mohd Norowi Hamid, Perry JN, Powell W, Rennolls K, 1999. The effect of spatial scale on interactions between two weevils and their food plant. Acta Oecologica, 20(5):537-549; 39 ref.

Mook JH, Haeck J, Toorn J van der, Tienderen PH van, 1989. Comparative demography of Plantago. I. Observations on eight populations of Plantago lanceolata. Acta Botanica Neerlandica, 38(1):67-78

Morita H, 2002. Handbook of Arable Weeds of Japan. Tokyo, Japan: Kumiai Chemical Industry Co., Ltd.

Odermatt S, Thomet E, Thomet P, 1998. NARA - development of a low-input turf with low growing ecotypes. In: Boller B, Stadelmann FJ, eds. Breeding for a Multifunctional Agriculture. Proceedings of the 21st meeting of the Fodder Crops and Amenity Grasses Section of EUCARPIA, KartauseIttingen, Switzerland, 9-12 September, 1997. Zurich, Switzerland: Swiss Federal Research Station for Agroecology and Agriculture, 115-117.

Oviedo Prieto R, Herrera Oliver P, Caluff MG, et al. , 2012. National list of invasive and potentially invasive plants in the Republic of Cuba - 2011. (Lista nacional de especies de plantas invasoras y potencialmente invasoras en la República de Cuba - 2011). Bissea: Boletín sobre Conservación de Plantas del Jardín Botánico Nacional de Cuba, 6(Special Issue 1):22-96.

Paper DH, Marchesan M, 1999. Plantain (Plantago lanceolata L.): its introduction, analysis, constituents, pharmacology and standardization. Zeitschrift fur Phytotherapie, 20(4):231-238.

Pons TL, 1992. Seed germination of Plantago major ssp. major and Plantago lanceolata. Plantago: a multidisciplinary study [edited by Kuiper, P. J. C.; Bos, M.] Berlin, Germany; Springer-Verlag, 161-169

Pons TL, Toorn J van der, 1988. Establishment of Plantago lanceolata L. and Plantago major L. among grass I. Significance of light for germination. Oecologia, 75(3):394-399

Poot P, Broek T van den, Damme JMM van, Lambers H, 1997. A comparison of the vegetative growth of male-sterile and hermaphroditic lines of Plantago lanceolata in relation to N supply. New Phytologist, 135(3):429-437.

Pyne Gould Guinness Ltd, 1996. Variety: 'Ceres Tonic' syn 'PG 30'. Application no: 96/017. Plant Varieties Journal, 9(2):39.

Ramirez GC, San Martin PC, Sempe CJ, 1989. Seasonal changes in plant size, biomass and phenology in an anthropogenic prairie in southern central Chile. Agro Sur, 17(1):19-28.

Roberts HA, Boddrell JE, 1984. Seed survival and seasonal emergence of seedlings of some ruderal plants. Journal of Applied Ecology, 21(2):617-628

Rumball W, Keogh RG, Miller JE, Claydon RB, 1997. 'Grasslands G27' red clover (Trifolium pratense L.). New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research, 40(3):369-372; 11 ref.

Sagar GR, Harper JL, 1964. Biological Flora of the British Isles. Plantago major L., P. media L. and P. lanceolata L. Journal of Ecology, 52: 189-221.

Shah, S. M., Asad Ullah, Fazal Hadi, 2014. Ecological characteristics of weed flora in the wheat crop of Mastuj valley, district Chitral, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Weed Science Research, 20(4), 479-487. http://www.wssp.org.pk/vol-20-4-2014/6.%20PJWSR-22-2014.pdf

Sharma N, Koul AK, 1995. Reproductive strategies in weeds - Plantago major, P. lanceolata and their cultivated ally P. ovata. Proceedings of the Indian National Science Academy. Part B, Biological Sciences, 61(6):471-478; 20 ref.

Sharma N, Koul P, Koul AK, 1992. Reproductive biology of Plantago: shift from cross- to self-pollination. Annals of Botany, 69(1):7-11

Sharma N, Koul P, Koul AK, 1993. Pollination biology of some species of genus Plantago L. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 111(2):129-138.

Soekarjo R, 1992. General morphology in Plantago. Plantago: a multidisciplinary study., 6-12; [Ecological studies Vol. 89].

Sousa ME, Caixinhas ML, Maillet J, 1998. Seed germination of weeds from grasslands of Portugal. Comptes Rendus 6eme symposium Mediterraneen EWRS, Montpellier, France, 13-15 Mai, 1998. Montpellier, France: ENSA, 236-237.

