Plantago lanceolata (ribwort plantain)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
- Biology and Ecology
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Plant Trade
- Impact Summary
- Impact
- Impact: Biodiversity
- Threatened Species
- Social Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Plantago lanceolata L.
Preferred Common Name
- ribwort plantain
International Common Names
- English: buckhorn plantain; English plantain; lance-leaf plantain; lanceolate plantain; narrowleaf plantain; narrow-leaved plantain; ribgrass; ribwort
- Spanish: llantén menor
- French: petit plantain
- Portuguese: tanchagem menor
Local Common Names
- Cuba: llantén
- Germany: Spitzwegerich
- Italy: cinquenervi; lanciuola cinquenervi; mestolaccio; piantaggine commune
- Japan: heraoobako
- Netherlands: weegbree, smalle
- South Africa: bolilanyana; German psyllium; klein tongblaar; lamb's tongue; narrow leaved ribwort; oorpynhoutjie; oorpynwortels; ripplegrass; smalblaarplantago; small plantain; smalweeblaar; smalweebree; smalweegbree; weeblaar; wild sago
- Sweden: kaempar, svart-; spetsgroblad
EPPO code
- PLALA (Plantago lanceolata)
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageTaxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Plantaginales
- Family: Plantaginaceae
- Genus: Plantago
- Species: Plantago lanceolata
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageDescription
Top of pageDistribution
Top of pageDistribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 10 Feb 2022Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Algeria | Present | Native | |||||
Botswana | Present | Introduced | |||||
Egypt | Present | Native | |||||
Ethiopia | Present | ||||||
Gabon | Present | Introduced | |||||
Kenya | Present | Introduced | |||||
Lesotho | Present | Introduced | |||||
Libya | Present | Native | |||||
Malawi | Present | Introduced | |||||
Mauritius | Present | Introduced | |||||
Morocco | Present | Native | |||||
Namibia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Réunion | Present | Introduced | 1968 | ||||
South Africa | Present | Introduced | |||||
Sudan | Present | Introduced | |||||
Tanzania | Present | Introduced | |||||
Tunisia | Present | Native | |||||
Zimbabwe | Present | Native | |||||
Antarctica |
|||||||
French Southern Territories | Present | Introduced | 1960 | Original location reported: Amsterdam Island | |||
Asia |
|||||||
Afghanistan | Present | Native | |||||
Armenia | Present | Native | |||||
Azerbaijan | Present | Native | |||||
Bhutan | Present, Localized | Introduced | Original citation: Grierson et al., 2001 | ||||
China | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Fujian | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Original citation: Wang et al. (1990) | |||
-Guangdong | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Original citation: Wang et al. (1990) | |||
-Guangxi | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Original citation: Wang et al. (1990) | |||
-Guizhou | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Original citation: Wang et al. (1990) | |||
-Hubei | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Original citation: Wang et al. (1990) | |||
-Hunan | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Original citation: Wang et al. (1990) | |||
-Jiangsu | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Original citation: Wang et al. (1990) | |||
-Shaanxi | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Original citation: Wang et al. (1990) | |||
-Sichuan | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Original citation: Wang et al. (1990) | |||
-Xinjiang | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Original citation: Wang et al. (1990) | |||
-Yunnan | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Original citation: Wang et al. (1990) | |||
-Zhejiang | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Original citation: Wang et al. (1990) | |||
Georgia | Present | Native | |||||
India | Present | Native | |||||
Iran | Present | Native | Original citation: Mirkamaly Maddah (1973) | ||||
Iraq | Present | Native | |||||
Israel | Present | Native | |||||
Japan | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Jordan | Present | Native | |||||
Kazakhstan | Present | Native | |||||
Kyrgyzstan | Present | Native | |||||
Lebanon | Present | Native | |||||
Nepal | Present | Native | |||||
North Korea | Present | Introduced | 1922 | ||||
Pakistan | Present | Native | |||||
Philippines | Present | Native | |||||
Saudi Arabia | Present | Native | |||||
South Korea | Present | Introduced | 1922 | ||||
Syria | Present | Native | |||||
Taiwan | Present | Introduced | 1991 | ||||
Tajikistan | Present | Native | |||||
Turkey | Present | Native | |||||
Turkmenistan | Present | Native | |||||
Uzbekistan | Present | Native | |||||
Yemen | Present | Native | |||||
Europe |
|||||||
Albania | Present | Native | |||||
Austria | Present | Native | |||||
Belarus | Present | Native | |||||
Belgium | Present | Native | |||||
Bulgaria | Present | Native | Original citation: Milusheva & Rankova, 2002 | ||||
Cyprus | Present | Native | |||||
Czechoslovakia | Present | Native | |||||
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia | Present | Native | |||||
Denmark | Present | Native | |||||
Estonia | Present | Native | |||||
Finland | Present | Native | |||||
France | Present | Native | |||||
Germany | Present | Native | |||||
Greece | Present | Native | |||||
Hungary | Present | Native | |||||
Iceland | Present | ||||||
Ireland | Present | Native | |||||
Italy | Present | Native | |||||