Stace C, 1997. New Flora of the British Isles. 2nd edition. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Stelleman P, 1982. The significance of biotic pollination in Plantago lanceolata. Netherlands: Academisch Proefschrift, University of Amsterdam, 175.

Stewart AV, 1996. Plantain (Plantago lanceolata) - a potential pasture species. Proceedings of the New Zealand Grassland Association, 58:77-86.

Stobbs, L. W., Greig, N., Weaver, S., Shipp, L., Ferguson, G., 2009. The potential role of native weed species and bumble bees (Bombus impatiens) on the epidemiology of Pepino mosaic virus. Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology, 31(2), 254-261. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07060660909507599

Stoutjesdijk P, 1992. Micrometeorological characterization of Plantago sites. Plantago: a multidisciplinary study [edited by Kuiper, P. J. C.; Bos, M.] Berlin, Germany; Springer-Verlag, 48-52

Suckling DM, Burnip GM, Walker JTS, Shaw PW, McLaren GF, Howard CR, Lo P, White V, Fraser J, 1998. Abundance of leafrollers and their parasitoids on selected host plants in New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science, 26(3):193-203; 28 ref.

Taylor RJ, 1978. Industrial impact in northwestern Whatcom County, Washington. Water, Air and Soil Pollution, 10(2):99-213.

Troelstra SR, 1992. Chemical and physical characteristics of the soil of Plantago sites. Plantago: a multidisciplinary study [edited by Kuiper, P. J. C.; Bos, M.] Berlin, Germany; Springer-Verlag, 29-48

Trzaskos M, 1996. Role of meadow herbs in limiting microelement deficiency in permanent grassland. Zeszyty Problemowe Poste^hook~po^acute~w Nauk Rolniczych, 434(1):395-399; 4 ref.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008. In: Showy Indian Clover (Trifolium amoenum). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. US Fish and Wildlife Service, 12 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009. In: Callippe Silverspot Butterfly (Speyeria callippe callippe). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. US Fish and Wildlife Service, 29 pp.

USDA-ARS, 2003. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx

USDA-NRCS, 2003. The PLANTS Database, Version 3.5. National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, USA. http://plants.usda.gov.

Verdcourt B, 1971. Plantaginaceae. In: Milne-Redhead E, Polhill RM, eds. Flora of Tropical East Africa. London, UK: Crown Agents.

Wang Z, Xin M, Ma D, eds. , 1990. Farmland Weeds of China. Beijing, China: Agricultural Publishing House.

Weber E, 2003. Invasive plant species of the world: A reference guide to environmental weeds. Wallingford, UK: CAB International, 548 pp.

Wehner DJ, Haley JE, Yust AK, 1981. Control of plantains and clover in turf with post-em. herbicides. Proceedings North Central Weed Control Conference, Volume 36:36-37

Wells MJ, Balsinhas AA, Joffe H, Engelbrecht, VM, Harding G, Stirton CH, 1986. A catalogue of problem plants in southern Africa incorporating the national weed list of South Africa. Memoirs, Botanical Survey of South Africa, No. 53:658 pp.

Distribution References

Abad R G G, Sadeghi S E, Ghajarieh H, Nasserzadeh H, Yarmand H, Moniri V R, Nikdel M, Haghshenas A R, Khabir Z H, Ardekani A S, Mohammadpour A, Caldara R, 2015. Tychiini and Mecinini (Coleoptera: Curculionidae, Curculioninae) of Iran: eleven species recorded for the first time, with new data on host plants and distribution of several species. Journal of Entomological Society of Iran. 35 (1), 57-68. http://jesi.areeo.ac.ir/article_106370_9b4fa2ea1cbcaf20398bea2bdc19d873.pdf

Ali H B, Agarwala B K, Kaddou I K, 2012. New records of aphids of the Subfamily Aphidinae (Homoptera: Aphididae) infested herbaceous plants and shrubs for Iraqi aphid fauna. Advances in Bio Research. 3 (4), 66-75. http://www.soeagra.com/abr/abrdec_2012/12.pdf

Behrooz S Y, Salari M, Pirnia M, Sabbagh S K, 2017. Identification of Cercospora species in southwestern Iran. Journal of Plant Protection Research. 57 (1), 50-55. DOI:10.1515/jppr-2017-0007

CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI

CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI

Chatzivassiliou E K, Boubourakas I, Drossos E, Eleftherohorinos I, Jenser G, Peters D, Katis N I, 2001. Weeds in greenhouses and tobacco fields are differentially infected by Tomato spotted wilt virus and infested by its vector species. Plant Disease. 85 (1), 40-46. DOI:10.1094/PDIS.2001.85.1.40

Chen ShihHuei, Tseng YenHsueh, Wu MingJou, Liu ChingYu, 1996. Plantago lanceolata L., a newly naturalized plant in Taiwan. Taiwania. 41 (3), 180-184.

Çobanoglu S, 2000. Aphididae (Homoptera) species of Edirne Province (Thrace part of Turkey). Entomologist's Monthly Magazine. 136 (1628-31), 45-52.

Conticello L, Gandullo R, 1991. Survey of summer weeds in the upper valley of Rio Negro y Neuquen. (Relevamiento de malezas estivales del Alto Valle de Río Negro y Neuquén.). In: Proceedings of the 12th Argentine meeting on weeds and their control, Mar del Plata, Argentina, 9-11 October 1991. [Proceedings of the 12th Argentine meeting on weeds and their control, Mar del Plata, Argentina, 9-11 October 1991.], Buenos Aires, Argentina: Asociación Argentina para el Control de Malezas. 19-26.

Dąbkowska T, Sygulska P, 2013. Variations in weed flora and the degree of its transformation in ecological and extensive conventional cereal crops in selected habitats of the Beskid Wyspowy Mountains. Acta Agrobotanica. 66 (2), 123-136. DOI:10.5586/aa.2013.029

Fazal Hadi, Muhammad Ibrar, 2015. Ecology of weeds in wheat crops of Kalash valley, district Chitral, Hindukush Range, Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Weed Science Research. 21 (3), 425-433. http://www.wssp.org.pk/vol-21-3-2015/11.%20PJWSR-06-2015.pdf

Ferguson C M, Fraser W J, 1993. Eurythecta zelaea, an occasional dryland pasture pest. In: Proceedings of the Forty Sixth New Zealand Plant Protection Conference, Christchurch, New Zealand, 10-12 August 1993 [Proceedings of the Forty Sixth New Zealand Plant Protection Conference, Christchurch, New Zealand, 10-12 August 1993], Rotorua, New Zealand: New Zealand Plant Protection Society. 242-244.

Ghafarbi S P, Hassannejad S, 2013. Weed flora survey in University of Tabriz Botanical Garden. International Journal of Agronomy and Plant Production. 4 (1), 7-14. http://ijappjournal.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/1/7-14.doc.pdf

Glen H F, 1998. FSA contributions 12: Plantaginaceae. Bothalia. 28 (2), 151-157.

Groves R L, Walgenbach J F, Moyer J W, Kennedy G G, 2002. The role of weed hosts and tobacco thrips, Frankliniella fusca, in the epidemiology of tomato spotted wilt virus. Plant Disease. 86 (6), 573-582. DOI:10.1094/PDIS.2002.86.6.573

Grzegorczyk S, Alberski J, 1999. The presence of forbs in meadow-pasture plant communities of the Olsztyn Lakeland. (Występowanie ziół w zbiorowiskach łąkowo-pastwiskowych pojezierza Olsztyńskiego.). Folia Universitatis Agriculturae Stetinensis, Agricultura. 103-106.

Hassannejad S, Ghafarbi S P, 2013. Weed flora survey of Tabriz wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) fields. Journal of Biodiversity and Environmental Sciences (JBES). 3 (9), 118-132. http://www.innspub.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/JBES-Vol3No9-p118-132.pdf

Holm L, Pancho J V, Herberger J P, Plucknett D L, 1979. A geographical atlas of world weeds. New York, Chichester (), Brisbane, Toronto, UK: John Wiley and Sons. xlix + 391 pp.

Ihsan Ullah, Wazir S M, Ayesha Farooq, Khan S U, Zahid Hussain, 2011. Identification of common weeds and its distribution pattern in wheat fields of FR Bannu, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Weed Science Research. 17 (4), 407-416. http://www.wssp.org.pk/174-12.pdf

Iraola Calvo V M, Moraza M L, Biurrun R, 1999. Spider mites (Acari: Tetranychidae Berlese) and phytoseiid mites (Acari: Phytoseiidae Berlese) in pear orchards and ground cover vegetation in Navarra. (Ácaros tetraníquidos (Acari: Tetranychidae berlese) y fitoseidos (Acari: Phytoseiidae Berlese) en hojas y cobertura vegetal de perales de Navarra.). Boletín de Sanidad Vegetal, Plagas. 25 (1), 49-58.

James D G, 1988. A new host plant for Junonia villida calybe (Godart) (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae). Australian Entomological Magazine. 15 (1), 6.