Latvia | Present | Native | |||||
Lithuania | Present | Native | |||||
Malta | Present | Native | |||||
Moldova | Present | Native | |||||
Netherlands | Present | Native | |||||
Norway | Present | Native | |||||
Poland | Present | Native | |||||
Portugal | Present | Native | |||||
-Azores | Present | Native | |||||
Romania | Present | Native | |||||
Russia | Present | Native | |||||
-Russia (Europe) | Present | Native | |||||
-Western Siberia | Present | Native | |||||
Spain | Present | Native | |||||
-Canary Islands | Present | Native | |||||
Sweden | Present | Native | |||||
Switzerland | Present | Native | |||||
Ukraine | Present | Native | |||||
United Kingdom | Present | Native | |||||
North America |
|||||||
Canada | Present | Introduced | 1862 | ||||
-Ontario | Present | ||||||
Cuba | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Mexico | Present | Introduced | Original citation: Lopez and Tellez Reyes (1999) | ||||
Puerto Rico | Present | ||||||
Saint Pierre and Miquelon | Present | Introduced | 1867 | ||||
United States | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Alabama | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Alaska | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Arkansas | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-California | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Colorado | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Connecticut | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Delaware | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Florida | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Georgia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Hawaii | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Idaho | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Illinois | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Indiana | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Iowa | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Kansas | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Kentucky | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Louisiana | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Maine | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Maryland | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Massachusetts | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Michigan | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Minnesota | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Mississippi | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Missouri | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Montana | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Nebraska | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Nevada | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-New Hampshire | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-New Jersey | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-New Mexico | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-New York | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-North Carolina | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-North Dakota | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Ohio | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Oklahoma | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Oregon | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Pennsylvania | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Rhode Island | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-South Carolina | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-South Dakota | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Tennessee | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Texas | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Utah | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Vermont | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Washington | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-West Virginia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Wisconsin | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Wyoming | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Oceania |
|||||||
Australia | Present | Introduced | 1801 | ||||
-Lord Howe Island | Present | Introduced | 1962 | ||||
-New South Wales | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Victoria | Present | Introduced | |||||
New Zealand | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Kermadec Islands | Present | Introduced | 1888 | ||||
South America |
|||||||
Argentina | Present | Introduced | |||||
Chile | Present | Introduced | 1860 | ||||
Ecuador | Present | ||||||
Uruguay | Present | Introduced |
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageHabitat
Top of pageHabitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Hosts/Species Affected
Top of pageHost Plants and Other Plants Affected
Top of pagePlant name | Family | Context | References |
---|---|---|---|
Citrus | Rutaceae | Main | |
Mangifera indica (mango) | Anacardiaceae | Main | |
Medicago sativa (lucerne) | Fabaceae | Main | |
Pistacia vera (pistachio) | Anacardiaceae | Unknown | |
Saccharum officinarum (sugarcane) | Poaceae | Unknown | |
Solanum lycopersicum (tomato) | Solanaceae | Other | |
Triticum aestivum (wheat) | Poaceae | Unknown |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageP. lancelolata has a chromosome number of 2n=12 (Stace, 1997). The high level of genetic mixing, low polymorphism and lack of population genetic structure in this species are thought to result from its exclusive out-crossing strategy (Sharma and Koul, 1995).
Physiology and Phenology
Evidence suggests that there is little dormancy in this species, and virtually all seeds germinate within the first year (Roberts and Boddrell, 1984; Pons, 1992). However, germination rate seems to increase with storage over 6 months (Sousa et al., 1998). Unlike some close relatives, such as P. major, seed of this species does not require light for germination (Pons and Toorn, 1988; Blom, 1992) although the effect of light intensity on germination rate seems unclear (Roberts and Boddrell, 1984; Sousa et al., 1998). Optimum germination has been obtained at 21% soil moisture (Blom, 1992).
Reproductive Biology
Reproduction is via seed in this species. P. lanceolata is an obligate out-breeder and its flowers are self-incompatible (Sagar and Harper, 1964; Sharma et al., 1992; Sharma and Koul, 1995). The species is considered mainly anemophilous (wind-pollinated) (Sagar and Harper, 1964), but there is evidence to suggest biotic pollination by syrphid flies (Stelleman, 1982) and bees (Apis dorsata and Apis florea) (Sharma et al., 1993). Gynodioecy is observed in P. lanceolata, i.e. populations contain both hermaphrodites and sterile males (Poot et al., 1997).
Environmental Requirements
P. lanceolata is so widely distributed that it is probably not restricted by climate (Holm et al., 1977). Suitable climates include those with winter rainfall (temperate), all-year rainfall (temperate), summer rainfall (temperate), summer rainfall (sub-tropical) (Wells et al., 1986). The deep taproot enables this species to withstand periods of drought. It is seldom reported to be an important weed in the tropics because more vigorous plants keep its growth in check. In open areas, plants will overwinter below ground and, if frosted, they can re-grow from underground storage organs. The chemical and physical characteristics of the soils in which Plantago species grow have been described by Troelstra (1992). Sagar and Harper (1964) note that P. lanceolata is found on a wide variety of soil types in the British Isles and occurs on sand-dunes, and spray-washed cliffs, but is absent from acidic uplands. It is mainly a species of basic and neutral grasslands.
Association
Sagar and Harper (1964) provide detailed lists of plants associated with P. lanceolata in the British Isles.
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Chrysolina staphylaea | Herbivore | Plants|Leaves | ||||
Gibberella sacchari | Pathogen | |||||
Gymnetron pascuorum | Herbivore | Plants|Seeds | ||||
Junonia coenia | Herbivore | Plants|Leaves | ||||
Phomopsis subordinaria | Pathogen | |||||
Trichosirocalus troglodytes | Herbivore | Plants|Growing point |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageMeans of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageP. lanceolata produces a large number of small seeds which can be dispersed by the wind.
Vector Transmission (Biotic)
Seeds are mucilaginous and easily transported on animal fur or by man (Soekarjo, 1992). Sagar and Harper (1964) note that seeds retain over 50% viability after passing through cattle.
Accidental introduction
Because of the small size of its seeds, P. lanceolata may be introduced as a contaminant of agricultural produce.
Plant Trade
Top of pagePlant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transport | Pest stages | Borne internally | Borne externally | Visibility of pest or symptoms |
---|---|---|---|---|
Bulbs/Tubers/Corms/Rhizomes | weeds/roots | |||
Flowers/Inflorescences/Cones/Calyx | weeds/seeds | |||
Fruits (inc. pods) | weeds/seeds | |||
Growing medium accompanying plants | weeds/seeds | |||
Roots | weeds/roots | |||
Seedlings/Micropropagated plants | weeds/whole plants | |||
Stems (above ground)/Shoots/Trunks/Branches | weeds/seeds | |||
True seeds (inc. grain) | weeds/seeds |
Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport |
---|
Bark |
Leaves |
Wood |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Animal/plant collections | None |
Animal/plant products | None |
Biodiversity (generally) | None |
Crop production | Negative |
Environment (generally) | None |
Fisheries / aquaculture | None |
Forestry production | None |
Human health | Negative |
Livestock production | None |
Native fauna | None |
Native flora | None |
Rare/protected species | None |
Tourism | None |
Trade/international relations | None |
Transport/travel | None |
Impact
Top of pageImpact: Biodiversity
Top of pageThreatened Species
Top of pageThreatened Species | Conservation Status | Where Threatened | Mechanism | References | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Speyeria callippe callippe (callippe silverspot butterfly) | USA ESA listing as endangered species | California | Ecosystem change / habitat alteration | US Fish and Wildlife Service (2009) | |
Trifolium dichotomum (showy Indian clover) | EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); National list(s); USA ESA listing as endangered species | USA | Competition - smothering | US Fish and Wildlife Service (2008) |
Social Impact
Top of pageRisk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Invasive in its native range
- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Highly mobile locally
- Has high reproductive potential
- Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Negatively impacts agriculture
- Negatively impacts human health
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Competition - smothering
- Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
Uses
Top of pageIt also has value as a tough amenity turf component (Odermatt et al., 1998) and has been utilized as permanent ground cover in vineyards (Crozier, 1998).