Khan I, Marwat K B, Khan I A, Haidar Ali, Dawar K, Khan H, 2011. Invasive weeds of southern districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa-Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Weed Science Research. 17 (2), 161-174. http://www.wssp.org.pk/PJWSR-17-2-161-174.pdf

Khan R U, Wazir S M, Muhammad Subhan, Saad Ullah, Hidayat Ullah, Aysha Farooq, Farheen Jaffar, Shazia, Shah I A, Mustafa Kamal, 2012. Weed flora of sugarcane in district Bannu, Khyber Pakhtunkhawa, Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Weed Science Research. 18 (4), 541-552. http://www.wssp.org.pk/article.htm

Knight K W L, Hill C F, Sturhan D, 2002. Further records of Aphelenchoides fragariae and A. ritzemabosi (Nematoda: Aphelenchida) from New Zealand. Australasian Plant Pathology. 31 (1), 93-94. DOI:10.1071/AP01063

Kozlowski S, Golinski P, Swedrzynska D, Kolpak M, 1997. Plantago lanceolata - a commendable sward component of grasslands? In: Management for Grassland Biodiversity. Grassland Science in Europe [Proceedings of the International Occasional Symposium of the European Grassland Federation, Warszawa-Lomza, Poland, 19-23 May, 1997], 2 Poznan, Poland: Organizing Committee of the International Occasional Symposium of the European Grassland Federation. 227-231.

Lane D, 1976. The vegetation of roadsides and adjacent farmland of the Mornington Peninsula, Victoria, Australia. Weed Research. 16 (6), 385-389.

McIntyre G, Barbe C, 1994. Chemical v/s hand weeding in young citrus and mango orchards. Revue Agricole et Sucrière de l'Île Maurice. 73 (3), 44-47.

Minaei K, Alavi J, Rashid B, Mokhtari A, 2016. Haplothrips zabolius sp. n., a new species from Sistan & Baluchestan province, southeast of Iran (Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae). Journal of Entomological Society of Iran. 35 (4), 39-44. http://jesi.areeo.ac.ir/article_107094_e1bd4afc69b0b7fd8c4647651eba25bc.pdf

Mohammadi A H, Haghdel M, Mohammadi-Moghaddam M, Banihashemi Z, 2006. Current status of Verticillium wilt disease of pistachio trees in Iran. Acta Horticulturae. 631-635. http://www.actahort.org

Morita H, 2002. Handbook of Arable Weeds of Japan., Tokyo, Japan: Kumiai Chemical Industry Co., Ltd.

Oviedo Prieto R, Herrera Oliver P, Caluff M G, et al, 2012. National list of invasive and potentially invasive plants in the Republic of Cuba - 2011. (Lista nacional de especies de plantas invasoras y potencialmente invasoras en la República de Cuba - 2011). Bissea: Boletín sobre Conservación de Plantas del Jardín Botánico Nacional de Cuba. 6 (Special Issue No. 1), 22-96.

Ramírez G C, San Martín P C, Sempe C J, 1989. Seasonal changes in plant size, biomass and phenology in an anthropogenic prairie in southern central Chile. (Cambios estacionales de tamaño de plantas, biomasa y fenología en una pradera antropogénica del centro-sur Chile.). Agro Sur. 17 (1), 19-28.

Roberts H A, Boddrell J E, 1984. Seed survival and seasonal emergence of seedlings of some ruderal plants. Journal of Applied Ecology. 21 (2), 617-628. DOI:10.2307/2403433

Scheffer S J, Lonsdale O, 2018. A survey of Agromyzidae (Diptera) reared from leafmines on Long Island, New York; host associations, distribution data, and the description and host association of a new species. Zootaxa. 4450 (1), 77-90. DOI:10.11646/zootaxa.4450.1.5

Seebens H, Blackburn T M, Dyer E E, Genovesi P, Hulme P E, Jeschke J M, Pagad S, Pyšek P, Winter M, Arianoutsou M, Bacher S, Blasius B, Brundu G, Capinha C, Celesti-Grapow L, Dawson W, Dullinger S, Fuentes N, Jäger H, Kartesz J, Kenis M, Kreft H, Kühn I, Lenzner B, Liebhold A, Mosena A (et al), 2017. No saturation in the accumulation of alien species worldwide. Nature Communications. 8 (2), 14435. http://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms14435

Shah S M, Asad Ullah, Fazal Hadi, 2014. Ecological characteristics of weed flora in the wheat crop of Mastuj valley, district Chitral, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Weed Science Research. 20 (4), 479-487. http://www.wssp.org.pk/vol-20-4-2014/6.%20PJWSR-22-2014.pdf

Stobbs L W, Driel L van, Whybourne K, Carlson C, Tulloch M, Lier J van, 2005. Distribution of Plum pox virus in residential sites, commercial nurseries, and native plant species in the Niagara Region, Ontario, Canada. Plant Disease. 89 (8), 822-827. DOI:10.1094/PD-89-0822