Medicinal uses include the treatment of respiratory and inflammatory skin diseases (Marchesan et al., 1998; Paper and Marchesan, 1999).
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pagePrevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Mechanical ControlGrazing or mowing may reduce growth of P. lanceolata (Weber, 2003). This species is traditionally hand weeded in mango and citrus orchards in Mauritius (McIntyre and Barbe, 1994).
Chemical Control
Around young trees and shrubs: glyphosate applied twice a year controlled P. lanceolata over several years (Frank and Simon, 1981). Alternate treatments of glyphosate and a mixture of diuron + paraquat were also satisfactory (McIntyre and Barbe, 1994).
In arable crops: butralin + linuron was found to be particularly effective (Fererro, 1978) and mecoprop has been recommended to control field margin weeds (including Plantago lanceolata; Birnie, 1984).
In turf: 2,4-D used alone and bromoxynil and mecoprop together were effective (Wehner et al., 1981). Bingham et al. (1986) reported that P. lanceolata was controlled better with a mecoprop than a dichlorprop mixture.
Integrated Control
McIntyre and Barbe (1994) observed acceptable control in young mango and citrus orchards in Mauritius with combined chemical and traditional hand weeding.
References
Top of pageClapham AR, Tutin TG, Moore DM, 1989. Flora of the British Isles. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Crozier P, 1998. Permanent ground cover and mulch: agricultural aspects. Phytoma, No. 511:42-45.
Grierson AJC, Long DG, 2001. Flora of Bhutan including a record of plants from Sikkim and Darjeeling. Volume 2 Part 3. Edinburgh, UK: Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh and Royal Government of Bhutan.
Grzegorczyk S, Alberski J, 1999. The presence of forbs in meadow-pasture plant communities of the Olsztyn Lakeland. Folia Universitatis Agriculturae Stetinensis, Agricultura, No. 75:103-106.
Holm L, Pancho JV, Herberger JP, Plucknett DL, 1979. A Geographical Atlas of World Weeds. Toronto, Canada: John Wiley and Sons Inc.
Kozlowski S, Golinski P, Swedrzynska D, Kolpak M, 1997. Plantago lanceolata - a commendable sward component of grasslands? Management for Grassland Biodiversity. Proceedings of the International Occasional Symposium of the European Grassland Federation, Warszawa-Lomza, Poland, 19-23 May, 1997. Grassland Science in Europe Vol. 2. Poznan, Poland: Organizing Committee of the International Occasional Symposium of the European Grassland Federation, 227-231.
Lamp C, Collet F, 1979. A field guide to weeds in Australia, revised edition. Melbourne, Australia: Inkata Press.
Lopez Tellez A, Reyes SA, 1999. Flora de Veracruz: Plantaginaceae, No. 108:1-20. Xalapa, Mexico: Instituto de Ecologia.
Marchesan M, Paper DH, Hose S, Franz G, 1998. Investigation of the antiinflammatory activity of liquid extracts of Plantago lanceolata L. Phytother. Res., 12:33-34.
McIntyre G, Barbe C, 1994. Chemical v/s hand weeding in young citrus and mango orchards. Revue Agricole et Sucriere de l'Ile Maurice, 73:44-47.
Mirkamaly H, Maddah MV, 1973. Weeds of alfalfa fields in Arak area. Iranian Journal of Plant Pathology, 9(2):23-24.
Morita H, 2002. Handbook of Arable Weeds of Japan. Tokyo, Japan: Kumiai Chemical Industry Co., Ltd.
Odermatt S, Thomet E, Thomet P, 1998. NARA - development of a low-input turf with low growing ecotypes. In: Boller B, Stadelmann FJ, eds. Breeding for a Multifunctional Agriculture. Proceedings of the 21st meeting of the Fodder Crops and Amenity Grasses Section of EUCARPIA, KartauseIttingen, Switzerland, 9-12 September, 1997. Zurich, Switzerland: Swiss Federal Research Station for Agroecology and Agriculture, 115-117.
Oviedo Prieto R, Herrera Oliver P, Caluff MG, et al. , 2012. National list of invasive and potentially invasive plants in the Republic of Cuba - 2011. (Lista nacional de especies de plantas invasoras y potencialmente invasoras en la República de Cuba - 2011). Bissea: Boletín sobre Conservación de Plantas del Jardín Botánico Nacional de Cuba, 6(Special Issue 1):22-96.
Paper DH, Marchesan M, 1999. Plantain (Plantago lanceolata L.): its introduction, analysis, constituents, pharmacology and standardization. Zeitschrift fur Phytotherapie, 20(4):231-238.
Poot P, Broek T van den, Damme JMM van, Lambers H, 1997. A comparison of the vegetative growth of male-sterile and hermaphroditic lines of Plantago lanceolata in relation to N supply. New Phytologist, 135(3):429-437.
Ramirez GC, San Martin PC, Sempe CJ, 1989. Seasonal changes in plant size, biomass and phenology in an anthropogenic prairie in southern central Chile. Agro Sur, 17(1):19-28.
Sagar GR, Harper JL, 1964. Biological Flora of the British Isles. Plantago major L., P. media L. and P. lanceolata L. Journal of Ecology, 52: 189-221.
Sharma N, Koul P, Koul AK, 1993. Pollination biology of some species of genus Plantago L. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 111(2):129-138.
Sousa ME, Caixinhas ML, Maillet J, 1998. Seed germination of weeds from grasslands of Portugal. Comptes Rendus 6eme symposium Mediterraneen EWRS, Montpellier, France, 13-15 Mai, 1998. Montpellier, France: ENSA, 236-237.
Stace C, 1997. New Flora of the British Isles. 2nd edition. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Stelleman P, 1982. The significance of biotic pollination in Plantago lanceolata. Netherlands: Academisch Proefschrift, University of Amsterdam, 175.
Stewart AV, 1996. Plantain (Plantago lanceolata) - a potential pasture species. Proceedings of the New Zealand Grassland Association, 58:77-86.
Taylor RJ, 1978. Industrial impact in northwestern Whatcom County, Washington. Water, Air and Soil Pollution, 10(2):99-213.
USDA-ARS, 2003. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx
USDA-NRCS, 2003. The PLANTS Database, Version 3.5. National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, USA. http://plants.usda.gov.
Verdcourt B, 1971. Plantaginaceae. In: Milne-Redhead E, Polhill RM, eds. Flora of Tropical East Africa. London, UK: Crown Agents.
Wang Z, Xin M, Ma D, eds. , 1990. Farmland Weeds of China. Beijing, China: Agricultural Publishing House.
Wells MJ, Balsinhas AA, Joffe H, Engelbrecht, VM, Harding G, Stirton CH, 1986. A catalogue of problem plants in southern Africa incorporating the national weed list of South Africa. Memoirs, Botanical Survey of South Africa, No. 53:658 pp.
Distribution References
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Glen H F, 1998. FSA contributions 12: Plantaginaceae. Bothalia. 28 (2), 151-157.
Kozlowski S, Golinski P, Swedrzynska D, Kolpak M, 1997. Plantago lanceolata - a commendable sward component of grasslands? In: Management for Grassland Biodiversity. Grassland Science in Europe [Proceedings of the International Occasional Symposium of the European Grassland Federation, Warszawa-Lomza, Poland, 19-23 May, 1997], 2 Poznan, Poland: Organizing Committee of the International Occasional Symposium of the European Grassland Federation. 227-231.
Morita H, 2002. Handbook of Arable Weeds of Japan., Tokyo, Japan: Kumiai Chemical Industry Co., Ltd.
USDA-NRCS, 2003. The PLANTS Database. Greensboro, North Carolina, USA: National Plant Data Team. https://plants.sc.egov.usda.gov
Verdcourt B, 1971. Plantaginaceae. In: Flora of Tropical East Africa, [ed. by Milne-Redhead E, Polhill RM]. London, UK: Crown Agents.
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